Author: Andre Coleman

This research explores the way gender is perceived and constructed within the examined roles of touch football referees, with the aim of investigating gender equity relative to the participation and experience of female referees in touch football. The key questions of this thesis emanate from concerns around the equitable distribution of officiating sports roles. This concern also extends to individuals who may want to shift from participating in sporting activities just as participants to officiating in sports.

Officiating and volunteering roles in sport have typically been highly gendered, with females over-represented in lower status roles. Females have tended to dominate the non-paid volunteer positions in sporting operations, while males are typically over-represented in leadership roles. This inequity has been strongly rallied against by researchers who have adopted a gender focus in their research.

This thesis contends that the sporting practice of ‘touch football’, whilst considered by many to be a sporting practice that is reflective of current societal norms and values, could benefit from a gendered analysis. In order to operationalise the research, a case study approach was adopted which examined the role of female referees officiating in a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The role of referees in the local touch football competition presents a number of unique factors which are highly beneficial to this study. Refereeing in the competition is open to both males and females in the mixed competition. The selection of referees is through an administrative process that involves a number of relevant processes that draw on broader gender equity issues such as credentialism and professionalism, as well as simple gender bias.

Theoretically the research approach has drawn on elements of the work of Norbert Elias, in particular the concept of figurationalism, and also the post-structuralist approach from Actor Network Theory [ANT]. The methodologies and analysis explore the site of touch football in a small rural setting through engaging with the touch football participant’s experiences of playing and officiating in the role of referee in the competition.

The research is significant for several reasons and at different levels. First, Australian Government policies such as the Active Women: National Policy for Women and Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity, 1999-2002 (1999a), and How to include Women and Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity: Strategies and Good Practice (1999b) require Australian sport institutions to foster sporting cultures that allow and value the full involvement of females in every aspect of sport.

Second, societal practices that support inequities are persistent and will re-emerge as dominant forms if they are not subjected to critical examination and leadership given for just change.

Third, at a game administration level, gender equity is identified as a key strategy to ensure the long-term growth of the sporting practice by ensuring equal opportunities in all aspects of the game.

Fourth, at a game and individual level, the inclusion of an appropriate gender mix will help to neutralise unwanted masculine traits of overt aggression and sexist behaviour from the sport. Female participation in the referee role that is reflective of the female player cohort will arguably help to shape the sporting practice to reflect the shared values of a mixed competition, focusing on the positive social and physical benefits of the game.

Last, the research area is of keen interest to the researcher and is an area of inquiry where there is prior knowledge of the location of roles within the sporting practice, and a capacity and ease for the researcher to engage with those involved at the local level.

1.2 Research hypothesis

This thesis seeks to explore whether a gendered approach to examining a local touch football competition will assist in improving the outcomes of both males and females in relation to officiating within the sport. Therefore, this thesis is concerned with the equitable representation of female referees in the local mixed touch football competition. Individuals’ understandings of gender differences within the role of referee and applicable strategies to address gender equity will frame the thesis.

This thesis is best read as a preliminary analysis of gender equity in refereeing within the sporting practice of touch football. The research is approved by the CQUniversity Human Research Ethics Committee [H12/02-019], Queensland Touch Association and Central Queensland Touch Association.

1.3 Research background
1.3.1 Key concerns in sport

Sport has historically attracted considerable attention from social theorists and commentators, with approaches ranging from macro and meta-analysis of sporting behaviours and outcomes to micro approaches that examine the everyday and mundane elements of sport. This thesis adopts a gendered, post-structuralist approach to exploring the key issue of gender equity in the roles of officiating in sport. In the next section, a background will be given of the key concerns that helped shape the research process and an introduction to touch football will assist the uninitiated to the sporting practice. An elementary understanding of the sporting practice, together with a familiarity with the general history and values embedded in the sporting practice will assist in a reading of the research.

1.3.1.1 Gender in sport

The research adopts a gendered approach as gender is seen as an important social construct. The construct of gender can be used to uncover and understand better sporting practices, offering an opportunity to improve the individual and collective outcomes that are associated with particular sports. The sociology of gender has developed in line with successive waves of the feminist’s movement and creates an intellectual endeavour in its own right (Weedon 1997). This thesis uses a working definition of gender as a ‘system of social practices’ as a means to interrogate the social arrangements of touch football (Ridgeway and Smith-Lovin 1999, p. 192). The gendered social practices establish and maintain gender distinctions, differences and inequalities. Relationships between actors are organised to some extent on those distinctions, differences and inequalities. Gender represents those social, cultural and psychological traits linked to males and females through particular social contexts and translations.

Debate remains on all elements that comprise feminist theory, but basically, the consensus is that a theory is feminist if it can be used to contest a ‘status quo’ that is damaging to females (Chafetz 1988; Hall 1996). Feminists work through various avenues to increase female’s empowerment. Feminists accept the goal of ending sexism by empowering females (Weedon 1997), though there is a great deal of disparity about how that goal can be achieved.

One interpretation is that there are numerous femininities and masculinities which are more multiple than singular or bi-polar expressions of gender. Miller (2009, p. 127) contends ‘masculinity [and femininity] is best viewed not as a property or an essence, but as a series of contingent signs and practices that exercise power over both males and females, and to know it is to shift it, not just to love it’. The processes and relationships through which males and females conduct their gendered lives should be the focus of researchers (Connell 2005). Males and females cannot be defined as being a certain gender, as their gender is a fluid aspect of their identity that is not constrained to one of a finite number of gender categories. However, outcomes for males and females differ, which subsequently introduces a challenging tension with conceptualisations of gender as subjectively fluid and yet objectively presenting as correlated to differing outcomes.

The demand to formulate opportunities for females to successfully compete in sport then becomes both complex and highly disputed (Hall 1996; Hargreaves 1994). This is illustrated in debates over separatist sporting activities as opposed to mixed competitions, or with regards to the imbalance in media representations of female’s sport compared to male’s sport. As a clear reminder of the relevancy of gender equity in sport, the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index shows that Australia is ranked twenty-third out of one hundred and thirty-five nations on a series of gender-based disparities, with a considerable decline in the relative progress (Hausmann, Tyson, Bekhouche and Zahidi 2011).

1.4 Research approach – why studying touch football is important

The research involves a case study of a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The next section provides a contextualisation for the research by describing key elements of touch football. A brief history of the game of touch football in Australia is also presented.

1.4.1 Key elements of touch football
1.4.1.1 Getting to the field of play [1]

1.4.1.1.1 The playing field and the ball

Touch football, also known as touch rugby or touch, is typically played on a rectangular field, and measures seventy metres in length from score line to score line [2] and fifty metres in width (Touch Football Australia 2007). The playing surface is normally grass however, other surfaces may be used. The game is played with an oval, inflated ball slightly smaller than rugby league and rugby union balls. The official ball size is thirty-six centimetres long and fifty-five centimetres in circumference (Touch Football Australia 2007).

1.4.1.1.2 Mode of play

The aim of the game of touch football is for each team to score touchdowns [3] and to prevent the opposition from scoring (Touch Football Australia 2007). The ball may be passed, flicked, knocked, handed or thrown [but not kicked] sideways or backwards between teammates who can run or else move with the ball in an attempt to gain territorial advantage and score (Touch Football Australia 2007). Defending players prevent the attacking team [4] from gaining a territorial advantage by touching [5] the ball carrier or attacking players may initiate touches at which point, play stops and is restarted with a roll ball [6] (Touch Football Australia 2007).

1.4.1.1.3 Possession

Unless other rules apply, the team with the ball is entitled to six touches prior to changing possession with the opposing team (Touch Football Australia 2007). Following the sixth touch or the loss of possession due to any other means, players of the team losing possession are to hand or pass the ball to the nearest opposition player, or place the ball on the ground at the mark [7] without delay (Touch Football Australia 2007). Attacking players who ask for the ball are to be handed the ball. Players are not to delay the changeover procedure.

1.4.1.1.4 Defending

From the tap [8] for the start of the game or from a penalty, the defending team must be at least ten metres from the point of the tap (Touch Football Australia 2007). After making a touch, the defending team must retreat the distance the referee marks, at least five metres from the mark where the touch occurred, and remain there until the half [9] touches the ball (Touch Football Australia 2007). If a player does not retreat the entire distance the referee marked, they are considered offside. If a player makes an attempt to defend whilst inside this distance, they will be penalised.

1.4.1.1.5 Scoring

A touchdown is awarded when a player [without being touched and other than the half] places the ball on the ground on or over the team’s attacking score line and within the boundaries of the touchdown zone [10] (Touch Football Australia 2007). A touchdown is worth 1 point. The team who at the end of play has scored the most touchdowns is declared the winner. In the event of neither team scoring, or in the event of both teams scoring the same number of touchdowns, a draw is declared.

1.4.1.1.6 The half

The half [or acting half] is subject to a number of restrictions that do not apply to other players. If the half is touched with the ball, the attacking team loses possession. The half cannot score a touchdown since trying to do so results in a change of possession. If the half takes too long to retrieve the ball, the referee can call play on and defenders are allowed to move forward before the half has touched the ball.

1.4.1.1.7 Commencement/recommencement of play

Play is started by a tap at the beginning of each half, following a touchdown and when a penalty is awarded. The tap is performed by an attacking player placing the ball on the ground at or behind the mark [11] , releasing both hands from the ball, touching the ball with either foot a distance of not more than one metre and retrieving the ball cleanly (Touch Football Australia 2007). The defensive team must stay at a minimum distance of ten metres from the mark during the tap, unless they are positioned on their own score line. The defensive players can move after the ball carrier has touched the ball with their foot. The player who has performed the tap may be touched without losing possession. The attacking side must be positioned behind the ball when it is tapped. The attacking side may move the ball up to ten metres directly behind the given mark when taking a penalty tap. In this case, the defending side must still remain ten metres from the original mark, not the new mark.

1.4.1.1.8 Player attire

All participating players are to be correctly attired in team uniforms. Uniforms typically consist of upper apparel [t-shirts or polo shirts], shorts [or briefs for female players] and socks with footwear (Touch Football Australia 2007). Shoes with screw-in studs are not to be worn by any player. Light leather or synthetic boots with soft-moulded soles are permitted, as long as individual studs are no longer than thirteen millimetres (Touch Football Australia 2007). All players are to wear an identifying number clearly displayed on the front or rear of the upper garment (Touch Football Australia 2007). Players are not to participate in any match while wearing any item of jewellery. Long or sharp fingernails are to be trimmed or taped.

1.4.1.2 Administration of touch football

1.4.1.2.1 The referee, line judges and touchdown zone officials, and the importance of the whistle

Touch football must have at least one referee to officiate the game but most major games encompass one central referee and two sideline referees, who interchange roles constantly throughout the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). The central referee is the sole judge on matters of fact and is required to arbitrate on the rules of the game during play (Touch Football Australia 2007). The central referee may impose any sanction necessary to control the match and in particular, award penalties for infringements against the rules (Touch Football Australia 2007). Line judges and touchdown zone officials assist the central referee with tasks associated with sidelines, score lines and touchdown zone lines, and other matters at the discretion of the central referee. Their normal duties include indicating the ten metres distance for taps from a penalty, controlling substitutions, matters of backplay and other advice when sought by the central referee (Touch Football Australia 2007).

The central referee must have a whistle to control the game. The start of play and a touchdown are signalled by long whistle blasts. A sixth touch, short whistle blast and the end of play, a long, fluctuating whistle blast (Touch Football Australia 2007). The standard whistle in Australia is the Acme Thunderer fifty-eight point five.

1.4.1.3 Rules of the game

1.4.1.3.1 Team composition and substitution

A team consists of fourteen players, no more than six of who are allowed on the field at any time (Touch Football Australia 2007). In mixed competitions, the maximum number of males allowed on the field of play is three (Touch Football Australia 2007). The minimum male requirement on the field of play is one (Touch Football Australia 2007).

Players may substitute at any time during the game in keeping with the ‘interchange procedure’ (Touch Football Australia 2007, p. 10). There is no limit to the number of times a player may interchange, but substitutions can only be made from players who are registered at the commencement of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007).

1.4.1.3.2 Duration

The match is forty-five minutes duration, entailing two twenty minute halves. There is a five minute half time break. When time expires play is to continue until the ball next becomes dead [12] (Touch Football Australia 2007). Should a penalty be awarded during this period, the penalty is to be taken.

1.4.1.3.3 Competition points

Points are awarded in competition matches throughout the season. Teams are awarded three points for a win or a bye, two points for a draw and one point for a loss or a forfeit (Touch Football Australia 2007).

1.4.1.3.4 Penalty

A penalty is to be awarded for an infringement by any player in line with the rules of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). For example, a penalty is awarded to the non-offending team if the ball is passed forward, a ‘touch and pass’ is committed, a player does not perform the roll ball at the mark, an obstruction is committed, a defending player does not retreat in a straight line to an onside position, a player is offside [on-field player or substitute], and a player acts in contradiction of the rules or spirit of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007).

1.4.1.3.5 Positions

Teams are split into three positions, two ‘middles’ [the central players], two ‘wings’ [the players on either edge of the field] and two ‘links’ [the players between the wings and middles].

1.4.1.3.6 Grades

Touch football is normally played in four different ability categories ranging from A grade [the most competitive] through B, C and D grade [the most inexperienced and usually the least competitive].

1.4.2 The history of touch football in Australia [13]

Touch football has evolved over time and is now considered to be a relatively fast-paced game. Changes in the structure of the sport have enabled the development of touch football to proceed.

1.4.2.1 From humble beginnings

The game of touch football has humble beginnings. Historically applied as a training model for rugby league and rugby union teams over the summer months of the 1950s and 1960s, it was originally not seen as a sport in its own right (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). Progressively more people, explicitly males over twenty-five years of age [14] , were recruited to touch football teams and formal competitions were established (Touch Football Western Australia 2007; Townsville Castle Hill Touch Association n.d.). The popularity of touch football was credited to the game being considered relatively safe compared to rugby league and rugby union (Touch Football Victoria 2009). Touch football was also considered to be a social activity affording the prospect for participants and supporters to gather in a relaxed sport setting.

The first ‘formal’ game of touch football in Australia was reportedly held in South Sydney, a strong traditional rugby league area (Touch Football Western Australia 2007). The South Sydney Touch Association was formed in 1968 and convened a competition at Pioneer Park, Malabar in that year (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Not long after, the sport gained popularity in a number of inner-city areas of Sydney. Consequently, the New South Wales Touch Association was formed in 1972, incorporating the six regions of Southern Suns, Sydney Scorpions, Sydney Rebels, Sydney Mets, Hunter Western Hornets and Northern Eagles, and about 1,500 registered players (Shilbury and Kellett 2006; Touch Football South Australia n.d.). The first country association was in Wagga Wagga, which was formed in 1973, and women’s touch football was first played at a representative level in 1979 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009).

Touch football appealed to ex-rugby players retired from the game through age or injury, and to players not willing or capable of playing rugby, but interested in playing a form of ‘rugby’ (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). An increased awareness in fitness in the adult population and the availability of former rugby players to take part, all served to develop the game (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009).

1.4.2.2 The development of a touch football identity

Subsequently, touch football later appeared in numerous other New South Wales country regions before it became an official sport in Brisbane (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). From there the game developed in every other State and Territory in Australia, and the Australian Touch Association, now trading as Touch Football Australia, was founded in November 1978 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009).

With the establishment of these associations, game rules came to be standardised. However, a formal ‘rule book’ was not developed until late in 1980 (Touch Football Victoria 2009). In September 1981, the sport agreed to change its name from ‘touch football’ to ‘touch’ [15] , though to many the sport has also been known as ‘touch rugby’ (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007). A number of other changes resulted, such as the introduction of an official touch ball, which is notably smaller than both league and union balls, and the playing field size lessened, seventy metres by fifty metres (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Major rule changes occurred during this period, moving from seven players per side, which was implemented in 1980, to six-a-side (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Shortly after, the marker [16] was removed from the roll ball and the half was prevented from being able to score a touchdown (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007).

Recently, the Australian Touch Association has rebranded the sport as ‘touch football’ in an attempt to clarify that it is a ‘sport with a ball’ (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). While tackles and scrums are not elements of touch football, Touch Football Victoria (2009) suggested employing the term ‘touch rugby’ lends itself to an impression that the sport may be of a rough, physical nature, which is anything but reality.

Touch football was originally played under rugby league laws without activities that comprised hard physical contact (Coffey 2010). The simplicity, skills-based motion and avoidance of full-contact, together with team [social and communication] benefits and minimum equipment requirements, have become distinctive elements of the modern game.

1.4.2.3 Elite competition emerges

While the majority of touch football games are played at a local competition level, State level competitions have featured prominently in touch football. The earliest interstate clashes in touch football occurred when the Brisbane Touch Association representative team played the South Sydney team in 1973, 1974 and 1975 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). In the development of a standard set of rules for the sport, there has been a history of negotiated arrangements. For example, South Sydney wanted to have interstate matches played ten-a-side but Brisbane would not allow this, and the matches were played eight-a-side on a standard-sized rugby league field, measuring one hundred and twelve to one hundred and twenty-two metres by sixty-eight metres (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). One of the games in the series was played as a curtain raiser to an interstate rugby league clash (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Touch football was played as a curtain raiser to the Sydney rugby league grand final in 1976 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009).

In December 1980, the inaugural National Championships were organised on the Gold Coast. This was essentially a contest between New South Wales and Queensland (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). Only three divisions were contested in that year, the open men’s and women’s, and over thirty-five men’s, and included about 700-1,000 officials and players (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Western Australia 2007). By 1995, the National Championships provided for eleven divisions, together with 1,500 officials and players (Touch Football Victoria 2009). Development of the game meant that by 2005 the National Touch League [formerly the National Championships] catered for open, under twenties and senior divisions (Touch Football Western Australia 2007).

1.4.2.4 The rise of Internationalism [17]

The success of the interstate clashes sparked interest in International competitions. In 1985, the Federation of International Touch was formed in Melbourne with Papua New Guinea, Canada, the USA, Fiji, New Zealand and Australia constituting the first members (Touch Football Victoria 2009). The first recognised International game was a test series played between Australia and New Zealand at the South Melbourne Cricket Ground on 23 March 1985 (Touch Football Victoria 2009). The game has continued to expand overseas with the last World Cup in Edinburgh, Scotland attracting teams from twenty-six countries, including Spain, South Africa, Japan, USA, Scotland, Singapore and the Cook Islands among others (Federation of International Touch 2011a; 2011b).

Touch football was a National phenomenon based on participant skill and teamwork, with a degree of fitness thrown in at the elite level (Coffey 2010). The non-contact format that allows participation by all ages and both genders, even in mixed form has helped the sport to gain popularity.

1.5 Referee demand in touch football

As mentioned earlier, the development of touch football and an associated playing code for the game has clearly established the role of officials as arbiters of the game. While there is clarity over the need for officials in the touch football competition and a playing code is well established, there is a level of ambiguity in the sporting practice which allows for negotiated changes to the playing environment and to particular interpretations of the rules of play. As is common in most sports, the performance of referees is a discussion point that can cause some levels of concern. Officiating in sports can be a difficult task, particularly in a ‘fast-moving’ sport in which there is a level of interpretation and limited technological assistance at the local level to aid referees. At a sports administration level, the demand for referees at local sporting fixtures has frequently been mentioned over the past ten years (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2009; Touch Football Australia 2010b; Touch Football Victoria 2011). The unmet demand has led to the establishment of numerous broad recruitment and retention strategies. The success of these strategies varies within different levels of the sport.

This thesis contends that touch football represents more than simply a new game and is in fact, an opportunity to better understand the gendered nature of sporting activities. The thesis sets about this issue through a case study of a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The aim is to gain a better understanding of the gendered nature of refereeing roles through personal interviews with participants, together with female referees in the competition. This ‘gendered’ understanding will arguably facilitate better recruitment and retention strategies for female referees in touch football.

1.6 Structure of the thesis

This thesis will explore perceptions and constructions of gender within the roles of touch football referees and suggest ideas for recruitment and retention. Chapter Two examines relevant theoretical concerns proceeding from the work of Norbert Elias and the post-structuralist works of Bruno Latour. It then reviews the literature regarding gender in sport.

Chapter Three discusses the research approach that was utilised. It then describes the methods that have been chosen to explore the gendered nature of refereeing roles in touch football and the data analysis methods. It concludes by discussing ethical considerations in the research process and the limitations of the research.

Chapter Four describes the findings from the research. The desktop research results are presented first. These results are presented in a quantitative format that empirically describes the gender breakdown of the sport. Second, the qualitative data that was obtained from the in-depth interviews with the eleven members of the touch organisation is presented. This data was compiled after the initial quantitative research was completed in the research process. Participant observation results are presented third.

Chapter Five discusses the findings that resulted from the research. The significance of the findings is then discussed.

Chapter Six, the conclusion, suggests directions for future research.

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction

In Chapter One the preliminary argument is proposed that touch football is a unique sporting practice entailing a continuum of social practices and values that are in many ways gendered. This chapter will broaden this discussion through an exploration of the sociological literature

Today it is very clear that social class is still relevant in our society, this is obvious because a number of social institutes are affected by the differences in class, whether its education, health or even occupation. We are constantly faced with the arguments about the social classes.

Social class is in fact an “open” system meaning that it is possible to move up or down the social hierarchy, this is known as social mobility and can be achieved either by receiving a promotion- meaning you will go up a social class- or due to job loss- decreasing into a lower social class. Although this seems very simple, in the UK it is very hard to actually move from the middle class up to the upper class as there seems to be a high level of respect and loyalty that must be attained before entering such a high class.

In this society is it notoriously difficult to define social class because of our ever changing employment system plus but there are a couple of different ways in which it can be measured these include: the register general scheme, the Goldthorpe scheme and the NS SEC 2000 scale. The register general scale measures social class by dividing people into six different major classes, ranging from ‘professional’ in the first class to ‘unskilled’ in the last class. This way of measuring class has its drawbacks, these include the fact that it only takes into account the occupation of an individual therefore it is not a clear distinction of what class someone must be in. Whichever scale is it used it is still extremely difficult to measure social class because of the changes in employment.

In our society there have been a number of key changes that have occurred within the structure of social class. one being the reorganization of employment, since the 1970’s there has been a large decline in heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining etc and also a decline in manufacturing industries which usually employed skilled male’s from the working class. However there has been a significant increase of 3 million service industries such as: finance, travel and leisure, therefore there has been an increase in non-manual middle class jobs and a decline in the amount of working class jobs.

This follows onto the next change in the structure of social class because with the increase in service industries jobs, a vast amount of women have started to enter into employment therefore allowing women to achieve their own separate social class status instead of it being based on what there husband or fathers occupation is. Also this has forced sociologist’s studies on social class to examine the way in which female employment is part of the class structure and so women have been included in social mobility studies.

Social class is a system of social stratification, a hierarchy that creates specific types of social inequalities. Social inequality refers to the existence of socially created inequalities such as: ownership of property, types of occupation that creates differences in wealth, income and power, whereas social stratification refers to the existence of distinct social groups. There are many argument about how class stratification should be explained, two of the theories that help explain class stratification are: the functionalist theory and the weberian theory.

Functionalists see our society as a structured whole and believes that in order to obtain social order and stability, each social institute must perform a functional pre-requisite in order to work together; this is known as the biological analogy because it is referred to as each organ working together in the body to keep that person alive, this is the same for our society. If one social institute is not working properly for example, education or health then this could affect the way in which our society survives.

According to Davis and Moore (1945) all of the inequalities that are evident in today’s society are necessary and arise because of different roles and rewards that are given out, particularly in employment, therefore each society needs to have the most functionally important jobs filled such as: doctors, vets and accountants etc. These jobs require years and years of study and training to achieve, this guarantees that these jobs will be filled with only the smartest individuals whether they are part of the upper class or the lower class. The way in which these jobs are filled appropriately is that high rewards and large sums of money are offered for the years of practice that is done.

The strengths of using this theory to explain social class are that it highlights the strong links between social class and the social structure, it also show how social class contributes to the maintenance of society as a whole

The weaknesses of using this theory is that this theory is far too simplistic as it only uses the importance of jobs to explain social class which is not a true way to measure an individual’s class. Also a weakness is that some people feel that functionalists do not have to right to decide which job is more important than the next for example Davis and Moore stated that the most important jobs where doctors etc, but some people may feel that a bin man or a school cleaners jobs is far more important to our society.

However Weber agrees with Marx that a person’s class situation cannot be determined by the ownership of the means of production but by the shared life chances that someone has or has been denied as a result of qualifications and possessions they have.

Weber has divided social classes in “multiple classes” this means that there are different classes with different people in each class. Because of the important differences in our society, each group is defined by various skills and services that are offered from each occupation. Weber believed that while the society expands so will the number of different classes, especially the middle class, as it is easier to move up or down to this class that to move up to the upper class.

The strengths of using this theory to explain social class are that it best describes social mobility and how each class is defined; it also accurately outlines the class situation as it is today, that more people will be entering the middle class whether they move up or down the social hierarchy.

However the weaknesses are that Weber understates the importance of the economy when defining class, because he only uses the individual’s skills and life chances which are not an accurate way to measure somebody’s class.

Social mobility refers to the ability that people have to move up or down the class structure; this can either be intergenerational or intragenerational. A family/individual can move up or down a social class simple by a change in there occupational status, whether they have been promoted or receive redundancy. Another way to move up the class system could be if you gained or one a large sum of money in the lottery.

There are two studies that have been done that best explain social mobility. The first was the oxford mobility study by Goldthorpe et all in 1972. This study was based on the Weberian theory of stratification. This study was carried out by using only men between the ages of 20 – 64 years, the main findings of this study was that 2 out of 3 sons of unskilled or semi-skilled were in the manual occupation meaning that they followed after their fathers. They also found that only 4% of blue collar workers (service industry jobs) came from professional background and approximately 30% of professionals were from working class backgrounds, this could prove that people from a professional background will be more likely to receive a better education therefore aiming for higher paid jobs ( white collar jobs). It is evident from this study that downward mobility appeared to be declining, but more men from working class backgrounds were unemployed.

In conclusion this study showed that long range and absolute mobility rates in the UK have increased however due to little change in the relative mobility there has been no significant increase in the openness of the UK’s stratification system.

The strengths of this study are that it backs up Weber’s ideas of social classes seen to be multiplying and becoming more open.

The weaknesses are that the study only focuses on men and women therefore ignoring the work that is done by women in our ever increasing society.

The second study was the Peter Saunders “Unequal but fair?” in 1996. This study was based on the functionalist theory of stratification.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is very clear that social class is in fact relevant in today’s society; this is shown by the results from the Westergaard and Restler (1976) Marxist theory study. This study argues that Britain will remain a capitalist society and with the persistence of class inequalities they will harden and it will make it exceptionally difficult to move between social classes, meaning that social class defiantly remains very important when explaining the social inequalities that we have today.

In this modernised world sex and relationship plays an important role as sexuality is part of who we are as humans. Sexuality defines how we see ourselves and how we physically relate to others beyond having the ability to reproduce. Sexuality is made up of three components which include biological sex, gender identity, and social gender role. In a less brief context, biological sex is the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being a male or female, gender identity means the physiological sense of being a male or female and social gender role is the cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour (1).

Sexual orientation is known as an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic and sexual attractions to men, women or both sexes besides also referring to a person’s sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviours and memberships in a community of others who share those attractions which may or may not be evident in a person’s appearance or behaviour. People may choose not to act on such feelings as having attractions to people of the same sex or opposite sex. For example, a bisexual who can be attracted to members of either sex may choose to have a one partner relationship with one gender, therefore, choosing not to act on the attraction of another gender (1).

Three commonly recognized aspect of sexual orientation are heterosexuality, bisexuality, homosexuality and one uncommon aspect is asexuality which is when a person has no sexual attraction or interest in sexual activity. Therefore, sexual orientation differs from sexual behaviour in that it involves an individual’s feelings and perception of their own sexuality. According to current scientific and professional understanding, the core attractions that form the basis for adult sexual orientation typically emerge between middle childhood and early adolescence. These patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction may arise without any prior sexual experience.

Heterosexuality is the attraction to individuals of the other gender which is

the cultural normality for the behaviour of males and females. For example, males and females being attracted to individuals of the opposite sex.

Bisexuality is the attraction to members of either gender, as an example a male having a sexual relationship with another male partner as well with a female partner.

On the other hand, homosexuality can be defined as the attraction to members of the same gender, are not completely understood by scientists.

Scientists have pondered the theory for many years that sexual preference is a learned behaviour that is developed during early childhood. There are many theories regarding how a particular sexual orientation develops. Some scientists share the view that sexual orientation is shaped at an early age through interactions of biological, psychological and social factors. Other psychologists, psychiatrists and mental health professionals agree that

homosexuality may be genetically predetermined.

Research over the past thirty-five years has determined that homosexuality is not an illness, mental disorder or emotional problem. Other objective research shows that homosexual

orientation is not associated with emotional or social problems. Because sexual orientation develops in early adolescence, without any prior sexual experience, it is believed that it is not chosen. It has been reported that some people try diligently to change their sexual preference from homosexual to heterosexual with no success. For this reason, psychologists do not consider sexual orientation to be a conscious choice that can be voluntarily changed.

An untrue stereotype about homosexuals is the belief that gay men have more of a tendency

than heterosexual men to sexually molest children. There is no evidence of this. Instead, recent studies have shown that homosexual parents are quite capable of rearing developmentally secure children who are intelligent, as well as being psychologically well adjusted. There is no evidence that homosexual parents are less capable of parenting than heterosexual parents. Because therapy cannot change sexual orientation, it is important for society to become better educated about homosexuality, thus diminishing anti-gay prejudice.

Accurate information for young people struggling with their own sexual identity is especially

important. The belief that such information when given to young people will affect one’s sexual orientation is not valid. The people who have the most positive attitudes toward gay men and lesbians are those who say they know one or more gay persons well. For this reason, psychiatrists believe that discrimination against homosexuality is based on his or her lack of knowledge concerning gay people. Therefore, educating all people about sexual orientation

and homosexuality is likely to diminish anti-gay prejudice.

Homosexuality was once believed to be a mental illness, due to the unfortunate

fact that mental health professionals furnished society with incorrect information. Most studies about homosexuals only involved gay men and lesbians who were in therapy. They were seeking help for their problems, just as straight men and women do. These studies, and the misunderstanding of homosexuality, seriously damaged the acceptance of gay men and lesbians. The theories of homosexuals by psychologists, psychiatrists and other mental health

professionals, painted an untrue portrait of gay men and lesbians. This unfair portrayal directly attributed to the un-acceptance of homosexuals.

In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association confirmed that homosexuals were not mentally ill, and it was not until two years later in 1975, that the American Psychological Association passed a resolution supporting this confirmation. Both associations urged all mental health professionals to help dispel the stigma of mental illness that had been associated with homosexual orientation. Since this original declassification of homosexuality as a mental disorder, this decision has been reaffirmed by additional research findings and by both associations.

However, when one is reared to believe a certain way, it is not easy to change his or her opinion. Psychiatrists, psychologists and the Lord above could urge one to rethink a learned fact; however, to dispute a theory learned early in life is sometimes impossible. This unfair discrimination against homosexuals is an obstacle to their leading a normal, happy and productive life, which is the desire of gay men and lesbians, just as it is the desire of straight men and women. Research has shown a high rate of violence, as well as discrimination, against homosexuals. Just as it is with straight men, the more positive the gay male identity, the better one’s mental health will become and the higher one’s self-esteem will be. To accomplish this, the acceptance of gay men and lesbians as productive citizens, without prejudice, is necessary. Protection against violence and discrimination would not be necessary if one understood that gay men and lesbians are just like you and me; the only difference is their sexual preference.

Most scientists today agree that sexual orientation is the result of a combination of environmental, hormonal, and genetic factors. In other words, there are many factors that contribute to a person’s sexual orientation, and the factors may be different for different people.

In other words, we intend to research in depth on each factor stated and how does it affect a person’s sexual orientation then come to a conclusion if sexual orientation is genetic relating back to our topic. This is the prime objective of this project. To arrive at our objectives, we have to research about the other factors affecting sexual orientation.

Therefore, we have divided each factor into 3 subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 will be a detailed explanation on how genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation. Chapter 3 consequently will be discussing on environmental and emotional factors in relation to sexual orientation. Besides that, Chapter 4 is on the role played by hormones in determining a person’s sexual orientation. All these 3 chapters will be discussing sexual orientation on homosexuality and bisexuality.

The final chapter will relate back to our main topic which is ‘Is Sexual Orientation Genetic?’ A conclusion will be brought about based on the research, studies and evidences done on the previous 3 chapters.

Chapter 2 : Genetic Factors

Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types which is autosomes and sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes contain certain genetic traits link to a person’s sex. It can be XX with phenotype female and XY with phenotype male. On the other hand, the autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. Both autosomes and sex chromosomes act in the same way during cell division. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosome giving a total of 46 per cell for one human. A person’s sex is determined by the sex chromosome (wiki chromosome).

Based on a research conducted by scientists on November 8th 2007, new evidences have been uncovered showing genetics has a role to play in determining whether an individual is homosexual or heterosexual. Dr. Sandra Witelson, a neuroscientist in the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine at McMaster University, and colleges at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto conducted the research on studies of the brains of healthy, right handed, 18 to 35- year old homosexual and heterosexual men using magnetic resonance imagining (MRI). About 10 years ago, which is now accepted as fact, studies have demonstrated that there is a higher proportion of left-handers in the homosexual population than the general population. Consequently, in other research it was found that left-handers have a larger region of the posterior corpus callosum which is the thick band of nerve fibres connecting the two hemispheres of the brain compared to the right- handers. Furthermore, the posterior part of the corpus callosum is larger in homosexual than heterosexual men. The size of corpus callosum is largely inherited suggesting a genetic factor in sexual orientation. A correlational analysis by researchers which included size of the corpus callosum, and test scores on language, visual spatial and finger dexterity tests. Prediction on sexual orientation in 95 per cent of the cases was done by using all these variables.

A report by the National Cancer Institute researchers states that the appearance that many homosexual men inherit a gene from their mothers that influences sexual orientation. It was suggested that inherited genetic factors at least play a role in determining sexual orientation. The study’s lead author Dean Hamer, chief of the cancer institute’s section on Gene Structure and regulation concluded that it is basically not a choice or a decision to be a gay. However, people have no control over the genes inherited and there is no way to change it. The family histories of 114 gay men were studied and it was found that more homosexual brothers, uncles and male cousins than would be expected in the general population whereby some families had three generations of homosexual relatives. It was suggested that something inherited was going on since the uncles and cousins were not raised in the same household but do share genetic information.

Following up another studies was made on the DNA from 40 pairs of homosexual brothers and it was found that 33 of them shared same genetic markers on the X chromosome in a region known as Xq28. The X chromosomes are always inherited from mothers. Genes consist of tiny coils of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries the instructions to manufacture a particular body substance. No such similar sharing was present in the same region among heterosexual men. It is expected that this region will be important for both heterosexual and homosexual development providing very small and subtle difference between the genes of each group. However, the finding does not explain all homosexuality. Seven out of 40 pairs of homosexual brothers studied did not have the common genetic factor.

Part of the studies state that the cancer Kaposi’s sarcoma unusually afflicts large numbers of homosexuals. Further study is being conducted to determine whether a similar genetic link occurs in families of homosexual women hoping to identify the specific gene involved in sexual orientation.

Gregory King, spokesman for the Human Rights Campaign Fund, a gay and lesbian activist group, said he hoped from the studies it would help Americans understand that most lesbian and gay people do not choose their sexual orientation. Despite, concerns are there among people who are lesbians and gay that this discovery will be misused to suggest that homosexuality is something that needs to be corrected.

According to the variation in sexual orientation, heritability studies have differed on the precise contribution of genetics, though a few linkage studies have indicated a possible role for certain genes on the X chromosome. However, the strength of that evidence is limited due to the conflicting nature of the reports and small sample sizes. Some of the questions in relation to the possible genetic underpinnings of sexual orientation have been clarified by a more recent study conducted by the first ever genome-wide association study (GWAS) on sexual orientation. It is also in relation to the release of a web-based survey to the large 23andMe database of over 180,000 individuals.

Furthermore, the other non-genetic phenotypes associated with sexual orientation are also explored. The objective is to understand the relationship between sexual orientation and non-genetic phenotypes as the data collected was extracted from dozens of 23andMe surveys taking into consideration thousands of conditions and trait. Research has shown that lesbians are more likely than heterosexual women to have alcoholism and alcohol-related problems (3). A number of studies have also found that women with same sex partners are more likely to have psychiatric disorders, including major depression (4) and men with same sex partners are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders (5).

Phenotype analyses were conducted using linear or logistic regression. In statistics, linear regression is the relationship between a scalar dependent variable Y and one or more explanatory variables denoted X as the data modelled using linear predictor functions, and unknown model parameters are estimated from the data. Logistic regression is a type of analysis used to predict the outcome of a categorical dependent variable based on one or more predictor variables that is used in estimating empirical values of the parameters in a qualitative response model(wiki). The reported betas are the change on the sexual identity scale per unit of the other phenotype. Both the phenotype analyses and GWAS analyses controlled for age, the first five principal components, and attitudes towards homosexuality as collected in the Sexual Orientation Survey. GWAS analyses were conducted in individuals of European descent.

The questions asked for this study to over 23,000 individuals 23andMe database is as follows:

The survey counts based on the questions asked were as below:

They have examined the correlation between sexual identity and ~1000 phenotypes already characterized in the 23andMe database through other surveys. These analyses were preliminary as outliers or confounders beyond what is listed in the methods were not checked. Previous ¬?ndings were replicated showing a positive association between lesbians and alcoholism, and between lesbians and gay men and several psychiatric conditions.

Chapter 3 : Environmental and Emotional Factors

On the development of human sexual orientation, another possible factor is the environmental and emotional influences. Many influences or factors lead to sexual orientation but no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Therefore, a great deal of people thinks nature and nurture both play complex roles (wiki environment sexual orientation).

Environmental factors are associated with family influences. Evidence have been provided by researches that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than non-gay men. Some researchers think this may indicate that childhood family experiences are important determinants to homosexuality, or that parents behave this way in response to gender-variant traits in a child. Both possibilities might be true in different cases (wiki).

Childhood factors do affect marital choices as children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than those growing up in intact families. In a broad point of view, heterosexual marriage was significantly linked to having young parents, small age differences between parents, stable parental relationships, large sibships (a group of offspring having the same two parents) , and late birth order. For men, homosexual marriage was associated with having older mothers, divorced parents, absent fathers, and being the youngest child. On the other hand, for women, maternal death during adolescence and being the only or youngest child or the only girl in the family increased the likelihood of homosexual marriage. Childhood family experiences are important determinants of heterosexual and homosexual marriage decisions in adulthood (http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-006-9062-2).

Consequently, parental sexual orientation may affect child development. Studies were focused on an early research on children with lesbian and gay parents in which the children had been born in the context of a heterosexual marriage. The developments among children of divorced lesbian mothers were compared with children of divorced heterosexual mothers and few significant differences were found. Children in the research who had been born into homes with married mothers and fathers have no obvious reasons to understand on their healthy development as the children faced early exposure to apparently heterosexual male and female role models which mainly contributes to the healthy development.

In comparison, a study conducted by Charlotte J. Patterson from University of Virginia on lesbian or gay parents who rear infants and children from offspring and it is important that the children had never lived with heterosexual parents. The study was on a group of 4 to 9 year old children who had been born to or adopted early in life by lesbian mothers. Results from in-home interviews and also from questionnaires showed that children had regular contact with a wide range of adults of both genders, both within and outside of their families. The children’s self-concepts and preferences for same-gender playmates and activities were much like those of other children their ages. Moreover, standardized measures of social competence and of behaviour problems, such as those from the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL), showed that they scored within the range of normal variation for a representative sample of same-aged American children. Therefore, it was clear from this study and others like it that it was quite possible for lesbian mothers to rear healthy children.

Consistent with earlier findings, results from the study revealed few differences in adjustment between adolescents living with same-sex parents and those living with opposite-sex parents . There were no significant differences between teenagers living with same-sex parents and those living with other-sex parents on self-reported assessments of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and anxiety, measures of school outcomes, such as grade point averages and trouble in school, or measures of family relationships, such as parental warmth and care from adults and peers. Adolescents in the two groups were equally likely to say that they had been involved in a romantic relationship in the last 18 months, and they were equally likely to report having engaged in sexual intercourse. The only statistically reliable difference between the two groups is that those with same-sex parents felt a greater sense of connection to people at school compared to the youngsters living with same-sex couples. There were no significant differences in self-reported substance use, delinquency, or peer victimization between those reared by same or other-sex couples.

Although the gender of parents’ partners was not an important predictor of adolescent well-being, other aspects of family relationships were significantly associated with teenagers’ adjustment. Consistent with other findings about adolescent development, the qualities of family relationships rather than the gender of parents’ partners were consistently related to adolescent outcomes. Parents who reported having close relationships with their offspring had adolescents who reported more favourable adjustment.

The fact that children of lesbian mothers generally develop in healthy ways should not be taken to suggest that no challenges were encountered. Many investigators have remarked upon the fact that children of lesbian and gay parents may encounter anti-gay sentiments in their daily lives. For example, in a study of 10- year-old children born to lesbian mothers, Gartrell, Deck, Rodas, Peyser, and Banks (2005) reported that a substantial minority had encountered anti-gay sentiments among their peers. Those who had such encounters were likely to report having felt angry, upset, or sad about these experiences. Children of lesbian and gay parents may be exposed to prejudice against their parents in some settings, and this may be painful for them, but evidence for the idea that such encounters affect children’s overall adjustment is lacking.

Another study, published in the October 2006 issue of Archives of Sexual Behaviour, authored by Danish epidemiologist Morten Frisch and statistician Anders Hviid, reports the analysis of data from over two million men and women. It is the first study to examine an entire group of homosexuals for environmental factors in their decisions to marry homosexually. The research suggests a link between environmental factors such as geographic birthplace and family relationships and the probability of marrying a same-sex or opposite-sex partner. The massive study also finds that the number of brothers and sisters increases the probability of marrying heterosexually. This finding questions a recent, widely touted Canadian study of birth order that found the number of older brothers increased the probably of homosexuality in men.

The researchers found for each additional year one’s parents stay married, the probability of heterosexual marriage in the children increased by 1.6% among sons and 1.0% among daughters. In contrast, the rate of homosexual unions decreased by 1.8% among sons and 1.4% among daughters for every year of intact parental marriage. Summing these effects over years of childhood and adolescence contributes to a noteworthy impact.

Regarding homosexual marriages, researchers have also found that birth place relates to the sexual orientation of marriage partner. Being born in urban settings increased the probability of homosexual marriage and decreased the probability of heterosexual marriage. This study was said to be the first to show that birth place or some correlate thereof influences marital choices in adulthood.

The researchers also confirmed previous research suggesting that children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than children reared in intact families. For men, unknown paternal identity, parental divorce, short duration of cohabitation with both parents, and long duration of father-absent cohabitation with mother were all associated with increased rates of homosexual marriage. For women, homosexual marriage rates were elevated among women whose parents were married briefly, and those who experienced long periods of mother absence due either to abandonment or death during the teen years.

Taken together, the study’s findings suggest that intact parents bearing multiple children and living in rural areas increase the probability of heterosexual pairings in their children. The study was not designed to examine all possible contributions to sexual orientation nor does it account for individual situations. We know, for instance, that gays and straights come from all kinds of families and locations. However, the study raises the possibility that family and social factors function to help shape adult sexual orientation.

Chapter 4: Hormonal Factors

Hormones are your body’s chemical messengers. It is released by one or more cells which travel through the bloodstream that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In relation to sexuality following up the hormonal theory, exposure to certain hormones plays an act in fetal sex differentiation. Besides that, this exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult.

Hormones which interact with the developing brain cells coming from the differences in brain structure are accredit to be the basis of sex differences in countless behaviour, including sexual orientation. The interaction of these hormones on the developing brain is affected by prenatal factors that can influence later the sex-typed behaviour in children.

Factors hypothesized in contributing to sex-typed behaviour concerns the same as those hypothesized to contribute to sexual orientation. Higher rates of sex-atypical behaviour in childhood and adulthood are seen in homosexual men and women compared to the same sex heterosexuals. Early hormones have been suggested to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviours. Recent studies, however, have provided evidence in support of prenatal androgen exposure influencing childhood sex-typed behaviour.

An example of the study is Early Hormonal Influences on Childhood Sex-Typed Activity and Playmate Preferences: Implications for the Development of Sexual Orientation. The hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are examined. The children were in the range of ages between 2.5 to 12 years. It is observed that CAH girls preferred boys’ toys and activities and had greater preference for boy playmates than controls. On the other hand, CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls and activity and playmate preferences were not related. From this it was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences. Besides that, sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences, activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex.

Consequently, prospective and retrospective studies of childhood gender role behaviour reveal homosexual males to be more likely than heterosexual males in the sense of participating in girls’ games, to experiment with cosmetics and jewellery and to be less likely than heterosexual males to participate in sports. In the same way, lesbians analytical report shows that they were more likely than heterosexual females in the manner of participating in sports, to be called a tomboy and to be less likely than heterosexual females as in experimenting with or using cosmetics and jewellery or even to wear dresses. From reports by Bailey & Zucker, it was also known that homosexual men and women played with opposite sex playmates in childhood more that did heterosexual men and women.

However, the differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals may not be confined to childhood activities. For example, in another report by McCormick & Witelson, it is stated that heterosexual men have higher spatial ability and lower verbal ability compared to both homosexual men and heterosexual women. Besides that, a higher rate of left-handedness has been noticed in both homosexual men and women than heterosexual comparisons.

Nonetheless, it is important to note that there are a few other sex-typed behaviours not related to sexual orientation. This is identified as most homosexual men and women have typical gender identity and are similar to same sex heterosexual individuals on aspects of mating psychology related to sexual selection that show sex differences, for example, interest in uncommitted sex. These comparisons are useful because sexual orientation differences that parallel sex differences suggest that some of the factors that cause sex differences also cause differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals of the same sex. This is because some homosexual individuals are as sex-typical as most heterosexuals, there may be more than one cause of sexual orientation. On the other hand, when sexual orientation differences do not parallel sex differences, different etiologies are likely.

Gonadal hormones have been hypothesized to play a main role in the development of sex-typed behaviour and sexual orientation. Thus, high levels of androgen during sensitive periods of development have been suggested to produce masculine-typical behaviour, including childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to women, that is, male heterosexuality and female homosexuality, whereas very low levels of androgen during those periods are hypothesized to result in female typical childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to men, that is, male homosexuality and female heterosexuality.

Human sex-typed behaviour is also affected by early exposure to hormones. Thus, female participants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who have high levels of androgen during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, have greater preference for traditionally masculine toys and activities, higher spatial ability, and greater rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. Similarly, female participants exposed to high levels of masculinizing or defeminizing hormones as a result of maternal ingestion during pregnancy have been reported to be more aggressive and to have higher rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. These increases in male typical behaviour which occur in the presence of female gender identity in both CAH girls and women and those with exogenous hormone exposure.

Unusual hormone exposure in boys and men has complex relationships to behaviour. In relation, low androgen seems to result in reduced male typical behaviour. Male adolescents and adults with deficient androgen beginning early in life have shown reduced spatial ability compared with controls. High levels of masculinizing hormones have been associated with increased, decreased, and unchanged masculine typical behaviour. Male participants exposed to androgenizing progestin have been reported to be more aggressive than their brothers, but male participants with CAH and thus high levels of androgen generally show male typical behaviour. There are few systematic studies of sexual behaviour in men with unusual early hormone exposure, but homosexuality may be more common in men who are assumed to have low prenatal testosterone, for example, XXY men.

There is evidence especially in female individuals that early hormone exposure affects both sexual orientation and some of the behaviors that are related to it, providing indirect support for the hypothesis that sexual orientation typically is influenced b

There have been heated debates concerning sexual orientation in almost all the societies in the world. Becoming either a homosexual, bisexual or a heterosexual is a matter of choice according to many cultures and races. The society is made in a way that there are norms that govern the way people behave including the tastes and preferences. Anything done against the societal construction is deemed strange and therefore unacceptable and it is liable to negative sanctions.

The biggest question that many people contend with is what exactly determines the sexual orientation. Several scientific studies have been conducted and they are disapproving the conventional beliefs that people have. It is believed by most people that if someone is a homosexual, then they must be abnormal, cursed, and immoral or under a certain kind of punishment. They are considered social outcasts in most societies as what they do is contrary to the norms of the communities they belong.

According to some theories, for instance ‘exotic becomes erotic,’ it is made clear that sexual orientation is brought about by the biological factors rather than what is currently held by many. Many people look at the environment under which one is raised as the main determining factor of one’s sexual orientation.

The study of the twins done by some researchers is an indication that indeed environment does not dictate whether one will be a homosexual or a heterosexual. There is a high likelihood that identical twins can be homosexuals than it is for the fraternal twins where only one of them could be but the other one remain heterosexual. This is an

illustration that indeed genes play a great role in determining the gender where one will project their erotic feelings.

There has been discrimination against the homosexuals to the extent that some of them have been attacked by the people they live with. Most of them live in fear of isolation and rejection making them not practice their sexual orientation publicly. The religious institution has been one of the greatest forces that have been hitting hard on them because of the beliefs held. However, this is wrong and that’s why several recommendations have been highlighted at the end of this discussion in order to live in harmony and love for all people.

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Thesis Statementaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦..1

Statement of the Problem 1

Definition of Terms 3

Limitations of the Study 4

Theoretical Framework 6

Literature Review 6

American Psychological Task Force 6

Exotic becomes Erotic Theory 8

Biological Determinism and Homosexuality 8

Discussion 9

Recommendations 14

Conclusion 17

Referencesaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦ 19

List of Tables

Table 1. Correlation between gender activities and sexual orientation. aˆ¦… 11

Table 2. Genetic inheritance and sexual orientationaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦ 12

Thesis statement

Many studies now show that one’s sexual orientation may not be by choice at all; rather a biological predetermination.

Statement of the problem

Sexual orientation issues unless addressed could result in disastrous moments in our times. The number of those practicing homosexuality and the bisexuals has been on the rise not only in the western countries but throughout the world. However, they have not been so explicit in their activities for fear of being lynched or alienated by the society.

In the recent past, homosexuals faced the wrath of the law once found guilt of the act. This goes back to the 14th century when Leonardo da Vinci who is said to have been a homosexual escaped death by a whiskey. Most societies have not changed their stand and still there is little being done to eliminate the conventional beliefs about sexual orientation.

In the recent past, Uganda and Malawi, African countries have declared that the homosexuals are not welcome in their countries because they are considered, ‘violating the morality’ of the society. The main forces behind the decisions being taken by these and many other countries has been the religion and the cultural beliefs of the people.

Therefore, sexual orientation poses a big challenge in the society and unless undressed can lead to social unrest. One of the main reasons why people want to have nothing to do with the homosexuals is lack of correct information apart from the biased one they have gotten in their cultural backgrounds. The society is therefore deemed to be exclusively heterosexual which is not true since even the Holy Scriptures indicates that there were indeed homosexuals.

People in general have ill information concerning the matter making it hard for the homosexuals to live in peace and harmony. Even the educated few fail to express empathy to this category of people which many have labeled ‘marginalized’ or the ‘minority’ group. The world is moving towards liberalization and therefore people should be given the freedom to exercise their tastes and preferences without being discriminated on the basis of their sexual orientation.

Due to the negativity associated with prejudice and discrimination against the homosexuals, it justifies then that there is need to let the society appreciate the fact that sexual orientation is not a matter of choice but it is predetermined by the genes. This is what has prompted me to research on the biological factors as the main determinants of sexual orientation.

Therefore, to bring the society at the level of normalcy where everyone will be appreciated regardless of their sexual orientation, there is need for more information to be disseminated. It is important that the society understand that the environment has little influence on one’s choice of sexual partner. On the contrary, it is the biological factors that really affect such a choice.

Having said that, it is clear that there is need to conduct this kind of research, as it will help to change the society’s perspective, and enable them to develop a sense of tolerance towards one another regardless of their sexual orientation.

Definition of terms
Sexual orientation

Has been defined as the emotional or sexual attraction to people of the opposite sex, same sex or of both sexes. The choice is influence by environmental factors, but to a larger extent by hormones and biological factors.

Heterosexuality

Has been defined as the sexual or emotional attraction towards the people of the opposite gender or sex.

Homosexuality

This is the emotional or sexual attraction being directed towards people of the same sex.

Bisexuality

It has been defined as the sexual or emotional attraction towards the people of both genders.

INAH-3:

In full it is ‘interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus. The concentration of these cells in this part of the brain has the power to dictate the sexual orientation. Homosexual and women have little INAH-3 compared with the heterosexuals.

Hypothalamus

It is a part of the brain which controls many activities including temperature regulation, hunger and thirst. It also influences the sexual arousal and sexual orientation to a certain degree.

Monozygotic twins

These are identical twins that are formed when one egg is fertilized to form one zygote which later divides to form two embryos.

Dizygotic twins

These are twins formed when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the walls of the uterus at the same time.

Limitations of the study

One of the main impediments for the success of this study is that the findings are biased to some extent and may not apply to certain people. What I mean is that the studies have mostly been conducted in the western world by people of same race and cultures. With the notion that the other nations have on the western world, this will be difficult as it will be viewed by many as a way to justify the practice which is deemed immoral by many people. The fact that many nations have not yet softened their grounds on matters of sexual orientation is a good indication that they do not approve anything that is abnormal to them.

The samples collected do not represent the feelings of the entire population. For instance, some studies collected information of less than a hundred people and purported that this represented the whole population. Therefore, some of the information collected is under scrutiny and criticized by other scholars in the same field.

Some of the studies were subjective rather than objective. This is because it involves mostly gathering information about how the homosexuals conducted themselves while they were young, and then from there the researchers compared with what they had in mind and made conclusions which could be biased. For instance, not all people who fail to involve themselves in activities of their gender automatically become homosexuals as we are going to see soon. Another important thing is that one piece of information could be true in one culture while it is not in another one. It is therefore important that other races too be involved in the study.

Another weakness of this study is that it seeks to send a strong statement that people have no power over their sexual orientation. It means that people can not be recruited into becoming either gays or lesbians. Other studies have shown contrary findings because they also find the environment to be a strong factor determining one’s sexual orientation.

Another limitation of the study is that it is being frustrated by other forces and especially the religious groups. Research has shown that the choices that people make in matters relating to their lives are largely influenced by their belief systems rather than the facts collected. Most of the population is religious who have been socialized in a way that they know how to differentiate between what is evil and what is good. Changing the minds of such people therefore becomes difficult and almost impossible for the researchers.

Finally, another limitation is the fact that little is done by the scholars to pass this critical information to the general population. Most of the scientific findings have remained in books while people continue holding unsubstantiated beliefs. The researchers should come out to educate the people by proving to them about the realities of life while at the same time poking holes in their belief systems. This will be the beginning of the success of this kind of controversial study.

Theoretical framework

Bearing in mind the ambiguity and the contentions that the issue of the sexual orientation has had on the environment, many scientific theories have been developed with an aim to dispel the common belief that homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality are matters of choice. They all indicate that the biological factors are actually the greatest determinants of one’s sexual orientation.

One of such studies is found in the theory of ‘exotic becomes erotic’ which explains that if one fails to interact with the people of same sex in the early ages, they were likely to develop some erotic feelings for such people they avoided at later age. The scientific study also indicates that the temperaments to a certain extent dictate which gender one will be interacting with as they grow up which subsequently will affect the sexual orientation to a larger extent.

Literature review
American Psychological Task Force.

There are many studies that have been conducted before in the aim of explaining different views o sexual orientation. Some of this information is found on the ‘Report on American psychological task force on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation’ (APA, 2007). Their main idea was to dispute what many refer as normal to be a homosexual. They agree unanimously that this is a problem that needs to be addressed through therapies so that people can begin leading a normal life.

However, they also agree that sexual orientation is caused by biological factors which a person has no power over (APA, 2007). They are also very particular on matters of discrimination and they call for empathy as a way of including all members in the national building activities regardless of their sexual orientation.

On the other hand, they believe that the environment has also a role to play in matters of sexual orientation (Fay 1989). They believe that the environment under which the child develops could contribute to the child either becoming a heterosexual or homosexual. And in this they concur with the theory of ‘the exotic becomes erotic’ which stress that the gender interaction dictates one’s sexual preference.

Their study calls for therapeutic exercises rather than letting this people become what nature has predisposed them. Therapies have been found to be very useful when it comes to dealing with the conflicting issues in the minds of the individual. How one behaves is largely determined by what is held in the unconscious parts of the mind. Therefore, therapy works to bring the unconscious to the conscious so that the person can learn to dispute the irrational acts and lead a real life.

However, the study does not seek to dispute the fact that biological processes play the part in determining one’s sexual orientation. It only tries to state that one can move from homosexuality which is deemed abnormal to heterosexuality which majority of the population sees as normal.

The study however does not address the issue of discrimination and prejudice as it ought to. By telling the people with such sexual orientations attend therapies amounts to calling them abnormal. Though it is a step aimed at helping the people thought top be ‘sick’ it could intensify the prejudice and discrimination that people still hold on people who have different sexual orientation from the norm. It goes against the freedom that people have in practicing their tastes and preferences. On the other hand, it assumes that all the people in the entire population will afford to meet the cost of the therapeutic processes. However, the bottom line is that the study has agreed that it is indeed the biological processes that determine one’s sexual orientation.

Exotic Becomes Erotic Theory

The other theorist who played a big role in explaining that the biological processes were indeed the main causes of the sexual orientation was Bem (Bem, 1996). He developed the theory of ‘exotic becomes erotic’. The ‘exotic’ is what is referred as different from who a child interacts with as they grow up. Erotic on the other hand is the emotional or sexual arousal to the people of either same, different or both sexes (Bem, 1996).

His theory speaks about the power that the genetic material have over the sexual orientation of the individual. It asserts that the possibility of a person becoming a heterosexual or homosexual are determined during the early ages of development. The theory says that if a child does not interact with the people of his or her gender during his early ages this will have an implication on their choice of people to whom they will express their feelings and erotic desires.

Biological Determinism and homosexuality

The other theory that seeks to reinforce the fact that sexual orientation is caused by biological factors is the biological determinism and homosexuality (Spanier, 1995). The theory focuses on one part of the brain known as the hypothalamus. Several studies conducted indicate that certain cells known as interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH-3), have the effect of determining one’s sexual orientation. Their concentration in this part of the brain is what brings the whole difference. It has been found that the women have a relative smaller concentration as compared to the male. However studies conducted on the homosexuals indicate that they have a smaller volume of INAH-3 compared with their heterosexual men. They have the same concentration with that of the female and this may explain the reason why they are attracted to people of the same sex.

From the three theories above, it is clear that the sexual orientation is caused by biological rather than the environment as it is conventionally believed. The following discussion will seek to elaborate more on the above three theories, giving statistics and other supporting evidence on the same claim.

Discussion, recommendation and conclusion

Sexual orientation has been a topic that has received numerous contentions especially amongst the conservative people. It has been linked to inherited disorders, deviant hormonal exposure, harmful family patterns, and in many situations especially amongst the religious groups; it is associated with sinful nature of man. For those reasons, people of all races and cultures have different perspective of sexual orientation.

Seeking to shed light on sexual orientation, Daryl Bem asserted that the biological factors that determine sexual or erotic preference among the people are linked to the experiences during the childhood. As the child grows, they interact with the environment which on the other hand shape not only their cognitive, behavioral and emotional parts but to a larger extent affect their biological traits. There is also a correlation between nature and nurture. This means that the, biological processes and the environment in which the child is exposed are always affecting the way the child grows and the preferences that they make regarding their lives. Therefore this explanation seeks to dispute the fact that sexual orientation is caused by an exclusively one factor.

In his theory ‘Exotic becomes erotic, ‘Daryl who was a social psychologist said that the temperaments that the child acquires as it grows predisposes them to develop certain likes and dislikes of activities in their life. Temperaments are biological in natures which are passed from generation to generation through inheritance. They have the power to make the child choose the people they want to interact with and those that they would want to avoid.

According to this theory, those children who fail to conform to the activities of their genders are at a higher risk of becoming homosexuals than those who do conform. To elaborate this statement further, assume that a boy decides not to interact with other boys in his early ages of development. He indulges himself in all activities done by the opposite gender. According to this theory, as he grows up, he will develop some physiological arousal to the people with whom he never interacted with. Therefore, when he becomes a teenager, he will be expected to develop certain erotic feelings to the people of the same sex.

The opposite is true according to this theory. It means that, the heterosexuals are so because during their early ages they took time to play with people of their own sex and therefore, during their teen age, they felt sexually attracted to the people they never had much interaction with during early ages.

To support his theory further, he carried a study involving one thousand lesbians and gay people. According to his finding, 63% of them said that they exhibited non-conformity to the activities of their gender as they were growing up. Only 15% of them said that they participated in those activities involving their sex. Therefore, to a greater extent, his theory can be used to explain the discrepancy in observed in the sexual orientation.

The following table gives a brief summery for the work that was performed by Ben to demonstrate the correlation between gender activities and sexual orientation.

Table 1. Correlation between gender activities and sexual orientation.

Sample group

Control group

Lesbians

Gay

Percentage of non-conformity in same gender activities during childhood

Percentage of conformity in same gender roles

1000

500

500

500

63%

15%

Source: Bem DJ, Herdt G, McClintock M (2000). Exotic become Erotic. . Arch Sex Behav 29 (6): 531-48.

To further support the fact that the sexual orientation is inherited rather than acquired in the environment, Bailey and Pillard (1978), conducted a study where they used to models. In one of the models, they hypothesized that homosexuality or heterosexuality is inherited. The other model they assumed that sexual orientation is learnt from the environment. They carried their study among monozygotic twins raised together, dizygotic twins raised together and men with adopted brothers. The following table summarizes their findings.

Table 2. Genetic inheritance and sexual orientation

Relationship

Monozygotic ( identical twins)

Fraternal twins

Inherited brothers

Rate of homosexuality

59%

21%

10%

Source: Bailey & Pillard, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48:1089-1096)

According to the results obtained in the table above, there is a higher likelihood that the identical twins who have been brought up in the same environment will become homosexuals more than the fraternal twins. The greatest question that the two researchers grappled with was why there was the presence of this discrepancy. In order to explain their findings, the asserted that sexual orientation is as a result of genetic inheritance rather than environmental as many people would like to think.

Monozygotic twins have the same genetic make up as they originate from the same ova and therefore they will be expected to exhibit the same capabilities and the behavior in general. Other studies have found that even if the two had not been raised in the same environment, there is a greater tendency for them to demonstrate same behavior, tastes and preferences wherever they are. Therefore, this seeks to reinforce further the fact that biological factors have to a greater degree affected the sexual orientation.

The other factors that serve to dispute the factor that sexual orientation is the matter of the environment is the fact that the third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH-3), of the heterosexuals and the homosexuals is different (Zucker, 1999). Hypothalamus is that part of the brain which is so important in controlling the body temperature, hunger, thirst and also matters relating to sexual arousal. In general, the females have a smaller INAH-3 as compared to their male counterparts. However, there has been observed discrepancies also between the homosexual men and the heterosexual ones with the former having smaller capacity. Different theorists tend to presume that the difference in that capacity could also be the cause of homosexuality. This is because they appear to have the same preference as that of the female with whom they have relatively the same volume of INAH-3.

On the same biological findings, there is a morphological difference between the homosexual men in the appearance of their penises (Laumann1994). It is said that the homosexuals tend to have longer and thicker penises as compared to that of the heterosexual males. This however does not mean that whenever there is a difference in size and thickness it means that the person is a homosexual. The other findings indicate that most homosexuals tend to be left-handed people.

The above therefore serves to clear the notion that many people especially the religious groups and some cultures that such sexual orientation behaviors are a sign of insanity and abnormality. Homosexuality for instance is not a thing that has just appeared on this planet as many people would want to state. It has been there since the creation of the earth. In the holy bible scriptures, in the book of Genesis, it is said that certain men demanded that Abraham give them the men who had come to pay him visit so that they could have sex with them. Leonardo da Vinci one of the greatest gifted men on this planet is also said to have been a homosexual and that was back in 14th century.

The homosexual people have not been able to have their issues addressed for fear of being discriminated against or being lynched (LeVay 1996). For instance, a gay couple in Kenya (a country in East Africa), escaped death narrowly as they prepared to announce their marriage in public. They were rescued by the police when a group of conservative group attacked them in what they referred to as ‘the infringement of the societal norms.’

One of the most important things that the society should know is that there are more homosexuals and lesbians than they presume. Amongst these groups are the heterosexuals who are sexually attracted to people of both sexes. The reason why sexual orientation appears strange to certain groups of people is because it has been suppressed. People especially in the African continent rarely discuss issues relating to sex. It is ‘common knowledge that a man should marry a woman,’ and therefore anything that seeks to violate this social belief is met with a lot of resistance and punishment.

In more liberal countries such as the United States, the homosexuals have the freedom to express their affections even in public (Bogaert 2004). The Anglican churches have even allowed the marriage amongst these groups of people who have been marginalized for many decades. However, such an act has resulted to sparked debate among other religious groups and to some extent; other believers have alienated themselves from such denominations.

Recommendations

Having looked at sexual orientation and the perception that people have over the whole issue, it would be important to provide some recommendations on how people can change their view. Whether the gays and the lesbians will be accepted in the society or not will depend on how people think about them. For this reason, it is important to consider the following recommendations which are aimed at helping people treat each other well regardless of their sexual orientation.

One of the recommendations that will see a change in the perception that people have against homophobic would be to strengthen communication gaps (Billy 2000).Several studies that have been conducted demonstrate luck of information amongst the people regarding the homosexuals and the lesbians. The biggest impediment to the information dissemination is the issues of culture which are form the fabric of any group of people. As we saw earlier, sexual topics are not discussed especially in conservative African cultures and certain religious affiliations. Such information is considered ‘private’ and therefore should not be discussed. However, one of the causes of the negative attitudes that people have is because they have no information on what causes homosexuality.

Even those having the information, they might not pass it for fear of discrimination. Those purporting to help the society understand these matters provide biased information which not only serves to intensify the chasm and dichotomy against such groups but also calls for their elimination. I propose that a curriculum on sexual orientation should be published so that as people grow up, they understand that homosexuality is not a matter of choice, but what has been predetermined by the genetic makeup.

The second recommendation is that there should be a day set to set to celebrate sexual diversity (Wellings 2004). The only way to prove that indeed we respect diversity is by having a day where this minority group of people is given time to express themselves in the society. This will not only serve to make them feel part and parcel of the society but will also act as a way to improve their self esteem and confidence in the society. On the other hand, the heterosexual society will develop tolerance towards this group of people and learn to accept them as they are. People will also develop a sense of empathy and avoid any judgmental remarks against this group.

The third recommendation will be to avoid discrimination at all costs. As we have observed in the discussion above, homosexuality is not abnormality or a curse. These are people who have same anatomical features like any other human being, with the only difference being found in their sexual partner preferences. Homosexuals have been prejudiced and discriminated against making them appear like social outcasts. They are alienated from certain social issues for the claims that they are ‘different’ and ‘unclean’ like the rest of the population.

To avert any chances of perpetual discrimination, the government should formulate policies that seek to protect such people in the society, and also taking the lead in the fight against such biased beliefs. The introduction of the Equality Act in 2006 was a big step forward in the fight against social prejudice and subsequent discrimination. The act called for the equality in the access for goods, services and any other facilities. This includes working in any social position without any fear of being labeled a social outcast or a demon.

The religious groups should also follow the suit in ensuring love prevails amongst all the groups of the people regardless of their sexual orientation. To a greater extent, the religious groups have been said to be the people behind the hard feelings between the heterosexuals and the homosexuals. This is because of the faith that is held in this important social institution. Religion can not be disputed when it comes to the matters affecting the society. It is viewed as the only institution that provides the society with moral precepts. Therefore, whatever the leaders say to their members is religiously followed and any other information that is contrary to theirs is nullified. Therefore, the fight against discrimination amongst the homosexuals will only be successful if religious leaders develop a sense of empathy and tolerance towards this group of people and learn to accept them as they are.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is apparent from various scientific researches that indeed sexual orientation transcends the social beliefs that it is purely environmental. To a greater extent, the biological factors dictate whether the person will become a homosexual or heterosexual. The temperaments which are as a result of the genetic inheritance are strong in determining which activities one chooses to accept during childhood. Those who choose to interact more with people of the opposite sex will likely become homosexuals due to physiological arousal that develops towards the people one had no chance to play with.

The society should be aware that homosexuals are not abnormal people in the society, neither are they social outcasts. They are very normal people like the rest with the only difference being in their sexual orientations. They should therefore not be discriminated against or be made to die just because they are acting out of what the society has recommended.

The religious institutions and the government should be in the forefront to ensure that the homosexuals are protected and accorded with the respect that they deserve. Any one found showing contempt to anyone on the basis of their sexual orientation should be charged and disciplinary actions taken against them for such atrocious acts. This is because as indicated above, homosexuality is not a matter of choice but biological factors.

All in all every one should develop a sense of empathy so that we can tolerate each other regardless of one’s sexual orientation. It is true

Over the past thirty years “Participation has become development orthodoxy” in both theory and practice (Cornwall 2003: 1325). The basic aim of participatory development (PD) “is to increase the involvement of socially and economically marginalized peoples in decision-making over their own lives” (Guijt, 1998: 1). PD approaches claim to ’empower’ local communities and recognizes rural poor themselves as the primary agents of change with the capacity to transform their lives (ESCAP, 2009). In recent years, however, there have been an increasing number of criticisms from policy makers, practitioners and academics regarding the widely applied ‘participatory’ approaches to development. Many elements of this approach have been challenged “on the basis that participatory approaches often failed to achieve meaningful social change”, due to its inability to engage with problems of power relations and underlying politics (Hickey and Mohan, 2005: 237). Questions have been raised regarding the methods of participatory development and the impact of policies on various aspects of development, such as community relations, power structures, social conditions, rights of the poor, the role of grassroots civil society organisations in rural development, and the nature of knowledge (ESCAP, 2009).

In this context, important publications have emerged representing different views and critiques of the participation approach, one against: Participation: The New Tyranny? (Cooke, and Kothari, 2001), and another more positive assessment: Participation: From Tyranny To Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development (Hickey, and Mohan, 2004), which scrutinizes the various arguments. These works have generated heated debates about the concept of participation which some argue carries within it an inherent ‘tyrannical potential’ for marginalising those who are already less vocal, but whom it seeks to empower (Cooke and Kothari, 2001). Later, more optimistic publications discuss, “what can be done around participatory development and social change” (Chambers, 2005b: 718).

In order to address the question at hand, this paper examines the current debates on participation in development. The essay will consider a case study that uses participatory approaches in their project. This intervention has been implemented with varying degrees of success. The case chosen focuses on a project entitled the Rural Water Supply Management Programme in Rajasthan, India, in order to illustrate some of the different effects of applying this approach.

The paper is divided into four sections: The first section begins by discussing the emergence of participation in development from both the historical and conceptual perspectives. It then proceeds to the second section which analyses participatory development in practice. The length of the paper does not allow for a detailed discussion on the methods of participatory approaches, such as participatory poverty assessment, rapid rural appraisal and participatory rural appraisal (PPA/RRA/PRA). Therefore, this section will only provide a brief overview of these approaches and their use in development projects. In the third section follows a discussion on what is meant by the ‘tyranny’ of participatory development. The fourth, concluding section seeks to draw some lessons from the discussion and analysis of the case study and provides a hint of what the literature suggests may be in store for participatory development in the future.

1. Emergence of Participation in Development:

First let us consider how participation in development has emerged and what are some of the contentious interpretations of this concept.

“The emergence of the participatory development is tied into critiques of both theory and practice” (Mohan, 2002: 50). In the late 1950s, the term ‘participation’ or ‘participatory’ was coined for the first time in the field of development (Rahnema, 1992: 117). The inception of ‘participatory development’ is linked to colonial times and the mission to bring ‘modernity’ from the west to the then developing countries. Thus, there was an increasing trend to equate development with modern western knowledge and practices by means of a top-down approach to countries in the south (Schuurman, 1993: 187-191).

Critiquing this trend, social activists and field workers observed that non-inclusion of the people concerned in a development project from its inception to the implementation stage led to limited benefits of the development venture (Rahnema, 1992:117). This top-down approach carried Eurocentric and positivist’s ideas which disempowered beneficiaries (Escobar, 1995; Peet and Watts, 1996: 20-25; Chambers, 1997; cited in Mohan, 2002: 50). This concern was raised in the 1970s, by Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator, who argued that development should not be “the privilege of some few persons, but the right of everyone” (Freire, 2003: 88). He promoted participatory development approaches, in contrast to top-down practices, by arguing “I cannot think for others or without others, nor others can think for me” (Freire, 2003: 108). In his Pedagogy of Oppressed Freire emphasized knowledge creation of the marginalized by increasing their awareness about their rights and establishing networks of solidarity to encourage dialogue which would enable people to express their needs and give them a sense of ownership of the projects.

A similar view was echoed by Robert Chambers who challenged the various biases of development polices and interventions that make the poor ‘invisible’ by distinguishing between ‘uppers’, i.e. the powerful practitioners and ‘lowers’, i.e. the powerless beneficiaries (Chambers, 1983; 1997: 2005a; Williams, 2004: 560). He argued that “this [top-down approach] implies uppers empowering lowers between all levels. To do this, they must individually relinquish degrees of control themselves” (Chambers, 2005a: 72). Thus, for Chambers, participatory development is a new paradigm, which will lead to empowerment of the beneficiaries, and a shift from hierarchical top-down development projects. He advocates open power structures which will bring personal and institutional change (Williams, 2004: 560). Hence, participation of local communities was stressed to end the ‘top-down’ approach in development projects and participation became widely practiced.

1.1 Participatory Approaches:

There are a myriad of methods for conducting participatory development in practice. However, the most extensively used methodology is Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). The other approaches include Participatory poverty assessments (PPA) and Rapid rural appraisal (RRA). The PRA approach is based on achieving change and a reversal of roles, behaviours and relationships. Though, this may be carried out by external development practitioners, their role is limited to facilitating the focus group, by listening to them and sharing methods with the local people to help them reflect on their on own knowledge. The outsiders do not transfer technology. The strength of the PRA method lies in understanding the local needs; providing local ideas; extracting, developing and investing local resources; and generating development ideas (Chambers, 1997: 103, 2005a:87, also cited in Mohan, 2003: 52). PRA collects and records data on local customs and practices for a predefined development issue, whereas the RRA approach is used by outside practitioners to plan, and target the improvement of a given intervention. Finally, PPA, influences policies at the ‘macro level’ in relation to ‘poverty reduction’ development projects (cited in ESCAP, 2009: 13; for original see Norton et al., 2001). Thus, PRA is considered to be the more important approach to promote empowerment.

The participatory development method involves all stakeholders who are affected, by the policies, decisions, and actions of the system. This may include individuals, groups, communities, local government institutions, local and international institutions, self-help groups (Chambers, 2005a:87). This approach is used by the World Bank, non-governmental organisations, aid agencies and academicians, which for instance have applied PRA for climate change adaptation projects.

2. Participatory Development in Practice:

This section will examine (the) participatory development in practice through case study. The aim of this example is to illustrate different aspect of participation in development and how it can lead to potential tyranny.

Case Study: Rural Water Supply Organisation in Rajasthan, India:

This case study, which looks at the Jal Bhagirathi Foundation (JBF) situated in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, demonstrates how “Gender is dynamic and gender norms can be altered when matters as significant as social participation are negotiated and water management is put into practice” (Berry, 2010:48). Social participation is associated with gender in the conduct of this non-governmental organization in water supply management.

India is the one of the largest consumer of water today. Water is considered to be a women’s resource in large parts of rural India, as women have the responsibility to fetch water for domestic purposes 86 per cent of the time (Bhatia, 2004; cited in Berry, 2010:49). Women seeking water often have to travel long distances, and sometimes are confronted with reduced water supply availability. This means that women having to spend more time in storing and preventing contamination of water. This predicament applies to rural women in many regions. For example, women in Nepalese villages are house bound with domestic responsibilities in juxtaposition with men engaged in economic activity, which may put women in a situation where they are excluded from participating in water management decision making. Moreover, a lack of electricity hinders women from collecting water from the water pumps (Shah, 2006; Berry and Mollard, 2010: 49).

The household shapes gender relations, as well as playing key role in the use of water. Domestic water use connects women with women of other households (Cleaver, 1998). These household dynamics and local customs reinforce gender inequities (Cleaver, 2001; cited in Berry, 2010: 50). Thus, because of their low social status, women are perceived as being uneducated and unable to take official decisions, which constrains their participation in water user associations. Barriers to institutions and political engagement make women dependent on ‘informal forms of participation'(Mohan and Hickey, 2004; and Berry, 2010: 51). Thus, when women go to fetch water, they meet other women socially and engage in informal discussions about their lives and information sharing.

In South Asia, and specifically in India and Nepal, caste, race, religion, age and family play a significant role in defining how gender affects and is reflected in water management practices. Thus high caste women are likely to be involved in decision making due to their interest in the quality of water, whereas, lower caste women may be more supportive of having easy access to the water supply. It is also important to note that since most of the rural women are poor and are likely to lead the kind of life mentioned above, they will be less interested in participating in water supply management due to their already busy schedules.

Given these types of social scenarios, JBF a non-governmental, has taken initiatives to empower women in water management decision making and provide public space for their participation, as women are the real stake holders. In addressing the above issue, JBF is required to develop relations with governments, aid donors and work within the customary practices of the local communities. UNDP has been actively involved with JBF to promote women’s participatory water initiatives and make governance more participatory. A UNDP sponsored evaluation in 2008 acknowledged the progress made by JBF by building wells and tanks closer to houses, resulted in a reduction of the four kilometer average walking distance in the targeted regions and decreased the time spent by women for collecting water (Berry, 2010: 54). JBF also helped these rural women by establishing self help groups and linking them with banks for small house loans. Even though the JBF project resulted in varying degrees of success, criticisms were raised, regarding the “lack of convergence between water initiatives undertaken by mainstream village institutions dominated by men and women’s self help group” (ibid.).

JBF recognizes that women’s role is central to the community water management practices. Communities may also manifest themselves as sites of conflict and shifting alliances influenced by power and social structures, both exclusionary as well as inclusive (Berry, 2010: 58). JBF faced the following problems in the case of Rajasthani women, such as their having low autonomy even in their own households and often being unable to work out of the house, due to cultural norms. The women often did not attend meetings, as they were illiterate, and therefore it was difficult to get them involved in village water practices, as they also felt shy to talk in front of men. These rural women are facing two contradictory problems. Firstly, patriarchal society and traditional customs exert pressures geared to maintaining privileges associated with the prevailing social and gender hierarchy, and, secondly, they have been faced with the introduction of modernity which is transforming rural economies. Hence, traditional understandings of gender, and local power structures have come into conflict with the externally disseminated strategies. As a result of this conflict, JBF projects have provided little benefit to rural women although they were meant to promote “gender equity and participation on one hand and reifying traditional cultural practices on the other” (McCusker and Oberhauser, 2006; cited in Berry, 2010: 63).

3. ‘Tyranny’ of Participation in Development:

Much of the discourse on participation in development has been challenged over the past two decades. Criticisms have been raised about the “participatory approaches and demand at best their rethinking, if not their abandonment” (Cooke, and Kothari, 2001:2). The critiques mainly emerge from within the field of development itself (ibid. :5) after the failure of current forms of “‘participatory development’ to engage with the issues of power and politics raised by its language of ’empowerment’” (Hickey, and Mohan, 2005: 241). These criticisms are viewed by Cooke, and Kothari (2001) as ‘tyranny’ in development practice. Tyranny here means, “Illegitimate exercise of power” in participation. The authors have identified three types of tyrannies; first, ‘the Tyranny of decision making and control’; second, ‘tyranny of the group’ and third, ‘tyranny of method’. However, there are other points of criticism raised by academics and practitioners which will be referred to in relevant parts of the following discussion.

3.1 The knowledge claims of Participatory Development:

Participatory development is designed to uncover the local realities of the poor and ensure their involvement in decision making (Cleaver, 1999: 599-600). This claim to understanding the local knowledge and particularly PRA approach has been highly criticised by field practitioners. Chambers (1994) makes claims in support of the reliability and accuracy of the knowledge obtained through PRA approach. However, Campbell (2001) rejects these claims, and argues that whilst approaches, such as RRA and PRA, were aimed to generate more or less accurate information, practitioners have been using them as the only model for undertaking research. Hence, Campbell proposes an integration of PRA approach with qualitative and quantitative methods to generate ‘in-depth’ understanding which would not be possible to achieve through techniques of observation (ESCAP, 2009: 22-23).

3.2 Tokenism

Reference to participatory models have become an attractive slogan and strategy for governments to acquire political advantages and foreign aid. These slogans generate the impression that governments are sensitive to all the local needs (Rahnema, 1992:118). Participatory methods in development process are increasingly viewed as an important tool to effectively avoid the past mistakes by undertaking projects which require awareness of the local knowledge of the field; access to networks which help to succeed the ongoing project and provides avenues for future investments in rural areas; and cooperation of the local organisations to carry out development initiatives. In this view, grassroots organisations play significant role in providing technical and human resource assistance in the field, and by acquiring investments for the projects (Rahnema, 1992:119).

The foreign assistance agreements with recipient countries show the willingness of the latter to participate in the global efforts of their developed associates. This collaboration has helped developing countries governments with ‘sophisticated systems of control over their populations’ (Rahnema, 1992:117), as this approach allows governments to be present everywhere to manage ‘democratic participation’. Thus, this approach to participation results in exploitative practices contrary to the wishes of the majority of the population, whereas development polices have a tendency to influence the minds of the people to become dependent on modern services. In this manner, their participation in policymaking and decisions is sought to confirm the support for the same needs. Thus, development projects which benefit only a few obtain majority support due to misperception that these advantages will soon be accessible to them as well (Rahnema, 1992:118).

3.3 Tyranny of the Group and Tyranny of Method:

The participatory development approach is critiqued for considering communities as socially homogeneous rather then distinguishing the heterogeneous groups of people in a society or community. This view does not take into account the embedded inequalities within the communities, and ends up reinforcing the existing marginalization and power conflicts between ‘uppers’ and ‘lowers’ (Cleaver, 2001: 44; Kothari, 2001: 140; Mohan, 2002: 53). Others, Mosse (1994, 2001) and Guijt (1998), have raised concerns about the nature of knowledge and reliability of the information. Although, this approach may have empowered a given local community to some extent, the literature suggests that “support for ‘community’ has meant that funding and authority” is transferred to the already privileged whilst the oppressed are further excluded (Mohan, 2002: 53). However, in this context, gender differences and community need to be distinguished as separate groups in applying PRA and other approaches, as conflating these conceptually could be problematic.

Mosse argues that local knowledge is generated in a social context which is influenced by power, authority and gender inequality (ESCAP, 2009: 23). Mosse further highlights that the problem of knowledge generation via PRA approach is likely to be influenced by the predefined agenda of the ‘outsider’ and their interaction with ‘insider’ community members. This space of interaction is “where each group repeatedly tries to anticipate the other’s wishes and intentions” (ESCAP, 2009: 23). This supposition is a matter of concern to Mosse and he discusses how the process of acquiring the “local knowledge” shapes the relationship between beneficiary communities and development institutions. Thus, “this makes local knowledge, compatible with bureaucratic planning” (Mosse, 1994; ESCAP, 2009: 23).

The case study discussed on gender equity in this paper shows that local village men do not share the same, nor are they willing to cooperate. They are caught up in local politics. Often decentalisation and participation cause the more vocal in the already advantaged group to remain in their position, which defeats the very purpose of participatory development by preventing the flow of contextualized knowledge, and diminishing the effectiveness of interventions (Perret, and Wilson, 2010:196).

Criticisms have also been levied against the methods of Participatory Development. Stirrat (1996) raised concerns about the idea of dual forms of knowledge local and scientific knowledge. He argues that in the age of globalization, knowledge cannot exist in isolation but is mutually dependent on interrelationships.

3.4 The Myth of Community:

According to Cleaver (2001: 603) the ‘community’ in participatory approaches to development is often viewed as ‘natural’ social entity characterized by shared values. It is believed that these values can be ‘manifested in simple organizational form’. This view is refuted by many. The assumption that the community as a natural entity and is identifiable in any location with defined boundaries and rights to membership appears to be simplistic. This imaginary view of a community or “myth” can have wider implications and lead to generalizations about all communities as having similar characteristics. As Stirrat (1996) notes, communities are physical spaces where people interact socially.

3.5 The Tyranny of Decision Making And Control:

This view of Participatory approaches which emphasizes consensus building -and shared values is rather illusiory. Stirrat (1996) argues that these approaches with their supposed cooperation and solidarity is a new form of Orientalism, which ties in with ideas of domination and power relations. It is evident that in practice the power of decision making ultimately lies with the development agencies (Mosse, 2001). Therefore the participatory approach is criticised for not recognizing the social diversity and conflicts which pave the way for social exclusion (Cleaver, 2001; ESCAP, 2009: 24-25). It is argued that the approach is used in the name of empowering people and “represents external interests as local needs, [and] dominant interests as community concerns” (Mosse, 2001:22). This perception of participation has the potential of oppressing the beneficiaries and leading them to challenge the social hierarchies in the society (Kothari, 2001: 143).

3.6 The Bureaucratic organizations:

When the organizational interests clash with the ideals of empowerment this leads to bureaucratisation of participation (Richards, 1995: Mohan, 2002). This conflict can lead to withdrawal of the project (Mosse, 2001). The civil society organisations can create competition with local organizations, as large amounts of aid money are chanelled through such organisations. This competition can sideline the weaker organisations, which will further undermine their development projects. In order to seek better funding, these organisations develop alliances with the donor organisations in the North. This perspective shows how the local governments’ authority is by-passed and that these grass roots agencies focus on increasing their capacity. Many such partnerships between northern countries’ organisations and those of southern countries come with a price. The delivery of aid money comes with an agenda (Mohan, 2002: 53). Thus, in effect, the development project of such organisations subjugates those who are supposed to be empowered. As these civil society organisations are accountable to their donor originations, they are also time bound and have certain targets and objectives to achieve in order to continue the source of their funding, which may affect the development of the projects (Stirrat ,1996; ESCAP, 2009).

3.7 From tyranny to transformation:

This section briefly examines the present state of participatory approaches from the works of Hickey and Mohan (2004) and other literature produced in the aftermath of criticisms about the shortcomings and tyranny of participatory approaches. They argue that participation has expanded its role in development, with new methods appearing in theory and practice, and note that, in recent times, developing countries are engaged in formulating creative strategies to express their needs and are better aware of their rights. They stress the transformative approach to development by means of gaining an understanding of the power structures and politics of participation in development. Hickey and Mohan propose the creation of synergies between local projects and political action and governance at the state level. They claim that this synergy will help to overcome the potential tyranny of localized projects and promote social justice and rights based approaches through radical political action. This view proposes changes at the institutional and hierarchal level in order to provide oppressed citizens with an opportunity to take charge of the decisions which affect their lives and advocates promoting the agency of active citizenship by ‘relocating participation’ within the wider realm of sociopolitical practices. It is assumed that this model of participation in development discourse will provide increased opportunities to the poor to exercise their rights as active members of the society and give them better control over socioeconomic resources (ESCAP, 2009: 25).

4. Conclusion:

Participation has become a popular approach in contemporary development discourse. To draw some tentative conclusions from the above analysis, it is evident that empowerment through development has not been fully achieved. Although participatory development has benefited some local communities, the literature suggests that the participatory approach has a patronizing relationship to development. It has been abused by different stakeholders for various ideological and self-serving purposes (Stokke, Mohan, 2000: 263), and provided little or no gain to those whom it seeks to empower. As the evidence from the case shows, in the struggle for power observed in the rural water management programme in Rajahstan India, the unequal status of women meant that they had little access to participation in the water management incentives.

It seems reasonable to conclude that many theorists and practitioners may be justified in their claims that participation is disempowering those who are already oppressed because of its inherently tyrannical nature. It can undermine the role of state and powerful transnational development organisations. However, it is important to note that studies on the subject, such as Participation: The New Tyranny?, and similar work, does not discourage the use of participation in development per se. The debates on participation rather suggest that issues of inequality and social structure must be addressed to overcome current problems and improve the participatory process.

Although the tensions discussed in this paper continue to hinder development, they also present opportunities for the effective use of participatory approaches. Continuing efforts to challenge and transform local power relations by participatory practitioners and agencies with similar interests can bring them on the same platform to work together for effective local participation to the benefit of development. In recent times, many development agencies have changed their focus to incorporate the broader questions of citizenship and sovereignty. Many of these organisations are now seeking avenues for building institutional and state capacity (Mohan, 2002:53-54). Thus, as Cornwell argues: ‘participatory approaches have much to offer, but will only make a difference if they are used with sensitivity to issues of difference’ and diverse social realities (Cornwall, 2003: 1338).

Bibliography Cited:

Berry, K. (2010). ‘Gender and social Participation in a Rural Water Supply Organisation in Rajashtan, India’, In Berry, K. and Mollard, E. (eds). Social Participation in Water Governance and Management: Critical and Global Perspectives. Earthscan, London.

Bhatia, R. (2004). ‘NGOs in women’s economic development in India: an evaluation’, in S. Hassan and M. Lyons (eds) Social Capital in Asian Sustainable Development Management, Nova Science Pub, New York.

Campbell, J.R. (2001) ‘Participatory rural appraisal as qualitative research: Distinguishing methodological issues from participatory claims’. Human Organization.

Chambers, R. (1983). Rural Development: Putting the last first. Longman, Harlow.

Chambers, R. (1997). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the first last, Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Chambers, R. (2005a). Ideas for Development. Earthsacn, London.

Chambers, R. (2005b). Review: Participation: From Tyranny To Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development, Development in Practice, 15, (5): 717-718. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Oxfam GB. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030152, [Accessed March 1, 2011]

Cornwall, A. (2003). Whose Voices? Whose Choices? Reflections on Gender and Participatory Development, World Development, 31(8): 1325-1342.

Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (eds). (2001). Participation: The New Tyranny? London: Zed books.

Cleaver, F. (1999). Paradoxes of Participation: Questioning Participatory Approaches to Development, Journal of International Development, 11: 597-612.

Cleaver, F. (2001). ‘Institutions, Agency and the Limitations of Participatory Approaches to development’ in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (eds). Participation: The New Tyranny? London: Zed books.

ESCAP. (2009). Regional trends, issues and practices in rural poverty reduction: Case Studies on Community Participation. United Nations – Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific Publications Office. ST/ESCAP/2571. Available at: http://www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/poverty_and_development/trends_rural.pdf [Accessed March 1, 2011]

Escobar, A. (1995). Encountering Development: the making and unmaking of the Third World, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Freire, P. (2003). The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th anniversary edition, New York.

Guijt, I. and Shah, K. M. (eds). (1998). The myth of Community: Gender Issues in Participatory development. IT Publications, London.

Hickey, S. and Mohan, G. (eds). (2004). Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. London: Zed Books.

Hickey, S. and Mohan, G. (2005). Relocating Participation within a Radical Politics of Development. Development and Change, 36 (2): 237-262.

Kothari, U. (2001). ‘Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development’ in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (eds). Participation: The New Tyranny? London: Zed books.

Mayo, M. and Craig, G. (1995). ‘Community Participation and Empowerment: The Human face of Structural Adjustment or Tools for Democratic Transformation?’, in Craig, G. and Mayo, M. (eds) Community Empowerment: A Reader in Participation and Development, Zed Books, London.

McCusker, B. and Oberhauser, A. M. (2006). ‘An assessment of women’s access to natural resources through communal projects in South Africa’, GeoJournal, vol. 66, pp. 325-339.

Mosse, D. (1994). Authority, Gender and Knowledge: Theoretical Reflections on the Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. Development and Change, Vol. 25, pp. 497- 526.

Mohan, G. (2002). ‘Participatory development’. In: Desai, V and Potter, R (eds). The Companion to Development Studies. Arnold London, UK: Hodder.

Mohan, G. and Hickey, S. (2004) ‘Relocating participations within a radical politics of development: critical modernism and citizenship’, in S. Hickey and G. Mohan (eds). Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. London: Zed Books.

Norton, A. and B. Bird, K. Brock, M. Kakande, C. Turk (2001). A Rough Guide to PPAs. Participatory Poverty Assessment: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. London: Overseas Development Institute.

Peet, R. and

Obesity and Deviant behavior

Society has labeled obesity as a deviant behavior and is one of the United States biggest health issues. According to the CDC more than one-third of U.S adults (35.7%) are obese, (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,2013). It is difficult to determine what is considered to be deviant because it depends on the place and time. It’s based on how society’s reaction on what is considered to be deviant or not. Society’s view on body image depends on what society deems as acceptable at that time. Deviance takes many forms, but agreement remains elusive about which specific behaviors and conditions constitute deviance, (Clinard&Meier, 2011). During the Elizabethan era in the 16^th century to the 19^th century a woman with a voluptuous lower half, small waist and chest was considered the ideal body. Society viewed a rounded figure in relation to being wealthy enough to buy food. Once we approach the early 1900’s to mid-1940’s woman were expected to look thinner with larger breast. During this time, supermodels were everywhere with their thin and stick figure frames. Society has become more concerned with body image than ever before due to social media and television. People will judge, stare and whisper at the sight of someone is deemed overweight. Being overweight has become a stigma and considered deviant behavior based on society’s reaction towards and overweight person. Society has a negative view on obesity and instead of figuring out ways to prevent the epidemic of obesity, they are placed in the deviant category.

The formula to calculate obesity or a person’s body shape is called (BMI) body mass index or Quetelet index. The BMI was created by a Belgian statistician named Adolphe Quetele who dividing a person’s weight (in kilograms) by the square of his or her height (in inches) in 1830, (Wilson,2014). The BMI has been altered since then, but maybe it should be reevaluated factoring in the average weight of male and female in different states.

Obesity and Deviant behavior- Classification as Deviant3

Apparently people located in the south are considered obese according to the BMI. Doctors use the BMI calculator to determine if a person’s weight is normal, over or obese. A predetermined table that list weight and height in centimeters is set up based on what a person’s weight should be based on their height. A person whose BMI is calculated from 18.5-24.9 is considered normal weight, 25-29.9 is deemed overweight and 30 or greater is obese.

Although environmental or biological factors may contribute to obesity, society has also contributed to the amount of obese Americans. Think about the amount of food, calorie intake, and super-size options available to the average person. The convenience of going through the drive thru and spending one dollar on a cheeseburger, instead of buying healthy foods at the grocery store and preparing a meal is what a lot of American do on a day to day. Society has also helped create other deviant groups like bulimia or anorexia because of the stigmatism that being skinner is better. The killing us softly video, points out various ways on how women are depicted based on their appearance, (Kilroy, 2010,). Jean Kilroy started her research by collecting different ads over the past couple of years and made some good arguments based on the advertisements she found. She began to connect advertising with violence against woman and eating disorders. Based on her findings, she gathered information and made videos and spoke at colleges to make everyone aware of how advertisement can influence society. People are forever trying to fit into the norms that society sets, going to the extreme just be liked or accepted. Some may take a different approach and are considered a positive deviant because they lose weight by living a healthier life, which in turn removes the obese or anorexia label, (Calderon 2013).

Obesity and Deviant behavior4

Environmental experiences are important for weight and obesity, although they account for much less variation than do the effects of genes, (Grilo & Pogue-Geile, 1991). Ever here the phrase, “it runs in the family”? The FTO is known as a gene that runs in both side of the family that could contribute to obesity. Having this gene can increase the risk of being obese if you sit around and do nothing. But a person with or without the gene could engage in some form of physical activity every day, and is more likely to not become obese. People can be tested for this gene, but regardless of the outcome, a person should engage in regular physical activity, make healthier food choices and refrain from eating a second plate of food, especially if it being offered by an overweight relative.

What does our environment have to say about obesity? As I mentioned earlier, huge super-size portions or options, high calorie intake and lack of exercise can contribute to obesity. Most Americans are busy on the go and do not have time to prepare a meal or lunch to take to work. So the next best things are finger foods that we could grab really quickly just to put something in our stomachs. Chips, cookies, fried foods sold at gas stations are packed with fat and calories. The convenience of technology has made many people lazy. Instead of going to the mall or grocery store to walk and search for items, we purchase them sitting down behind a computer. Members of society have gotten comfortable with having the option of super sizing their fries or soda, in addition to restaurant serving enough food for two people. Some fast food restaurants suggest ordering a size up for a quarter more. By determining what environmental influences are contributing to weight gain can help figure out ways to make better choices.

The Obesity and Deviant behavior5

Since society has labeled obesity as deviant behavior, they also refer to overweight or obese people as lazy, disgusting, unattractive and bad. Weight is perceived as a symbol of conspicuous consumption — as an extension of material well-being, (Cooney, 1998). Failing to regulate weight is not related to obesity but the difficulty in losing it is the problem. Some people may be biologically programmed to be overweight which is not accepting to society norms. Should obese individuals be blamed for being overweight? Society tends to ridicule and discriminates against overweight people but are they truly to blame for their physical appearance?

According (Dejong, 1980), an article called The Stigma of Obesity: The Consequences of Naive Assumptions Concerning the Causes of Physical Deviance”. He conducted a study on 10 to 11 year-olds that were shown pictures of children and asked what they thought about the picture being presented. One girl saw a picture of an overweight school aged girl and asked why she was overweight. She stated that if the girl has a reasonable explanation as to why she was fat then she would give her a positive evaluation. Many other girls were shown the same picture and gave the girl a less positive evaluation then the pictures of the girls at normal weight. This is a perfect example of how our younger generation views other overweight children. Obesity can lead to depression because of harsh comments from peers that can cause isolation and overeating. Overeating can lead to other health issues, the higher the weight the increased risk of developing a heart condition. Coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, a heart attack and sleep apnea are all health risk associated with obesity. Lifestyle habits usually start during childhood therefore parents can start by encouraging their children to be more physically active and selecting healthier foods for them to eat. Adults that are already overweight according to the

The Obesity and Deviant behavior6

BMI should also set a plan to eat healthier foods, include some form of physical activity and reduce portion size.

Weight and body image are subjective culturally, Asian culture prefers a leaner body shape, and African’s associate a fuller body with wealth and living a good life. In America, an overweight woman is less likely to get married and might dissociate herself from society to avoid ridicule. In Africa, a woman who is overweight is considered beautiful and more likely to get married. In Nigeria, women are purposely force fed to gain weight so that they attract a possible husband. Overweight women in Africa and Arab countries are more desirable and girls fed more than boys as adolescences to get them prepared. According to (Haworth, 2011), stretch marks are sexy and are a turn on for men in Mauritania, South Africa. There was once a time in America where society associated an overweight person with wealth, now statistic show that most overweight people live in low income areas.

Is there a possibility that the obesity epidemic is overrated? What if the BMI was reevaluated to fit the Americans of today? Would society still label obesity or overweight as deviant behavior? Fat does not necessarily mean disgusting or unhealthy, because society has attached it as a reflection of our psyche, this is what most believes. There are numerous advertisements on social media, billboards and newspapers about diet pills and weight loss surgery. The next commercial on T.V or billboard on the freeway is about a juicy cheeseburger, being eaten by a skinny celebrity, which confuses people. Advertisements are meant to be persuasive to benefit the company or corporations. Fast food restaurant advertising extremely low prices to feed a family, and the medical industry offering other alternatives to weight loss to

The Obesity and Deviant behavior7

make more money. There is a huge amount of focus on being the opposite of an overweight person because of what others think of you. No one wants to be stared at in a negative way or not receive a promotion or get a job because of their appearance. Society’s assumptions have labeled obesity as deviant behavior instead of factual science. Even though obesity can lead to health issues, this does not mean that every overweight person is unhealthy and every skinny person is free from health issues.

A person who constantly smokes cigarettes or drinks alcohol is considered addicted. A person who is overweight can also suffer from addiction because they may not have control over their addiction to sweets or carbs. You can ask anyone on what should be done to lose weight, and they would reply by saying, diet and exercise, of course. But it’s easier said than done, especially for a person who is already obese. Does a person have control over what they eat or is biological or environmental factors? It’s a combination of all three and there is no one in particular that could determine a person weight outcome. People have metabolic and hormonal issues that can contribute to over eating. Leptin for instance, is a hormone located in the brain that is associated with our appetite. Leptin tells the hypothalamus that we have enough fat, so we can eat less or stop eating, (Kollias, 2009). It would make sense for the Leptin to slow down or stop a person from over eating because the more fat you have, the more leptins are created. Apparently, that is not the case, if an overweight person has too many leptins, then the signals to the brain are blocked. If the signal never reaches the brain then a person does not know if they are full, the brain thinks you’re starving yourself. Therefore, a person will continue to eat more, get fatter, and develop more leptins that cannot send a signal to the brain to stop eating. It is an ongoing cycle that contributes to a person getting fatter.

The Obesity and Deviant behavior8

Society does not help the situation with the discrimination and ridicule that an obese person has to endure because of the stigma.

What if obesity was a disease? Is it really their fault that they are obese? There are only few studies from a behavioral perspective on obesity; we associate obesity with eating too much and not exercising but there should be other actors considered. People are built differently; some eat, exercise, rest and maintain a healthy weight while others try and still never lose. Why is it so difficult to lose weight? Brewis explores this question in her book, pointing to factors such as evolved biology, institutional structures in society and emerging cultural attitudes toward fat, (Nicodemo, 2011). Hormones in food, socioeconomics and genetics are all issues that need to be addressed to combat obesity in America. Metabolic disorders, unbalanced amount of leptin and thyroid issues, are things that a person cannot help, regardless if they diet or exercise. Obesity leads to many different forms of illness that increase a person’s appetite.

Obesity impairs body function so it fits in the category for diseases. Deviance would no longer be associated with obesity if labeled as a disease. The medical community has labeled obesity as a health issue but if it was categorized as a disease, this would limit the stigmatism. Most doctors do not address a patient’s weight because they are afraid of offending them. Labeling it a disease, can place more seriousness and obligation for a doctor to talk about their weight with the patient. Some overweight people might be in denial, but after they are offered treatment with better alternatives to losing weight, they might be receptive. It could also help change people’s perception about overweight individuals, and help them to understand that being overweight is not based on a person being lazy and overeating.

The Obesity and Deviant behavior9

Insurance companies would have to allow proper treatment for obesity. Drugs, surgeries and counseling would be beneficial to improve their health and social life. Society would embrace and change their negative views on obesity and would treat it like any other disease. Although, others may not be so receptive to this idea and suggest that people have control over their weight. If research is conducted and people are made aware that obesity is a disease. Society may possibly change their views on associating obesity as a deviant behavior.

The Obesity and Deviant behavior10 References

Calderon, A. (2013). Killing us softly. Unpublished

Manuscript, Southern New Hampshire University.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013, August 6). Obesity and Overweight: Topics – DNPAO – CDC. RetrievedFebruary2, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/

Clinard, M. B., & Meier, R. F. (2011).

The Nature and Meaning of Deviance.Sociology of deviant behavior(14th ed., p. 7). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Cooney,P.L. (1998). Deviancy Obesity. RetrievedFebruary2, 2014, from http://www.vernonjohns.org/nonracists/dvobesty.html

Dejong,W. (2008). The Stigma of Obesity: The Consequences of Naive Assumptions

Concerning the Causes of Physical Deviance. American Sociological Association, 2

1(1), 75-87. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136696

Grilo, C. M., & Pogue-Geile, M. F. (1991).

The nature of environmental influences on weight and obesity: A behavior genetic analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110(3), 520-537. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.520

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1758921

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Haworth,A. (2011, July 21). Forcefeeding in Mauritania – West Africa Fat Camp –

Marie Claire. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/news/forcefeeding-in-mauritania

Kilroy,J. (2010, March 12). Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising’s Image of Women

[Trailer] – Available on DVD [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTlmho_RovY&list=FLhsDMHa5TMiAJnpe5kvf-jA&index=3

Kollias,H. (2009). Precision Nutrition » Research Review: Leptin, ghrelin, weight loss – it’s complicated. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://www.precisionnutrition.com/leptin-ghrelin-weight-loss

Nicodemo,A. (2011, March 31). New perspectives on obesity | Research Matters: stories of scholarship and creative activity. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://researchmatters.asu.edu/stories/new-perspectives-obesity-1860

Wilson,S. (2014).Discovery Health “The History of BMI”.
RetrievedFebruary10, 2014, from http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/diet-fitness/weight-loss/bmi4.htm

There are many books, articles, academic and non academic papers have been written concerning Multiculturalism and its impact on Western and non-Western societies, religious or cultural groups. The aim of this critical review is to examine, give description, comparing and contrasting, conducting analysis and evaluation of two different articles that discuses the same theme of Multiculturalism. Both articles are written by feminist’s writers who argue the issues relating to gender and especially women.

Description of two articles

Article 1:

This article is written by Susan Moller Okin a feminist writer who argues that policy makers, defenders and advocates of multiculturalism in liberal and democratic countries, have not shown justice and fairness when it comes to the issue of gender especially women. She also argues about the issues of immigrants and raises the question that is why the immigrants, minority groups and indigenous people failed to be part of the majority cultures in Western Countries. Women were the most groups who felt that they were controlled by men in many aspects of life; therefore, the assimilation of women in Western cultures caused huge controversy in the field of multiculturalism.

Article 2:

This article is written by Mandy McKerl, another feminist writer who argues that women who come from different background, cultures, minority groups and live in multiculturalism societies, lack self-esteem and self respect due to the pressure from the their own cultures and their own communities. She presents her arguments based on the status of these women in contemporary societies in which they encounter discrimination, prejudice, sexism, injustice and lack of opportunities. She also criticizes multiculturalism in Western liberal democracy societies in which freedom, social justice, social equality and political representation are terms made by certain establishment to serve only the male dominant and ignore women rights, freedom, and social justice. Again the emphases here are on women who belong to ethnic minorities and Muslim women in particular.

Comparison of the two articles

Similarities: The title of both articles indicates that there are similarities in the arguments particularly from feminist point of views. Both writers illustrate the depth of the problem that women are subjected to issue of inequality and social justice in multiculturalism societies and liberal democratic states. They criticize the policy makers and the government institution in failing to address the issue concerning gender especially women and to recognize that there is a gap in certain laws which left women to become vulnerable to sex abuse, clitoridectomy, rape, polygamy, domestic violence, and killings. In addition, they present similar cases and examples from within Western multicultural societies where women and girls from different cultural background have been subjected to force marriages, children marriages, threat, and in some cases kidnapping. According to both writers, this unjustified behavior led to create negative impact on women and girls, and it also has created fierce tensions between the feminist ideologies and defender of multiculturalism in Western states.

Points of differences and contrast:

The author of article 1 presents her arguments concerning multiculturalism in a broader picture, although her main argument deals with issue of women rights that has been violated and ignored. In contrast to article 2, the author expands her arguments and engages in more details to identify the core of the problem that is hidden behind the mask of multiculturalism. Article 1, rarely diffuses discussion on cultural groups and its role in multiculturalism societies. In contrast to article 2, where the discussion is more energetic to explore with the reader that cultural groups has the upper hand in controlling the lives and freedom of women. There are other views and comments regarding the issue of multiculturalism by anthropologist in article 2, which could not be found in article 1.

Analysis and evaluation:

As the title of both articles suggest “Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women”? Arguably this is the main issue in both of the readings. The authors are not seeking a Yes or No answer here, but to illustrate statement if the society acknowledge and believe in the rights of women or believe in multiculturalism and ignore the rights of women. The other issue that the articles wanted to concentrate on is that in Western countries, immigrants, Muslim women have been deprived from their essence legal protections and have been looked at as third-class citizens.

Both authors argue that because of the dogma of multiculturalism, women from ethnic background and different cultures are exposed to violence, sexism, polygamy, and violation of human rights. According to Wihtol de Wenden, “the French response to such practice as polygamy, excision, and headscarves has often taken the form of the imposition of unsuitable sanctions”. She suggests that “such sanctions, far from helping migrant women, tend to isolate them further into a traditional world that deprives them from equal rights and equal opportunity”. (Wihtol de Wenden, 1998, p. 140). One can argue that some Western countries believe that all these immigrants and women cherish one single homogenous culture; therefore, they all should follow it, missing the fact that this misunderstanding in homogenous culture, has resulted in permitting most men to use the name culture for their own advantages by beating, torturing, and disrespecting women and girls.

Arguably, both authors are discussing the same problem regarding the issues of multiculturalism, women, cultural groups, human rights, and policy makers in same directions, but apply different approaches. For example, article 1 states that some group rights can, in fact, endanger and humiliate women. She illustrates her claim by giving an example of French government’s allowing few thousands of male immigrants from African colonized countries special permission to bring multiple wives into the country.

Ironically, the French laws do not permit polygamy and the wives’ own severe rejection to the practice of polygamy, did not stop these men to marry multiple wives’. (Okin, 1999, p. 10). Okin strongly emphasizes that women should not be considered as disadvantaged because of their sex and should not be treated as sex object to pleasure men. Volpp states that “the assumption that women are by definition more oppressed in minority cultures can be traced to several theoretical base: the history of colonialism, depictions of the feminist subject, the limits of liberalism, and the use of binary logic”. (Volpp, 2001, p. 1195). If this is the case, than Western countries should reject group rights that allow the practice of polygamy on the foundation that they are essential to minority cultures whose existence may otherwise be threatened. (Okin, 1999, p. 11).

Similar arguments can be found in article 2, in which Makerl highlights the issue of minority groups and their cultural rights of practices. She reflects and analysis the argument which is presented in article 1 from historical and political background and this method is important in raising the issue of multiculturalism and gender. She also illustrates opinions of multiculturalism from various thinkers, philosophers, and authors and comparatively weights them to separate facts from fiction. (Mckerl, 2007, p.192).

There is a sense of creating a notion of balance between feminism ideology and the defender of multiculturalism and in doing so; she is establishing a link of mutual debate to highlights and bring the issue of women that has been ignored for sometimes to the surface. In contrast to article 1, these type of analytical approaches and references to other authors are not present which makes her arguments less energetic.

The issues of women and multiculturalism have been addressed by other writers such as, Johann Hari, Judit Hell, Himani Bannerji, and Sarah Song. The article entitled “How multiculturalism is betraying women” by Johann Hari can be seen as a direct criticism of multiculturalism in liberal and Western societies. She demonstrates her arguments by presenting several cases of Muslim women who were subjected to violence, rape, discrimination, and have been treated as third-class citizens. (Hari, 2007). She writes in different style and more critical of social justice and inequality of human rights especially concerning women. Although, her writing may not be considered as an academic piece of work, but she engages extremely well in raising the issues of women especially in courts room. Arguably, there is a sense of resemblance in arguments between this work and the previous two articles despite the differences in approaches.

Another example of resemblances in arguments can be found in the report of Judit Hell “Women’s Issue and Multiculturalism” in which the writer present her arguments about multiculturalism from feminist point of view to emphasis that there are many issues regarding women and girls needed to be addressed in both public and private sphere. (Hell, n.d.). Judit, like Okin concentrate in her discussion on the historical background to multiculturalism and elaborates on the gender issue, but this time on gender of male that use culture as an excuse to establish authorities upon women and to subordinate them.

In this respect, judit argues that multicultural societies are divided into two categories of societies, traditional societies and modern societies. She suggests that in Christian Europe the traditional societies were patriarchal by nature and male were the dominant figures, therefore the status of women was defined. The other ethnic communities groups, such as Jews, Gypsies and Muslims who arrived at later stage and settled in Christian Europe, once again male were the dominant figures in these groups. Comparing the patriarchal status in traditional societies to modern societies, the treatment of women by these dominant male from these ethnic groups were harsh and primitive. (Hell, n.d.).

Himani in her essay “A Question of Silence: Reflection on Violence Against Women in Communities of colour” raises issues concerning multiculturalism and women, but her style in this particular essay is completely different from Okin and Mckerl. She presents her writing in a form of a letter that is written to a friend in free verse style. She states “Breaking with scholarly protocols, I am writing this piece as a letter to you because what I want to say needs an embodied reader”. ( Bannerji, 2000, p. 151). This piece of writing is dedicated to friends and in it the writer opens up her discussion addressing the violation of women rights with especial references to ethnic minorities’ women in Canada. The piece is well structured and full of technical words, but easy to follow its main argument.

Sarah Song, is another feminist academic writer who highlights issues of multiculturalism and women in America. In her arguments, she presents case studies of several women from Hong Kong, China, India, and America who have been kidnapped and raped by men. She states that “not so long ago in the United States, unless there was obvious evidence of coercion, an American woman charging rape had to convince the court that she had resisted the defendant’s advances “to the utmost”. (Song, 2007, p.93). Because of the nature of the cases that she has presented, her style of writing is very descriptive and critical. Tradition and culture are the main themes that run throughout her arguments and seemingly it is critical rather than neutral.

In general, the above articles are written from feminist point of views and highlighted issues concerning multiculturalism and the status of women in the multicultural societies. The presentations of some arguments are convincing and straight to the point where social injustice and inequality of women were addressed throughout the articles. Article 2 in particular is more engaging and interesting because it involves depth arguments and involves the reader to make a decision for him/herself either to agree or disagree with the discussion that is presented. It is an intellectual article which contest political, religious, cultural, and gender issues that evolve around us to understand the core of the problems that we are facing in this multicultural societies.

Conclusion

Feminist writers have presented theories and ideologies of multiculturalism in different perspectives and argued that culture, tradition, religion, and politics play an important role in shaping and controlling women.

The interpretation of multiculturalism in itself could be ambiguous and cultural differences in certain parts of liberal societies are governed by dominant male and this will not help in empowering women.

The articles presented views and challenged the defender and agents of multiculturalism through presenting cases of abuse, sexism, discrimination, social injustice and challenged the policy makers that certain laws are bias and prejudice towards women.

Each article has its unique way in style and arguments despite the differences and similarities that embedded throughout the discussion. Each article had delivered the necessary message profoundly.

The debate and the tension between feminism and multiculturalism supporters has created a balance of understanding each other views to some extent although the division in arguments will continue in years to come.

References

Bannerji, H. (2000). The Dark Side of the Nation- Essays on Multiculturalism, Nationalism and Gender. Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. Toronto, Ontario.

Hari, J. (2007). How Multiculturalism is betraying Women [online] The Independent News Paper. Available from: http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/johann-hari-how-multiculturalism-is-betraying-women-446806.html

Accessed: 4th November 2010.

Hell, J. No date. Women’s Issue and Multiculturalism. [online]. Available from: http://www.bu.edu/wcp/papers/Gend/GendHell.htm

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

McKerl, M. (2007) ‘Multiculturalism, Gender and Violence: is multiculturalism bad for women?’, in Culture and Religion, Vol. 8, No.2

Okin, S.M. (1999) ‘Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?’, in Cohen, J. and Howard, M. (eds) ‘ Is Multiculturalism Bad For Women’? Princeton University Press, USA.

Song, S. (2007) Justice, Gender, and The Politics of Multiculturalism. Cambridge University Press, USA.

Volpp, L. (2001). Feminism versus Multiculturalism. In JSTOR accessed online at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1123774

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

Wenden, C.W. (1998). Young Muslim Women in France: Cultural and Psychological Adjustments. In JSTOR accessed online at http://www.jstor.org/stable/3792118

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

Britain is often described as an unequal society however the accuracy of this statement is regularly debated because; the term inequality is very vague as individuals often have opposing views when searching for the meaning. Due to the ambiguity of the word ‘unequal’ I am going to be approaching the question ‘is contemporary Britain an unequal society’ from a sociological perspective in order to best describe and explain social inequalities in Britain. The term social inequality from a sociological point of view means a lack of fairness between different groups of people living in society. Through this definition we are able to identify three main categories, in which social inequalities are divided, this occurs through gender, class and race which will be highlighted throughout my essay. The main focus of my essay would be based on the Marxist and Feminist views as they set the foundations to best describe and explain social inequalities. However, there are other sociologists whom also study this topic; therefore I will be examining their views very briefly.

Another form of social inequality that occurs in Britain is class inequalities; it is difficult to define this because in contemporary society class is fragmented. However, in order to fully understand class inequalities the concept must be operationalised. There are various sociologists such as Carl Marx who define class inequalities as ‘a group of people who stand in a common relationship to the means of production’. Although class is often perceived as a ‘dynamic, fluid, always changing’, in Britain there is still a clear class structure in which class is divided. This class structure is often compared to a pyramid which consists of three levels; these are the upper class, middle class and working class, this arrangement is known as social stratification, whereby each level of the formation has distinguishing features in terms of skills, status and income. The upper class consist of a small proportion of members of Britain’s population; these groups of people tend to have ascribed status such as the royal family. However members of the upper class with achieved social status are professionals with high status jobs such as property owners and employers. The middle class are employed in profession, managerial and administrative jobs for example lawyers, these groups of people are often described to have an intermediate class situation. The working class consists of the highest proportions of people in Britain’s population, the working class members are found at the bottom of the hierarchy, they have the low status jobs which include a complex division of labour. People from the working class groups tend to consist of unskilled workers who participate in manual labour. Although there are the three main layers in Britain’s class structure is divided the idea of the underclass also needed to be highlighted. This concept is developed by Charles Murray and is often used to describe a segment of the population located at the very bottom of the class structure in which they are marginalised from the rest society. Members of the underclass have very low living standard, they are thought to be relatively deprived therefore explaining why they have the highest rates of infant mortality. The majority of members in the underclass are unemployed and relay on the welfare state, as a result of this dependency the idea of the ‘nanny state’ was developed. In correspondence to the idea of the nanny state these recent trends show that the top 10% earners get 27.3% of all earning whilst bottom 10% get 2.6%. This trend highlights that there is an unequal distribution of wealth as income is an important mechanism which measures a person’s wealth, this therefore shows that social inequalities takes place in contemporary Britain. Marxist sociologist uses these figures to then develop their idea further. They argue that Britain is a capitalist society, whereby the bourgeoisies exploit the working class in order to benefit themselves. The process of industrialisation caused capitalism to develop further because Britain has moved from a manual intensive form labour to a more capital intensive labour as a result of this development British is often refer to this as industrial capitalism. There is also a clear relationship between class inequalities and education. For example the educational system in Britain has been changed on several occasions in order to prevent inequalities between different social groups i.e. the increase in government expenditure in education allows people from deprived backgrounds to complete higher education for free therefore creating more employment opportunities for them. However, despite these changes class inequalities still exists in the educational system, for example the curriculum is said to have hidden engenders in which favours the ruling class. The reason for this is because the curriculum is made by the upper class therefore favouring upper class pupils for example English exams requires pupils using the elaborated code which is a form of speech which the upper class use therefore giving them a competitive advantage as the working class use the restricted code, this view is also reinforce by sociologist Bernstein. Another common feature of the working class background is material deprivation; as a result of this they are at a drawback in comparison to upper class pupils as they are unable to purchase resources such as extra text books to further increase their knowledge. There are also other areas such as housing and health that put the ruling class at an academic advantage.

Another area in which social inequalities arises is through racial segregation. Race was traditionally referred to as fixed biological differences; however over the years this definition has been criticised. As a result of this contemporary sociologist defined race as a social construct based on the observed physical and cultural characteristics of an individual. Race is a term closely linked to ethnicity as ethnic groups are defined by their sense of sharing distinct culture. Ethnic minorities are also said to experiences inequalities, however due to the difficulty in separating the two terms I will be explain how racial and ethnic inequalities should be best described ant see if it still exists in contemporary Britain. There is a general idea that there is a racial division between black and white in Britain, it is argued that ethnic minorities have a minority status in society and are often perceived as second class citizens. However, in certain areas of Britain this type of social inequalities has been prevented because of legislations such as equal opportunities acts which protect ethnic minorities from being discriminated against giving them the same opportunities as the dominating groups. Despite the implementation of this legislation, covert racism still takes place. The concept that corresponds with this is institutional racism, where racionalised ethnic groups are systematically disadvantaged, it was recently highlighted in the media (BBC news) that institutional racism still occurs in contemporary Britain within the police workforce, the Macpherson report on the Stephan Lawrence case also show institutional racism taking place. The amount of ethnic minorities that have an established status in the political party is disproportionately imbalanced in comparison to the majority therefore suggesting that overt race/ethnic inequalities occur in British society. Although social inequalities still exist in contemporary Britain other parts of the world such as America are slowly developing, this was shown when the current president Barack Obama was elected. In Britain there is a negative racial stigma attached to African Caribbean families, one of the main reasons is because they have the highest proportion of single parent families. New right sociologist Charles Murray holds a strong view which states that single parent families are the main causes of deviant behaviour and the breakdown of society. On the other hand some sociologist argue due to the rapid technological growth in Britain the media has exaurate crimes that take place within the African- Caribbean community therefore leading to deviancy amplification as a result of this therefore policing within those area have been on the increase meaning they are more prone to getting caught for their crimes in comparison other ethnic groups.

It is evidently clear that social inequality still exists in contemporary Britain; however different sociological perspectives explain social inequalities many ways and opposing views on its impact on society. For example functionalist have a positive view on social inequalities, they see it as an enviable part of society, this is because there are different social positions in society which require particular skills therefore, through theses inequalities the correct role allocation are set therefore benefiting society in the long run. Whereas, both Marxist and feminist theories have a more negative approach on social inequities and the effect it has on society. They believe that it has lead to an increase in exploitation of members in society therefore leading to social breakdowns. On the other hand post- modernist take a very different approach as they have a more contemporary view as they believe that the British society is changing as a result of this it is incorrect to say that social inequalities means one thing or social inequalities still exists because it is a complex phenomenon. Therefore in order to fully understand social inequalities we must take the three categories in which social inequalities has been divided into and identify the correlations which they have with one another because social inequalities means different to different people.

In the US, racism is a very familiar issue. Racism manifests itself in various ways including police brutality against minorities, racial profiling and affirmative action. Issue like the history of slavery and the rising resentment against immigrants are also quite well known. The truth is, racism is not a thing of the past. Perhaps it has reduced in the past century, but it is still quite alive today. Eradicating racism is one of those processes that cannot happen in an instant, but they happen over a long period of time. Slowly, but surely, we are moving in a positive direction.

Low self-esteem has become a frequently repeated explanation for social and personal problems ranging from young people’s involvement in violent crimes to personal failures and racist behaviors. According to psychologists who have researched the topic, racism is about real power, it is not just something that people randomly think about. Social issues like racism are quite complex and multilayered. It partly has to do with issues of economics, political power, and domination. It is also based on how people perceive, interpret, and value differences. Basically, people act in ways that align with their perceptions. People define circumstances in ways that are real to them and also according to the values that they were raised with.

It is true that racial groups have things that make them distinct; however people sometimes dwell on negative distinctions as opposed to the positive ones. We humans tend to emphasize stereotypes that relate to our most closely held values. For instance, a group that values intellect may be quick to see another group as inferior in intelligence. Similarly, if loyalty is valued by a group, then it may label others as disloyal. It seems that racism helps racists feel good about themselves and their racial group by focusing on comparisons with other groups. These issues are what give these groups an identity.

There are many ways in which people try to feel better about themselves; as individuals and as a group. Seemingly, everyone likes to believe that their racial group is unique but people tend to overestimate the level of positive attributes present in the group. On the other hand, when it comes to negative qualities, people tend to underestimate those. Racism can develop because of limited information. As humans, we find ourselves putting people in categories like good versus bad and friend versus foe. Without these generalized concepts and categories, getting through the day would be highly demanding. Categorization helps us take shortcuts and helps us become more efficient in making decisions. Also, racism towards other groups often leads to feelings of anxiety when we encounter the members of other racial groups. When we are anxious, we tend to avoid what makes us anxious. We simply avoid contact with individuals by hiring someone else for a job, striking up friendships with someone else we feel more comfortable with, and sitting down at the lunch table with those who seem to be more like us.

Racism may help us feel better about ourselves, we avoid challenging our thinking. In other words, we become defensive and protective of our opinions and only reluctantly question our thought patterns. And these ways of thinking helps protect not only our self-esteem, but also privileges and benefits that we have as members of a racial group. For example, racist discrimination which in the past has limited slots available to minority groups at universities has benefitted the majority population by making more slots available to its members. So, maintaining our racist views of others allows us to feel better about our own group and to avoid challenging unfair social practices that benefit us.

Furthermore, we as humans seem to put effort into maintaining our views of the world. For example, we may pay attention to information that supports our views. The more strongly we hold a stereotype, the more we tend to remember confirming information about that racial group. For instance, the more we believe that Asian people cannot drive, the more likely we will remember incidents which seem to support these views. We also discount or rationalize information that is contradictory to our belief system. People who do not act according to our stereotype of them stand out to us as different. For example the Black person who is intelligent & articulate and the Asian man who is a good driver become exceptions to the rule, but the rule remains. It is almost like when we see someone from a different racial group, we look for those stereotypes that align with our thinking.

Racism, Violence & Immigrants in the workplace

The U.S. legislative system is currently battling over the Immigration bill for workers. Resistance is fierce in the House of Congress to any plan to legalize the estimated 12 million illegal immigrants or to create a program of millions of guest workers who would in turn be put on a path to citizenship. No one accuses House leaders of acting out of racism, but some say they are responding to constituents who are. The House leadership needs to show some progress on the immigration issue to soothe angry anti-immigrant forces in the country. But the President and Senate want guest workers and a path to citizenship as part of any deal.

The Democratic allegations of racism may sound like just another political strategy, but there certainly is a case to be made that racial fears are fueling some of the debate on the immigration policy. The political demand to seal the U.S.-Mexico border, and the President’s new proposal to send 6,000 members of the Army to help, is supposed to be based on national security. But why then is no one proposing sending additional troops to secure the U.S.-Canada border?

Most people want to know if the U.S. is trying to stop primarily undocumented Mexican workers rather than terrorists from crossing the border. Figuring out just how many immigrants, Hispanics or otherwise, to let into the country each year is exactly what lawmakers ought to be trying to do as they undertake immigration reform. Setting immigration targets that are in the country’s interest is, after all, the point of having an immigration policy to begin with. Policymakers should be asking questions like: what kinds of skills does America need to import? And how many of them do they need? What advantage is there is in allowing family members to join new citizens, as is currently the policy? Just as important, the debate could address the issue of race head-on: should ethnicity be a factor in granting citizenship? But until politicians define the goals of American immigration policy; who and how many do we want and for what reason, it will be impossible to eliminate the influence of anti-immigrant forces who, whether racist or not, draw dubious conclusions and make misleading statements.

In Canada, immigration reform needs to take place especially to protect long-term care facility workers who are immigrants. Long-term care facility workers include nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, administrators etc. Canadian long-term care facilities are violent and dangerous workplaces. This need not be the case, a study found that 43% of personal support workers endure physical violence at work on a daily basis, while another quarter face such violence every week. Most are women, and many are immigrants or from minority racial groups. Violence is a constant and ongoing part of their job. In contrast, they found that levels of violence are much lower in Nordic countries, indicating that the high level of violence in Canadian facilities is exceptional and not a necessary feature of work in long-term care.

The study is part of a larger project comparing Canadian long-term care facilities with Nordic European countries. Violence in long-term care is not just a workers’ issue. It is an immigration issue. The vast majority of care-giving staff are women, many of whom are immigrants and women of color. Personal support workers are the ones who suffer the most. The fact is that much of the violence occurs during direct care activities. Because personal support workers provide the bulk of direct care, they are most frequently exposed to violence. This does not imply that violence does not have an impact on other workers. In fact, the researchers found that 16.8% of registered nurses and 24.6% of licensed practical nurses, and registered nursing assistants experience violence on a daily basis. These numbers are shocking, but they do not come close to the prevalence of daily violence for personal support workers (43%).

Workers at 71 unionized long-term care facilities in Manitoba, Ontario and Nova Scotia were surveyed about their experiences of physical violence, unwanted sexual attention and racial comments. They also took part in focus group discussions. The workers were nearly seven times more likely to experience daily violence than workers in Nordic European countries like Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Researchers also identified racism and structural violence. This stems from severe working conditions for caregivers who are committed to caring but robbed of the resources to do so. The researchers concluded that long-term caregivers work under conditions that not only foster violence but also render it invisible. Most violent incidents go unreported. Workers are afraid to report violent incidents, fearing that they will be blamed. Or they simply do not have the time to do so because of the paperwork involved.

The verbal violence experienced by care workers often includes threats, screaming, cursing, racial insults, and demeaning remarks. The physical violence experienced by care workers typically includes being slapped or hit with an object. It frequently involves being pinched, bitten, having one’s hair pulled, being poked or spit on. Having one’s wrists painfully twisted is also common. Unwanted sexual attention was also frequently experienced by those surveyed. Approximately one third said they experienced unwanted sexual attention on a daily or weekly basis.

Over 11% of the staff said they encountered racist comments on a daily or weekly basis. According to the research, this is likely an underestimation of workplace racism. A large number of workers from minority groups work in large urban centers with high likelihood of racism. Also, the questionnaires were available only in English and workers were required to fill them out alone, so workers with language barriers are underrepresented. In focus group discussions, many workers reported that they personally experienced or overheard racism at work.

Long-term care workers link violence and racism with working conditions. Having too much to do, working with too little time and too few resources places workers in dangerous situations. Working short-staffed is a major contributor. Canadian personal support workers reported that they routinely work short-staffed. Almost half say they do so every day. And over one third felt that they are too often left alone to care for residents. When these working conditions were compared to those of the citizens of Nordic countries, they just could not match up. Immigrants and minorities are simply not treated the same as non-immigrants and non-minorities.

What can one person do?

I recently read the story of a lady who currently resides in Canada but was born in the Philippines. A few years ago, the woman had a very difficult decision to make. She gave birth to her son in Canada and had the impossible choice between an impoverished life for him in the Philippines, or leaving him with strangers in Canada. Now Salvador, a Filipino migrant domestic worker in Montreal, is campaigning against what she calls the systemic racism and sexism of the Canadian government’s Live-in Caregiver program.

Salvador entered Canada in 1995 as one of thousands of Filipino workers in the Live-in Caregiver Program (LCP). The LCP is an initiative of Citizenship and Immigration Canada, allowing foreign workers (almost always women) to enter Canada as domestic workers living in their employer’s home. Salvador earns $271 for a 49-hour week and after taxes takes home $221. After completing 24 months of work within 3 years of arriving, caregivers are allowed to apply for landed immigrant status.

For Salvador, the choice to come to Canada was a matter of life and death for her family. She felt that she had no choice but to move to Canada. Even with the LCP, applicants pay fees to their own government, to the Canadian and Quebec governments, to the employment agency, and for their travel. For Salvador this amounted to over $4700 Canadian. This was such a large sum of money for Salvador and she struggled to gather the money.

Colonialism and global capitalism have created a situation in the Philippines where its economy is dependent on transnational corporations, where low-wage contract work, poverty and unemployment are rampant, and where 2000 workers leave the country daily in search of a livelihood. It seems like the Canadian government’s need for cheap labor and the Labor Export Policy of the Philippines makes the LCP a functional system. The government of the Philippines systematically pushes Filipinos out of the country, so that they can earn money abroad. Meanwhile, there are millions of dollars being sent back to the Philippines by these migrants.

Salvador has been elected vice-chairperson of Pinay, a Filipino women’s advocacy and support organization. Pinay gives caregivers information, advice, and guidance through the problems they may encounter with employers, agencies, and the government. Many of its members are current and former caregivers who call strongly for the LCP to be overhauled or abolished. The Canadian Filipino community in general also wants the program scrapped and campaigns across Canada on the issue.

Critics of the LCP say that significant problems arise for migrant workers under the program. As caregivers live in the home, they often work unpaid overtime, including extra tasks such as cleaning, cooking and tutoring. Theoretically, live-in caregivers are granted basic rights such as access to employment insurance, pregnancy leave, overtime pay, vacations and paid holidays. The law states that people with complaints about their employers should file them with the appropriate Commissioner in Quebec. And if the caregiver is fired, they are still allowed to find another employer in the meantime.

But there is a gap between the theory and the reality that caregivers face. One problem Salvador finds with this procedure is that if a caregiver is fired, whether or not she files a complaint, the 4-6 month waiting period for a new work permit is too long. In Salvador’s case, when her employers learned she was pregnant, they fired her. She was not allowed to work between permits, eventually could not fulfill the 24-month requirement. She says some employers considered her to be unwanted. In contrast, a pregnant colleague heeded her employer’s suggestion to have an abortion, kept her job, and eventually became an immigrant.

Salvador was unable to fulfill the immigration requirements because she was pregnant, gave birth and was fired. If she was a man, of course she would have no problem fulfilling the 24 months. Salvador did not comply with her first order to leave the country, as she has filed an appeal to remain in Canada on humanitarian grounds. She met with an immigration official, however, and was told to leave the country or be deported by force.

According to Salvador’s affidavit, the immigration officer found that the applicant’s volunteer work with three local community organizations did not show integration into Canadian society, because the organizations exist to help persons of Filipino origin. When a local member of the National Action Committee of the Status of Women found out about the situation, she was outraged. She could not believe that helping the Filipino Canadian community was not considered tangible. This is pure discrimination and racism.

Furthermore, although an employer made known his willingness to hire her, the immigration officer expressed doubts that Salvador could find a job in Canada. But throughout her irregular employment, she had never let herself become a burden to the Canadian government. Neither was she ever a burden to the government of her country. Some of the caregivers were skilled workers such as nurses or accountants in the Philippines, but in Canada are confined to domestic care giving, jobs that Canadians do not want to do.

Salvador was always willing to be a care giver, as long as she is able to obtain residency status. All she wants is a better life for her family. For example, when Canada brought in foreign nurses to fill demand, they were given status. In fact, the work of care givers allows both Canadian parents to work and contribute to Canadian society. Care givers also contribute taxes and fees to the Canadian government, which is if great benefit to them. Salvador points out that the Canadian government saves money importing the cheaper labor of women from developing countries, instead of instituting a national childcare program. Basically, the government is filling a public need with a private solution.

Her affidavit states that the immigration officer suggested that her son should be left behind in Canada. It is believed that he would not suffer trauma due to separation from only one parent, as he has never seen his father. How outrageous this is. Salvador’s lawyer argues that Salvador and her son should remain in Canada for humanitarian reasons. Her son is a Canadian citizen, and as a result he has all the rights accorded to a Canadian citizen, including the Constitutional right to live in Canada. If the mother is deported, his rights would be violated, either the right to live in Canada if deported along with his mother, or the right to security of the person if he stays in Canada because he would be separated from his mother, the only parent he has ever know.

Salvador was refused an extension on her work permit. She should theoretically be granted all the rights and access to services of any other Canadian citizen, including access to health care. Salvador was not able, however, to renew her son’s Medicare card when her employment authorization ran out.

The Campaign to Stop the Exploitation of Melca Salvador has included many community members and students in research, letter-writing campaigns, media outreach, raising legal funds, organizing demonstrations, and distributing information. Petitions and letters of support have been received from migrant worker communities around the world. Their press release states that LCP critics insist deporting women live-in caregivers such as Salvador and others in several recent cases, is unjust on humanitarian grounds. These women are not disposable commodities that Canada can use and dump at will.

Demands for the Canadian government include allowing Salvador to remain in Canada with her son Richard, recognizing the rights and contributions of foreign caregivers and nannies to Canada, granting Melca and all LCP workers residency now, and abolishing the LCP as it now exists. In many cases these women are overworked and underpaid but because they have to complete 24 months of work within 3 years just to apply for residency status, they put up with it. Campaign members are organizing a Canada-wide day of protest in support of Salvador, which is Thursday, October 19th. They hope to reverse her deportation order so that she can stay with her son. Unfortunately, the federal government does not seem ready to hear their critiques of the LCP. It does not seem like there are any changes planned for the LCP, not even a re-evaluation of the program’s impact. Recently, several Canadian Filipino activists insisted on meeting Canada’s Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, to discuss their concerns.

Conclusion

By changing our behavior, for example, putting ourselves in close situations with members of other racial groups, we increase our familiarity with these individuals. As we become more familiar with them, we naturally see that we are more alike than different. Not all contact will lead to positive attitude changes. It seems the contact is best if structured; encounters among equals who are cooperating to achieve a common goal. These kinds of behavioral activities are some of the most effective ways to change prejudice against people of other races.

Islamic law, or Sharia (termed ‘Syariah’ in Malaysia), refers to the sacred & holy laws of the Islamic religion. Sharia mingles with multiple fields addressed by secular law, which may include economics, crime, and politics, as well as personal matters such as hygiene and sexuality.

Sharia mainly derives from two sources, of which the 1st one would be the heavenly revelations in the Qur’an, and the 2nd being examples and sayings laid down by Prophet Muhammad within the Sunnah. In addition to the above mentioned sources, secondary sources are also adopted. One example of these secondary sources is the ijma of various prominent ulamas in the Islamic world.

In regards of the topic at hand, I shall explain how Islamic law is practiced in Saudi Arabia.

Before I go into explaning how Sharia is practiced in Saudi Arabia, I would like to point out that this essay will only touch on the developments and the ways in which Sharia is implemented in the Third State of Arabia, also known as the current Saudi Arabia.

Sharia was officially enforced in Saudi Arabia by the ‘Basic Law’ in 1992.

The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia is a charter written in Arabic which bears marking resemblance to a constitution. It is divided into nine chapters, and consists of 83 articles. It is based on the Salafi school of understanding of Sharia and it does not bypass the fiqh.

In Chapter 1: Article 1 of the said charter, it is expressly written that, “The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its religion; Allah’s Book and the Sunnah of His Prophet, Allah’s prayers and peace be upon him, are its constitution, Arabic is its language and Riyadh is its capital”.

In Saudi Arabia, criminal cases are tried under Sharia courts. These courts exercise authority over the entire population. In other words, people who are not of Islamic faith are still subjected to the criminal laws of Saudi Arabia. Cases which involve small penalties are adjudicated in Sharia Summary Courts, whilst more serious crimes are tried in Sharia Courts of Common Pleas. In events where either party finds the decision made was unsatisfactory, the said party can also appeal through the Court of Appeal.

For civil cases, it could also be tried in Sharia Courts, but with one exception: Muslim of the Shia denomination may try such cases in their own courts. Other civil proceedings, such as those involving claims against the Saudi Arabia government, and claims on the enforcement of foreign judgements, are held before a special panel in certain specialized administrative tribunals, such as the Board of Grieviences, and Commission for The Settlement of Labor Disputes.

In strict adherance to the Saudi’s sources of law, the system prescribes corporal penalty or capital penalty, which in the Sharia sense may include amputations of limbs for certain crimes such as homicide, rape, robbery, drugs trafficking, adultery, and homosexual/bisexual activities. It is to note that petty theft is also punishable by the means of amputation of the hand, although, it is rare for first-time offenders. For less serious crimes, such as drunkenness, the courts may impose less severe punishments, such as floggings.

Under Saudi law, when someone commits murder, accidental death, and/or bodily harm, the said person is open or subject to punishment from the victim’s family. Retribution may also be, and are usually, sought through the method of ‘blood money’. It is to note that the blood money being payable for causing a woman’s accidental death, or, that of a Christian male, is only half as much as that for a Muslim male. All the others (men or women of different faiths and believes other than Islam) are valued at 1/16th.

The main reasoning for this, according to the Sharia, men are expected by right to be providers for their families and thus are expected and assumed to earn more fiscally in their lifetimes. The blood money by a man would be expected to be enough to sustain his family, for at least a short period of time.

Honor killings are also not punished as severely as murder. This generally stems from the fact that honor killings are within a family, and done to compensate for some ‘dishonorable’ act committed.

Saudi Arabia is also the one and only country in the world where women are prohibited to drive on public roads. Women can only drive in off-road conditions and in private housing compounds, some of which extend to many square miles. The ban may be lifted soon, although with certain conditions.

The Saudi government regard its construction of Islamic law as its sole source of guidance on human rights, and Sharia has failed to evolve and develop to ensure the rights of women are protected. In addition to prohibition on driving on public roads, women are not allowed to travel around without the permission, written or verbal, of their closest male kin. This resulted in women being restricted from travel by their sons and/or younger brothers. Divorcees are required by law to return to the home of their father, and any form of travel must then be approved the father. In other words, under Saudi’s law, women of 30 or more years old cannot make independent decisions without the approval of male relatives.

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QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE PRACTICE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN SAUDI ARABIA

Human rights in Saudi Arabia are based on sharia laws under the rule of the Saudi royal family. The Saudi Arabian government has also been known and criticized for its lack of regard for the religious & political minorities, homosexuality, and women. The Human rights of Saudi Arabia are specified in article 26 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, the constitution of Saudi Arabia, as mentioned earlier. Then, in October 1997, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ratified the International Convention against Torture according to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. The first independent human rights organization in Saudi Arabia, the National Society for Human Rights, was established in 2004. In 2008, the Shura Council ratified the Arab Charter on Human Rights.

It is to note that Saudi Arabia, is one of around thirty countries in the world with that still practices judicial corporal punishment. For Saudia Arabia’s judicial corporal punishments may include amputations of either limbs for robbery, and flogging for smaller crimes such as drunkenness. The exact number of lashes is vaguely prescribed by the law; it is varied in accordance to the judges’ discretion, and may range from dozens of lashes to several hundred, which is usually applied over a period of weeks or months.

In 2004, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticized and deplored the Saudi Arabian law over the amputations and floggings it carries out under Sharia. The Saudi delegates, responded, unfazed, in the defence of “legal traditions” that has been held since the birth of Islam 1,400 years ago, and rejected interference of any kind in its legal framework.

For serious law-offenders, Saudi Arabia also engage themselves in capital punishment, which in Sharia include the likes of public executions by beheading. Beheading is the punishment for rapists, armed robberers, drug traffickers and of course, murderers, according to strict interpretation of Islamic law. In 2005 there were 191 executions, in 2006 there were 38, in 2007 there were 153, and in 2008 there were 102.

To illustrate how serious is human rights infringement in Saudi Arabia, I would like to draw a simple reference to a spokesman for Saudi Arabia’s National Society for Human Rights. He reasoned that numbers of executions are rising because crime rates are rising, that prisoners are treated humanely, and that the beheadings deter crime, saying, “Allah, our creator, knows best what’s good for his people…Should we just think of and preserve the rights of the murderer and not think of the rights of others?”

WOMEN RIGHTS/GENDER ISSUES

Religion affects all aspects of life in Saudi Arabia, and Saudi women face discrimination in many aspects of their lives.

The Sunni Muslims in Saudi Arabia, which is about 90% of the population, are governed by strict conservative interpretations of Islam. Saudi Arabia is a patriarchal society in which women are treated and seen as 2nd class citizens only. And because of that, they continue to become victims of discrimination, everyday. They have lesser say than men in family matters; their freedom of movement is very limited; and their economic opportunities and rights are restricted. In addition, women’s actions and choices depends on the permission or wishes of their mahram. Saudi Arabia also applies rules of strict gender segregation and unrelated men and women are separated in all public places. Women also, do not enjoy the freedom of dress, but are required to cover themselves completely from head-to-toe. The usual dress-code includes a jet black cloak-like garment (abaya) and a matching face veil (niqba). Women who deliberately choose to not cover or as they say, ‘protect’, themselves fully, which rates is increasing in certain parts of the country, run the risk of being provoked and harassed.

Although they make up 70% of those enrolled in universities, for social reasons, women make up just 5% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia, the lowest proportion in the world. These treatments of women has been referred by social scientists as “Sex segregation” and “gender apartheid”. Even implementation of a government resolution supporting the expansion of employment opportunities for women, met strong resistance from within the labour ministry, from the religious police, and from the male citizenry.

In most parts of Saudi Arabia, it is thought that a woman’s place in this world is in the home, tending for her spouse and family. Rooting from tradition, there is also segregation inside their own houses as some rooms have separate entrances for men and women.

Before 2008, women were not allowed to enter hotels and furnished apartments without a chaperon or mahram. With a 2008 Royal Decree, the one and only requirement needed nowadays to enable women to enter hotels are their national ID cards, but the hotel must let the nearest police station know of their length of stay and room reservation.

The driving ban for women was unofficial until 1990 when it was introduced as official legislation after 47 Saudi women drove cars through the streets of the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Even though illegal, women in rural areas and other areas outside cities do drive cars. It may sound made-up, but according to credible studies, many Saudis believe that allowing women to drive could lead to Western-style openness and an erosion of traditional values.

Women’s rights calls for reform in Saudi Arabia – calls that are testing the Kingdom’s political status quo. International, as well as local women’s groups are also forcing the government to react, taking advantage of the fact that some rulers are eager to project a more progressive image to the West.

WOMEN/FAMILY LAW

While the Saudi Arabian law is silent on the legal age of marriage, the practice of forced marriages was prohibited by the country’s religious authority in 2005. Nevertheless, to be fair to the case, the level to which said bride is involved in decision-making in regards of her own marriage varies between families. According to Saudi’s family law, the marriage contract is between the mahram of the bride and the husband-to-be. An estimated 16 percent of girls between 15 and 19 years of age are currently married, divorced or widowed in Saudi Arabia.

Polygamy is allowed under Sharia and a Muslim male could take as many as 4 wives, given that he can give equal support and treatment. The practice is reportedly on the decline, but both for demographic and economic reasons.

Women are discriminated against with regards to parental authority as, legally, children belong to their father. If divorced or widowed, a woman is normally granted custody of daughters until they reach the age of nine and sons until they reach the age of seven. Older children are often awarded to the divorced husband or the paternal grandparents. Women cannot confer citizenship to their children (if born to a non-Saudi Arabian father).

Female genital mutilation is not a general practice, but reports suggest that there is some occurrence of the practice among Shia Muslims in the Eastern Province, and possibly among some Bedouin groups.

Violence against women is common and there are no specific laws addressing the issue, nor any adequate protection for the victims. Incidents of domestic violence are rarely reported or even talked about publicly. For instance, the so-called ‘honour crimes’, whereby a woman is put to death or punished by male family members for having put disgrace to the family honour, are also prevalent. The suspicion alone of a woman’s wrong-doing is often enough for her to be subject to violence in the name of honour. Women, as well as men, may be subject to harassment by the country’s religious police, the mutawwa’in; torture (although outlawed); and physical punishments, often without having their case presented in court.

Islamic law provides for detailed and complex calculations of inheritance shares. A woman may inherit from her father, her mother, her husband, her children, and under certain conditions, from other members of her family, but her share is generally smaller than a man’s entitlement. A daughter, for example, inherits half as much as a son. This is commonly justified by the fact that a woman has no financial responsibility towards her husband and children. Women, particularly in rural areas, are often deprived even of their entitled share as they are considered to be supported by their fathers or husbands.