Author: Andre Coleman

In Max Weber’s “Distribution of Power within the Political Community”, he discusses three concepts: class, status and parties. Weber begins by arguing ‘power’ is the fate of men that try to grasp their will, even against that of others within the same society. He discusses two types of power: economic and social. Economic being the ability to determine what is to be done with materials and commodities, regarding production, consumption, etc. Social power overlaps with economic power, but also includes legal and political power. This concept, however according to Max Weber means, “the way in which social honor is distributed in a community between typical groups participating in this distribution.”(247). Therefore, the distribution of power within a community is based on three important aspects: class, status, and parties. This paper will summarize Weber’s main points; include a comparison of ideas with an author previously discussed in lecture, and my interpretation of what Max Weber is arguing in his 1914 excerpt.

Sociologist Max Weber first begins his article by discussing class. When identifying class there are three points Weber outlines. These points consist of 1) a specific casual ingredient of people’s fate (in terms of living conditions, materialistic possessions to see the level of power and wealth one has) among various actors, 2)is based on economic interests and wealth, and 3) is represented under the conditions of the labour market. Therefore, ‘class situation’ ultimately signifies a situation where people are found with the same characteristics in regards to class. According to Weber, in society, there are two types of people, property owners and property-less. Quite apparent would be the fact that property owners are of course privileged, while the property-less live day-to-day trying to sell their services in the market. Wages and skill level are dependent on the service being provided. This depends on communal action (oriented on basis of shared belief or affiliation). In opposition, societal action deals with adjusting one’s interests-not to sense a shared purpose, but to recognize shared interests. In order for either action to occur, everyone has to be familiar with the differences between wealth and opportunity, but must be seen as a result of property distribution and economic power. In the excerpt it says something along the lines of “class antagonism is a simple state of affairs that has frequently been decisive for the role of class situation has played in formation of political parties”.

The second aspect Weber argues is status. Status, according to him means communities, unlike class. Status is defined as the likelihood that your fate is determined by social honor, also known as prestige. The common link of status group is a similar life style which is established based on wealth and income. According to Weber, there are social restrictions that are reflected in prestige-marriage patterns and residence.

Rituals are a big deal within a caste. Members are prohibited from having any contact with any other group that is considered ‘lower’ than that of their own-especially when the differences are ethnic. “In caste structure, ethnic distinctions have become ‘functional distinctions’ within the political association.”(253) Weber also touches upon social stratification, which according to him, “goes hand in hand with a monopolization of ideal and material goods or opportunities” (253) Of course those stratified above others are more privileged and oppose the distribution of power that is regulated through the labour market and based on wealth. When economic stratification barely changes, changes regarding status tend to increase.

Thirdly, Max Weber discusses parties. Parties as said by him are organized power. They are a mixture of both class (economic order) and status (social order). Parties aim to influence social action and aim to enforce their goals within both a legal and political realm. A party is never just associated with a class situation or status. A party puts in a great effort in order to achieve political control, and it all depends on how a community is classified-by status or class.

Though this paper is about Max Weber, it is important to compare sociologists to one another based on their concepts and ideas. One author discussed in lecture was Karl Marx. Marx and Weber’s theories are not quite different from one another. Marx also believed that classes refer to economy but in a different sense. Marx saw class as being connected with means of production, in contrast Weber linked class to the factors previously discussed: prestige, wealth, and most importantly power. Both men had agreed that the more skills one has, the higher there wage is. Weber however, supposed that the differences in people’s wages suggested one’s material conditions, hence why there are different types of social action. Also, Marx saw the divisions of class as an important source in society in regards to social conflict unlike Weber.

In his article, “Distribution of Power within a Political Community”, one may accept as true what Max Weber had to say. In order for a political party to be formed, one must be wealthy, therefore prestigious, and ultimately have the power to dominate. Though one may face obstacles due to the fact that there are others competing for the same position who share the same status, or class, also known as communal action. Weber does an excellent job in distinguishing the differences among class and status, though when mixed may influence the formation of a political party. Unlike other authors discussed in lecture, Max Weber, I have found to be the easiest to comprehend and definitely agree with.

Tad William once said “We tell lies when we are afraid… afraid of what we don’t know, afraid of what others will think, afraid of what will be found out about us. But every time we tell a lie, the thing that we fear grows stronger.” In relationships and marriages, dishonesty is a love buster. But sometimes honesty is worse, like the article dishonesty it says: “When a wife first learns that her husband has been unfaithful, the pain is often so great that she wishes she had been left ignorant. When a husband discovers his wife’s affair, it’s like a knife in his heart — and he wonders if it would have better not known. In fact, many marriage counselors advise clients to avoid telling spouses about past infidelity, saying that it’s too painful for people to handle. Besides, if it’s over and done with, why dredge up the sewage of the past?” (Harley, 1976) They look at it as just a mistake and want to be forgiven.

People are dishonest because they believe that the others can’t handle the truth, which for most cases its true because the truth most of the time is bitter. But i think that no matter how hard the truth is you should just be straight up and honest. Mark Twain once said “If you tell the truth you don’t have to remember anything.” Just like Dishonesty article says: “It’s this sort of confusion that leads some of the most well-intentioned husbands and wives to lie to each other, or at least give each other false impressions. They feel that dishonesty will help them protect each other’s feelings. But what kind of a relationship is that? The lie is a wall that comes between the two partners, something hidden, a secret that cannot be mentioned, yet is right under the surface of every conversation.” (Harley, 1976) If you think about it you’re going to have to take a lie and keep adding on to it more and more and you can’t even remember what you said in the beginning so even though telling the truth is difficult it’s the easiest. With a lie you’re always going to get caught up. Just like karma- what goes around comes around. And depending on the lie you can be holding all this unnecessary weight on your shoulders and be stressing about it.

A Russian proverb states “With lies you may get ahead in the world – but you can never go back.” Just like the article Dishonesty states: Dishonesty strangles compatibility. To create and sustain compatibility, you must lay your cards on the table. You must be honest about your thoughts, feelings, habits, likes, dislikes, personal history, daily activities and plans for the future. When misinformation is part of the mix, you have little hope of making successful adjustments to each other. Dishonesty not only makes solutions hard to find, but it often leaves couples ignorant of the problems themselves.” (Harley, 1976) So along with lying not only would you be feeling guilty and stress, you may even regret what you have lied about which makes it even more difficult to confess what you have lied about. A lie can take care of the present and solve what you are going through momentarily, but it does not have a good future.

Bill Copeland once said: “When you stretch the truth, watch out for the snapback.” Once you have become a liar, people cannot believe you no matter how hard you try. They will immediately develop an instinct to question the words that are coming out of your mouth. For instance, we have all heard of the tale “The boy who cried wolf.” The little boy would entertain himself by tricking villagers that a wolf is attacking his flock of sheep. When they came to help him, they found out that it was a false alarm and he just wasted their time. They thought he was just a little boy that was playing around. However, when the boy was actually confronted by the wolf and cried wolf, none of the villagers believed him. In other words, the moral of the story was even when liars tell the truth, they are never believed.

Some people even lie because they feel desperate, like they steal because they are desperate and in need of money. They do not know where to turn to so they see this as their only way of getting away. Also another example is academic dishonesty. Some students feel really desperate to cheat or plagiarize because they want to pass or earn a decent grade. Other People basically lie sometimes just so they can get straight to what they want, like in the movie sisters keeper, the girl who had Leukemia told her 11 year old sister to lie to her mom saying that she didn’t want to donate her kidney to her, but really it was because the girl with the Leukemia didn’t want everyone to suffer with her. So it was a lie because the daughter didn’t want to hurt her mother.

Kids start learning to lie from their parents, especially when the kid is afraid of the parent. On Feb 10 2008, Po Bronson wrote an article in the New York Magazine it was a study that A doctor in a University made, this is what the article said: “For a study to assess the extent of teenage dissembling, Dr. Nancy Darling, then at Penn State University, recruited a special research team of a dozen undergraduate students, all under the age of 21. Using gift certificates for free CDs as bait, Darling’s Mod Squad persuaded high-school students to spend a few hours with them in the local pizzeria.

Each student was handed a deck of 36 cards, and each card in this deck listed a topic teens sometimes lie about to their parents. Over a slice and a Coke, the teen and two researchers worked through the deck, learning what things the kid was lying to his parents about, and why.

“They began the interviews saying that parents give you everything and yes, you should tell them everything,” Darling observes. By the end of the interview, the kids saw for the first time how much they were lying and how many of the family’s rules they had broken. Darling says 98 percent of the teens reported lying to their parents.

Out of the 36 topics, the average teen was lying to his parents about twelve of them. The teens lied about what they spent their allowances on, and whether they’d started dating, and what clothes they put on away from the house. They lied about what movie they went to, and whom they went with. They lied about alcohol and drug use, and they lied about whether they were hanging out with friends their parents disapproved of. They lied about how they spent their afternoons while their parents were at work. They lied about whether chaperones were in attendance at a party or whether they rode in cars driven by drunken teens.

Most parents hear their child lie and assume he’s too young to understand what lies are or that lying’s wrong. They presume their child will stop when he gets older and learns those distinctions. Talwar has found the opposite to be true-kids who grasp early the nuances between lies and truth use this knowledge to their advantage, making them more prone to lie when given the chance.

Although we think of truthfulness as a young child’s paramount virtue, it turns out that lying is the more advanced skill. A child who is going to lie must recognize the truth, intellectually conceive of an alternate reality, and be able to convincingly sell that new reality to someone else. Therefore, lying demands both advanced cognitive development and social skills that honesty simply doesn’t require. “It’s a developmental milestone,” Talwar has concluded.” (Bronson, 2008) Basically kids learn how to lie from fear.

One lie that we will never stop having is, lying to ourselves. Lying to yourself maybe to build some confidence, or even maybe to understand something. The article The Human Thing to Do: Lying to Yourself by Vanessa Gilbert says: As humans, we perform a lot of acts we wish we had never done, and we spend a lot of our time on earth regretting what has already been done, something we can’t change. Whether it was that bad breakup, or smoking for twenty years, or even wishing we would have gone out and exercised on those Sunday mornings, we all worry about them and we all lie to ourselves to pretend that it wasn’t our fault, and that we couldn’t have prevented it anymore than what we did. In fact, it seems we lie to ourselves so much we can’t piece the truth apart from the false things we have told ourselves for months on end. If there is one fact I have learned in my thirteen years of life, it is that everything in this world is corrupt in one way or another. That certain aspect, religion, club, organization, or mindset didn’t even start out pure because it was most likely made by humans, who are dirty, selfish, and continually seeking the solace they find in having a solution for everything. I guess you could say that lying to yourself has always been something we have done. You can’t blame this one on popular culture, teenagers, or the failing economy. Humans have lived this way for thousands and thousands of years, and we’ve made it this far thinking the same exact way. Is it okay to be delusional and far from the truth? Is it worth knowing the truth just because it is the truth? Furthermore, would we be better off if we were up front with each other and ourselves?
It may hurt to face the truth in the beginning, but in the long run, you are guaranteed to be happy. You will be happy with yourself, with the people you love, and with the cold, hard truth, and nothing else. In the process of opening your eyes, you see a lot more than just what’s around you. You see what you missed, what is real, and what is to look forward to. Not everything that is true is harsh. If we do not come to realize what is real, we will continue to be let down, and we will always make the same mistakes. All our energy will all be put into something that is not helping us any. We will neither advance nor go backward. Instead of staying stagnate, why not move forward?” (Gilbert, 2009)
In conclusion, dishonesty isn’t the best thing, and also sometimes it isn’t the worse thing. Society is filled with liars and dishonest people. But there are also people that had only told a few lies. Baltasar Gracian once said “A single lie destroys a whole reputation for integrity”. A single lie might just ruin one’s whole life. So one must watch out and think before talking or doing, so no one can get into lies.

Resources:

Harley, Dr. “Dishonesty.” Marriage Builders ® – Successful Marriage Advice. 1 Jan. 1976. Web. 30 July 2010. .

Bronson, Po. “Are Kids Copying Their Parents When They Lie? — New York Magazine.” New York Magazine — NYC Guide to Restaurants, Fashion, Nightlife, Shopping, Politics, Movies. 10 Feb. 2008. Web. 31 July 2010. .

Gilbert, Vanessa. “The Human Thing to Do: Lying to Yourself – DivineCaroline.” DivineCaroline: Relationships, Health, Home, Style, Parenting, and Community for Women – DivineCaroline. 07 June 2009. Web. 30 July 2010. .

Alienation is the idea that a working class man “is ‘alienated’ from his essential nature and individuality, economic and spiritual being” Churchich (1990).This essay will outline what alienation is and examples given by Marx and his view on who is to blame, the four main concepts of alienation will be discussed as well as support and criticism.

Marx puts alienation down to the divide in labour and private property which is seen as dehumanizing society. Marx based his ideas on Hegel and Feuerback however also criticized their views. He agreed with Hegel’s idea that people can become alienated from themselves but doesn’t believe people alienated themselves. Feuerback’s views from ‘The Essence of Christianity 1814’ were that people view of god is the means of how people view themselves and when people worship god they in fact worship themselves. He believes when people place something higher than themselves they consequently become alienated from their being. Marx believed religion tries to divert people’s attention away from the truth about alienation.

Marx’s view of alienation in labour can be interpreted as the way a worker feels a sense of foreignness to products of their own labour. This is experienced by working class people in factories who were put into long and awful conditions of work to survive. They were uneducated, in unfortunate positions, treated badly and poorly paid. Due to these conditions the workers started to underbid one another to get a day’s work in order to support their families. Marx thought the working class factory workers need to join hands to make an improvement on their working conditions. He suggests that workers need to obtain their rights and require more pay and better working conditions. Marx, in his “Estranged Labor” from Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts believed a worker becomes similar to a alienated animal. He believes the workers labour belongs to someone else so a man only through his animal functions can freely express himself. These functions are everyday tasks in their own house, drinking and eating, reproducing and so on. Marx believes a worker feels more like an animal in his human functions so eventually animal functions become human functions and vice versa.

Marx alienation notion is in theory quite influential and powerful because it gives an account of how human life is degraded however it makes clear that it is not expected or natural. It provides a detailed explanation of the experiences of labour. Marx’s theory of alienation shows the results of capitalist production on the physical and psychological state of people and on the social situations they engage in or are part of. This was Marx method of seeing his contemporaries so he could understand and explain how they interact and relate to each other.

Marx proposed 4 types of alienation based on a regular factory worker under capitalism. There are two divisions in the private ownership system; workers with no property and owners of property. Due to this divide in society workers not only are the workers poor but they also have to suffer ‘alienation’ from the world. The first type of alienation is the concept of what a person produces or makes does not belong to them. The idea that everything produced by a person only benefits the world which they do not fit into. Rubin (1990) outlines a quantitative and a qualitative part to how goods are produced he said the worker doesn’t really get paid for the amount of labour put in so is exploited This benefits capitalism as the more alienated the worker becomes the more work he does. Qualitatively, the worker puts creativity into the product he creates however is not given creative labour to replace it. He believes that with capitalism, work doesn’t inspire or introduce workers to new things; instead it takes away a person’s energy and wears them out. An individual helps to make all these objects that he does not own himself which makes them feel and look smaller compared to this world. They may help create an expensive car, build houses or make expensive clothes which they cannot afford.

The second form of alienation is the work process. It is separation of the worker from the work itself for example the job performed does not belong to them instead it is a way of survival in the world. They are not doing the job for themselves but for someone else. This kind of work does not allow a person to become creative as it does not come from his own accord as they are following instructions from others, instead indicates a loss of self worth for the worker. For example when a person works at a call centre doesn’t create anything, follows the same method, copies a script and doesn’t get to make any important decisions. It becomes dull and automatic so the mind doesn’t have to be used. The worker doesn’t have control over the conditions and organization of work nor do they have any control on how it influences them psychologically or physically. This reduces a person’s ability to be creative.

The third type of alienation is the alienation from other humans. Instead of spending time with people you want you have to work with people whether you do or do not like them. In society there is some resentment or dislike between the different class structures which is partly to blame for this type of alienation. People become alienated from people who take advantage of their labour. According to Cox (1998) Marx said if the worker is tormented by his work then it must give delight to another. If a man views his activity as unfree and not something they wish to do then he views it as under the order, force or oppression of another person. Workers are linked to people through the products they produce however don’t personally connect to them. Each day people may wear clothes, eat food, live in houses, use tools created by people who have worked to make them however they are not known personally instead they are known only through the products brought and consumed. Man doesn’t see his fellow man as equal instead as higher or lower than them in society. People don’t know each other individually but as products of capitalism however the capitalist society is more individual and independent compared to the working class.

According to Korkotsides (2007) People take things for their own use irrespective of how it was produced and under what conditions or circumstances. As Marx supposed that people in working class are generally the most alienated, the liberation from alienation will have to begin with liberating the working class. Marx believed production of goods frequently makes new desires to use human powers for money and benefit instead of improving the abilities of humans. People see each others as rivals and as inferior or senior to them.

The fourth type of alienation is a person’s alienation from “species-being,” or human individuality. Humans base their life around work it is an essential part of life for the working class. Human identity is formed by doing work without thinking for example when doing the same job day in day out a person becomes lifeless in terms of personality and identity and becomes more like a robot. In the private ownership system a worker is alienated from their purpose of life and individuality essential for a human being. What makes a human is the skill to shape the world around by thoughts, abilities and actions however under the capitalist society this is not always the case. Labour is pressured and forced and does not relate to a person’s personal preference or interests. According to Cox (1998) Marx suggests workers benefits capitalism by constantly producing for them however even though he helped make them successful and wealthy doesn’t get much recognition or benefit from it. In his manuscript he said that capitalists make palaces for the rich but hovels for the working class. It throws some workers into cruel ways of labour and makes some workers into machines. It gives them brainpower but makes stupidity and cretinism at the same time. Humans have socials skills so they can work together to develop on their interests however capitalists divide humans and put all their effort and interests into labour. When a capitalist is bettering production in their factory, without knowing they can be reducing profit rates for their own class by slowing down the profit rate. A company may produce to accomplish a sharp demand, however when the products are in store they may find other companies have already done it first. Sometimes more than what is required is produced and is not needed. Recessions in capitalism means labourers ‘consume less as more then what’s required is produced this is down to their work being too productive.

Marx view of a content person was not someone with many material possessions but someone who is happy in their life in terms of good emotional contact with other people, education, and a person who may not have many possessions but is not scared to say what he feels. An unproductive worker who dosent wants to contribute to political processes in Marx eyes is a victim of alienation. He highlights what a person can be and how they should be independent and not concentrate on what they possess. Marx view is supported by Kant and Fiche who thought workers should stop being inactive like the workers were in history and start becoming active producers of their own future.

Marx alienation concept is influenced by Hegel therefore there are similarities with both theories. “Hegel thinks self-alienation is to be conquered with the advance and development of history” Sayers (2003). They both agree that the spiritual and social parts of alienation and their how they can be defeated are combined. On the other hand Hegel believed alienation is defeated in society at present which Marx disagreed with. According to Sean Sayers (2003) Kierkegaars also backed Marx view he believed man today is alienated from one self and in mankind due to prejudice and lack of individuality.

According to Churchich (1990) alienation was seen as mainly religious and it had more of a psychological meaning linked to the soul however Marx disagreed believing alienation is down to man not nature or god. Marx disagreed with Hegel’s idea that alienation is originated in nature of human life and says he reduced history to just thoughts, observing real events and objects merely as manifestations of spirit. A Humans contentment and needs have to be linked to the forms of production in order to be measured. “Humans are different to animals in terms of their needs because nature decides an animal’s natural needs are and a humans needs are essentially social and historically established by themselves. He believed creativity separated humans from animals. Marx argues a person’s consciousness of the requirement for certain things is a product of concrete historical situations and can’t be decided by just thoughts.

Marx and Smith had a similar thought as they worked on putting an end to capitalists exploiting the working class and believed society and economy ought to centre their attention on making people’s lives better. Despite this they do differ on the means of economy. Both Smith and Marx see labour as divided and see it as the key feature of capitalism. According to Meek (1977) While Smith views capitalism as an advantage to not only society but on a person too. He believes a person sees power as a natural need; their wish is to stand out, elevate themselves and obtain a source of wealth. Marx sees capitalism purely as unnatural and a disadvantage to a worker.

Marx believed capitalists have a strong social and economic foundation and the only way to conquer alienation is when this changes. Support for Marx idea that alienation is dividing a person from their labour is for example a person works to earn a living and will get paid but ultimately the company profits from this. The worker won’t earn as much money compared to the amount of work put in therefore the company will get more profit by underpaying the worker causing the worker to disconnect.

A criticism of Marx’s alienation theory is it’s seen as not scientific and can’t be used for experimental research. The problem with this criticism is Marx’s alienation concept is centred on historical tests and it studies labour when it is not controlled by authority. Another criticism is Marx states that nearly all work is alienated and the worker does not benefit from their work however this may not always be the case for some. If a mechanic fixes a car he may not have one himself however he will learn a skill which can be useful for him in the future or may have personal satisfaction from doing the job to the best of their ability. Another example is that of a blacksmith may own a shop working the hours he wants, deciding any important decisions as well as setting his own working environment, creates his own product and makes the decision of how they sell. Most importantly the communication with customers is more of a personal nature than professional.

There are many examples of modern alienation for example when a worker doesn’t get enough from capitalist work he may take out loans from banks to buy the products they create, for example a big house or a car. They are exploited by mortgages and loans however if they become unemployed it is all taken away from them. The resolution to alienation isn’t to look back at history but to recognize what can be done in today’s society and how it can be transformed. A book by Oliver James describing the Affluenza virus supports Marx where he blames capitalism for creating alienation. The ‘Affluenza virus’ is sets of principles that makes people more open to emotional distress. This is done by putting importance on obtaining wealth, goods and fame. He suggests changing the way people live their life to conquer this which isn’t always easy for people to do. Alienation isn’t that easy to solve when oppression and exploitation exist in society.

To summarize Marx early works was influenced by Hegel and Feuerbach. His alienation theory is the debate that the life of work in a capitalistic society disadvantages them of enjoyment or creativeness of labour. He saw creativity as a vital aspect of living and this kind of labour not only alienates them from their work but also from their independency in effect causing dehumanization. The example of factory workers supports Marx’s view that capitalists exploit the working class and the four concepts of alienation workers go through describe how they are alienated. According to Marx alienation will continue to exist along as capitalism is around.

References

Churchich, N, (1990). Marxism and Alienation. 1st ed. U.S: Associated University Presses.

Sean Sayers. (2003). The Concept of Alienation in Existentialism and Marxism. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/philosophy/articles/sayers/alienation.pdf. [Accessed 22 November 12].

Ronald L. Meek. (1977). Smith, Marx & After. [ONLINE] Available at: http://cas.umkc.edu/econ/economics/faculty/henry/courses/Econ506/Readings/Meek.SmithMarx.pdf. [Accessed 23 November 12].

Women constitute almost half of the population in the world. But the prevailing masculine ideology made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal opportunities in different parts of the world. The rise of feminist ideas have, however, led to the tremendous improvement of women’s condition through out the world in recent times. India being a developing nation and having huge tussles among its political, religious and administrative organs resulting into blocked development and the worst effect of that we can witness into women condition .They do not have proper chance to learn and grow and access to education has been one of the most pressing demands of women’s rights . Women education in India has also been a major preoccupation of both the government and civil society as educated women can play a very important role in the development of the country.

History of Women Education in India(4,6):Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India but as the time grew they lost this right to avail education and academic exposure. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women’s education in India due to Britisher’s strong influence to the core Indian education system. During this period, various socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. They also ensured about their participation in the social gatherings and events by introducing them into polity and administration at all levels. However women’s education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women’s literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971 only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 54.16% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 14.87% as compared to 11.72 % of that of male literacy rate and is on growing path.

Government has taken a step forward by making education compulsory and free to girl child till the age of fourteen. They are getting reservations in public sector exams and private sectors like Banks, Transport Services, Hospitality and Tourism, Healthcare etc. (4. Freedom Struggle By- Bipin Chandra Pal)

Table – The Literacy Rate in India 1901-2011
———————————————————————————————————————
Percentage of Literates to total population
Year Persons Males Females

1901 5.3 9.8 0.7

1911 5.9 10.6 1.1

1921 7.2 12.2 1.8

1931 9.5 15.6 2.9

1941 16.1 24.9 7.3

1951 16.7 24.9 7.3

1961 24.0 34.4 13.0

1971 29.5 39.5 18.7

1981 36.2 46.9 24.8

1991 52.1 63.9 39.2

2001 65.38 76.0 54.0

2011(Recent data) 74.04 82.14 65.46

———————————————————————————————————————

The above table shows that there is an improvement in women literacy in India during the years. But when we compare it with male literacy it becomes a concern area. (9. Censusindia.gov.in)

Importance of Women Education in India(7):Women education in India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but also can provide better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the nation.

Education is a potent tool in the emancipation and empowerment of women. Its true that greatest single factor which can incredibly improve the status of women in any society is education. It is indispensable that education enables women not only to gain more knowledge about the world outside of her shell and home but helps her to get status, positive self esteem, and self confidence. It imparts necessary courage and inner strength to face challenges in life. Apparently it also facilitates them to procure a job and supplement the income of family and achieve social status. Education especially of women has a major impact on health and nutrition as an instrument of developing a sustainable strategy for population control. Moreover educated women can play an equally important role as men in nation building. Thus there is no denying fact that education empowers women. For example the different organs of the United Nations and experts on women’s liberation argue for women’s education as the basic step to attain equality with men. ( 7. Saraswathi Mishra, Status of Indian Women,Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2002)

Obstacles:As we have discussed earlier to improve women education and condition in India various initiatives and corrective measures have been done but still a lot is expected to be accomplished.

THE ROOT CAUSES FOR LOW LITERACY AMONG WOMEN IN INDIA

Women education is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. No single factor or cause can be held responsible for very low literacy rate of women in India. Subsequently it is associated with combination of many factors including social, cultural, economic, educational, demographic, political and administrative and so on. The following are the some of the important factors which could be attributed for the present poor state of affairs of womenfolk in education.

The Lower Enrolment: The lower enrolment of girls in schools is one of the foundational factors which stand as stumbling block for women empowerment in India. Reliable sources indicate that more than 50 % of the Non-Starters (those who have never been to school) are girls. According to the latest statistics, two out of every ten girls in the age group of 6-11 are still not enrolled in schools. (1)

Higher drop-out rate among girls from schools: The incidence and prevalence of drop -outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slums areas seem to be quite high. According to available sources, occurrence of drop-out and stagnation amongst girls is nearly twice that of boys all over India. (1)

Girl Child as Second Mother:In many families girl children play the role of second mother by shouldering the responsibilities of household work such as looking after the sibling, fetching water, collecting firewood, bringing fodder for cattle, cleaning and cooking etc. In rural India especially in poor families this traditional sex role makes girl child handicapped and conditioned by the attitude of mother and the family and discourages girl child to go school as it becomes secondary and unimportant. Hence girl child is getting deprived of her basic and fundamental right of education and freedom. (8)

Bonded Labor System: This social evil is a quite discouraging phenomena which stand as barrier for girl’s education in rural areas for the underprivileged families of washer men and agricultural labor , scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.

Caste System as a Barrier : Children belonging to low caste families are forced to learn skills and work ways and not encouraged to go to school due to various factors. Strict instruction /threat from high caste communities for their selfish motives of keeping them as domestic servants and child laborers in the farms or factory. We can witness this through the stories of various factories and farm houses in industrial cities of India. Media is also playing a crucial role here in promoting as well as resisting these mishaps. (8)

Bane of Dowry:Dowry system and other social practices act as main causes of the neglect of the girl child and discrimination against girl child including the deprivation of right of education. In many families especially poor and down-trodden think that if their daughters are educated more, they have to accumulate more assets and properties to provide as dowry in large proportion at the time of marriage, so prefer rather to either stop their children with average education and so on but never higher education. This prevails more in underprivileged families and communities. (1)

Child Labour Practice:A large segment of child population in India is engaged in child labour practices. According to UN sources India is the most child labour populous nation in the globe with more than 50 million child labourers indulged in beedi works , carpet making , bricks, mining , quarrying ,glass, bangles, match and fireworks, gem polishing ,handloom works. zari, embroidery ,coir industry, domestic works, construction etc. In most of these industries girl children are preferred for high productivity and low cost. (8)

Poor School Environment for girls: In general the school environment for girls in India is not really interesting and encouraging. The subjects taught in schools are also not related to the environment of girl children. The methods of teaching are mostly out – dated, rigid and uninteresting. There are still hundreds of schools with poor basic amenities such as drinking water, latrine and toilet facilities, improper building, and inadequate number of teachers’ especially female teachers preferable for any parents for safety of their girl children from different types of exploitation and abuse. (7)

Female age at marriage: There is high association of female literacy with female age at marriage. By and large the female age at marriage of 18 ( recently 21 years ) as prescribed by various legislations not at all followed in India .It is very much ignored and neglected by the families of parents with low literacy and illiteracy background. This obnoxious practice discourages female children to continue their schooling and higher education as they enter into family life at the early age which is not advisable from the physical and mental health point of view and also of social development. (7)

Inferiority, subservience and domesticity:The female child in Indian culture especially in rural, tribal and poor families is expected to develop the qualities of inferiority; subservience and domesticity which place sever limitations on her education and development. They are considered to be lesser important for getting knowledge of outside world and exposure to education and liberty. (6)

Poverty as a Barrier: In many poverty stricken families, children especially girls are considered as economic assets as they bring income for livelihood as well to save from economic crises due to death or incapacity of parents (sick/ handicapped/aged).

Ineffective Law Enforcing Machinery:Indian constitution and various legislations pertaining to education to children assure free and compulsory education all children of this nation but unfortunately the enforcement machinery fail to discharge its duties and responsibilities to the satisfaction of the public interest and welfare of women. Due to this wrong implementation of right policies also women of our country is getting severely affected. (5)

Demographic Factors:The high population growth rate, rapid urbanisation, migration etc also attribute immensely for the poor literacy level of women and girls in India. In these frequent transition girl Childs and women are getting neglected, uncared and unheard. (5)

Poor Political Will and Conviction: Government officials, policy makers, politicians etc of our country have neither political will nor conviction for the empowerment of women in general. The only think about their personal benefits and money making ignoring the welfare of the community for whom and by whom they have reached to that position. It is a very sad and disappointing aspect of India’s democracy. (5)

Gender discrimination:It still persists in India .Male are still dominating and commanding the social structure of the nation and lot more needs to be done to improve women’s participation in this regard e.g. women’s education. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 75% according to the 2001 census, the female literacy rate is just 54.16%.Prevailing prejudices, low enrollment of girl child in the schools, engagements of girl children in domestic works and high drop out rate are major obstacles in the path of making all Indian women educated. (6)

Poor Academia:Another reason for poor quality of women educationhere is the poor quality of teachers ingovernment schools .Government schools are unable toattract good quality teachers due toinadequate teaching facilities and low salaries. The government currently spends only 3% of its GDP on educationwhich is inadequate and insufficient. Toimprovethe quality of education, the government needs tospend more money from its coffers on education. (4)

Steps to improve their Participation:

A – A significant development in recent years has been the mushrooming of community-based organizations and initiatives at the local level for women. Reports indicates that self-help programs, often in the form of savings and credit or micro credit schemes, have succeeded in changing the lives of poor women, enhancing incomes and generating positive externalities such as increased self-esteem.

“Micro credit is about much more than access to money. It is about women gaining control over the means to make a living. It is about women lifting themselves out of poverty and vulnerability. I is about women achieving economic and political empowerment within their homes, their villages, their countries.” (5)

In this whole paper we have discussed about women condition in India in terms of access to education, opportunity to learn and grow and problems in achieving the same and at last some of the measures to rectify the errors and making things happen.

B-One more initiative taken by the government is the voucher system. Under the voucher system, parents are allowed tochoose a school for their children and they get full or partial reimbursement for the expenses from the government. But however, the voucher system has also a draw back because it will further aggravate the problem of poor quality of educationingovernment schools. Such a system will shift resources from government schools toprivate schools. This will worsen the situation of government schools which are already under-funded. Moreover, if the same amount given as vouchers can be used tobuild infrastructure inschools then the government can realize economies of scale. (6)

C-The government of India has also felt the need to put in place an appropriate institutional mechanism to look after the Education Rights of Women and thus instituted the formulation of All India Women’s Conference, National Women’s Commission and State Women’s Commission. At the same time government has approved special grants and allowances to NGO’s working for the cause of women upliftment and social mobility. Self Help Groups have also been constituted at Panchayat level to provide a platform for the rural women to discuss issues such as family planning, child marriage, widow remarriage, Sati, domestic violence. Mother Teresa’s Women Universityhas greatly helped in the cause of women empowerment who received Noble Peace Prize for her genuine social work. (6)

D -India is getting a great help from World Bankfor the betterment of women education and their empowerment in the country .It has approved funding for Andhra Pradesh Rural Poverty Reduction Programme (APRPRP) thus garnering international supportfor the upliftment of women. Women’s reservation Bill in the Lok Sabha has gained momentum with Govt. of India promising the reservation of one-third seats in Parliament for the women. (8)

E -One of the recommendations of National Policy on Education (1986) by the Government of India is to promote empowerment of women through the agency of education and it is considered to be a land mark in the approach to women’s education of illiterate. The National Literacy Mission is another positive step towards eradication of illiteracy in the age group of 15-35 years. Women’ education has assumed special significance in the context of India’s planned development, as it is incorporated in every Five-year plans as the major programme for the development of women. Universalization of elementary education, enrolment and retention of girls in the schools, promotion of balwadies and crutches, raising number of schools and colleges of arts , science, and professional for girls , Politechniques, girls hostels, multipurpose institutions and adult education programmes are some of the steps being taken by both central and state governments in India to boost-up women’s education. (5)

F – Since the prevailing situation of poor or less enrolment of girls in schools closes the doors for development and prosperity of future generation of women, concerted efforts must be initiated jointly by the government, parents and civil society to achieve universal enrolment for girls without any compromise. The enrolment can be made even mandatory for every girls by the government in the realm of compulsory education. (5)

G -The Ministry of Education both at Centre and State level should work out strategic steps to stop firmly the ongoing high drop -outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slums areas with the serious involvement of voluntary organisations in every locality to realize zero drop-out among girls. (7)

H -The poverty stricken families can be identified through proper research and necessary poverty alleviation services be provided to strengthen the income thereby to enable the families to send their children to schools and colleges without much financial difficulties

I -Bonded Child labour and Child labour practice must be abolished with strict administrative measures and the relieved children form bondage should be integratedinto schools with suitable defence social mechanism.

J – Appropriate steps should be taken by the educational authorities with the participation of communities in order to bring the girl children to the main stream of education and development at every level including family and community.

K -The female child in every Indian family irrespective of socio-economic status should be moulded to overcome the challenges of inferiority; subservience and domesticity which place sever limitations on her education and development. Every family irrespective its socio-cultural and economic background can take it a challenge to bring up their girl children as dignified human being with empowerment in physical , mental, economic and social dimensions of life. (7)

L – The Midday meal scheme and other educational supportive services like free text books, Note books , Fee uniforms , Free Bicycles, Free bus , scholarships Free bus pass and so on as done in the state of Tamil Nadu can be provided in all states and union territories to lift up the literacy level among girls. (6)

M -As social evils like dowry, child marriage , caste system and other practices deprive rights of education for children belonging to poor and underprivileged families and communities, they should eliminated through well-designed packages of mass awareness programmes and social welfare measures with full support of public, political parties, NGOs and government agencies. (7)

N -The electronic and print media can play significant role in building a good and positive image about girls and women in general in the society by giving no focus for such advertisements and news fetching commercial gain at the cost of depicting women as an object. This would help in changing the society ‘s attitudes towards girls and their roles to treat every girl or woman as human being with self respect and dignity. (7)

O -Government, voluntary sector and philanthropic organisations and individuals should come forward to provide free education for poor girls and provide free hostel facilities for girls studying in schools and colleges in every state of India. This will certainly encourage children of poor families to pursue good and higher education without much impediments. (6)

P -The schools of social work, departments of women studies, Women Universities and other educational institutions in hand with NGOs and social service organisations such as Rotary Clubs , Lions Clubs , women lib organisations associations can work together to improve the educational status of the womenfolk in this country on mutual respect and understanding. (7)

Q -The parents of children belonging to poor, underprivileged families must be specially educated with proper social formula to help them to understand the significance of education for their girl children as foundation for empowerment. (1)

R -Government, NGOs and public should work hand in hand to implement the minimum age at marriage (21and above) Awareness should be created to institutionalise it as a traditional practice cut acrossing castes, religions, community etc. (5)

S – Government officials, policy makers, political parties and others should have adequate political will and conviction to empower women in India without double standard mind

T -The law enforcing machinery should be made really effective with efficient monitoring vigilant system to implement the constitutional and legislative provisions and administrative measures to assure free and compulsory education for all children of this nation without any gender discrimination. (7)

Its true that there is great deal of requirement to uplift women education in India at the grass root level because majority of the female population live in the rural areas .They do not avail the basic things in their life and to get education is still a distant dream for them. However Indian government is coming up with various scheme in their five year plan to make the situation healthy and encouraging for these women. In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs(3). Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed WomenHYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEWA”‘HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEWA”s Association (SEWA) have played a major role in women’s rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements. For example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

Companies like NIIT Ltd. (2) has come up with the project called Affirmative Action where they are taking girls from the down trodden areas and training them about English language, basic computer knowledge and after that helping them to get jobs in Retail, BPO ,Hospitality sectors. In this way the are educating them and by providing jobs women are getting empowered in taking decision, participating in family income and by helping their kids to make the future bright and opportunity oriented. (2 , 3)

There is no doubt about the fact that development of women has always been the central focus of planning since Independence. Empowerment is a major step in this direction but it has to be seen in a relational context. A clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the path of women’s emancipation both from the government and women themselves. Efforts should be directed towards all round development of each and every section of Indian women by giving them their due share.

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From equal status with men in ancient times through the bad phases of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been on better track. In modern India, women have acquired high offices in India including that of the President, Prime minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition, etc. The current President of India is a woman. (5)

A review of government’s various programmes for women empowerment such as Swashakti, Swayamsidha, Streeshakti, Balika samrudhi yojana and another two thousand projects reveal that little has been done or achieved through these programmes. The discrepancy in the ideology and practice of the empowerment policy of women in India constitutes its continued social, economic and social backwardness. Women make up 52% of our country’s population. Hence there can be no progress unless their needs and interests are fully met. Empowerment would not hold any meaning unless they are made strong, alert and aware of their equal status in the society. Policies should be framed to bring them into the mainstream of society. It is important to educate the women. The need of the hour is to improve female literacy as education holds the key to development. (2 , 3)

There is no doubt about the fact that development of women has always been the central focus of planning since Independence. Empowerment is a major step in this direction but it has to be seen in a relational context. A clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the path of women’s emancipation both from the government and women themselves. Efforts should be directed towards all round development of each and every section of Indian women by giving them their due share.

I believe with the likes of Pratibha Patil, Sonia Gandhi, Indra Nooyi, Chanda Kochar etc. bagging the top jobs, it would not be long when India would be boosting of its Gender Equality Index (GEI) and Gender Development Index (GDI).Lesser will be the social stigma of women exploitation which have haunted it for many years gone by.

Summary:

Empowerment can be defined as the totality of the following or similar capabilities:

Having decision-making power of their own

Having access to information and resources for taking proper decision

Having a range of options from which you can make choices (not just yes/no, either/or.)

Ability to exercise assertiveness collective decision making

Having positive thinking on the ability to make change

Ability to learn skills for improving one’s personal or group power.

Ability to change others’ perceptions by democratic means.

Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated

Increasing one’s positive self-image and overcoming stigma

Conclusion: From these discussions we can say that the most common explanation of ‘women’s empowerment’ is the ability to exercise full control over one’s actions. The last decades have witnessed some basic changes in the status and role of women in our society. There has been shift in policy approaches from the concept of ‘welfare’ in the seventies to ‘development’ in the eighties and now to ‘growth’ in the nineties and now trumpet of ’empowerment’. This process has been further accelerated with some sections of women becoming increasingly self-conscious of their discrimination in several areas of family and public life. They are also in a position to mobilize themselves on issues that can affect their overall position.

Lesbianism and the problems of identification in contemporary Britain

In Britain, lesbian women may not have had to campaign to have their sexual activities decriminalised, as homosexual had needed to do; yet their lives were not free of problems. However, men even homosexual men had more social, economic, and political power and status than British women did as a whole have. Men had a greater control of and over their own bodies than either heterosexual or lesbian women had in the immediate post-war period, and indeed before then as well. British lesbian women would have to campaign for greater rights as both women do, and as lesbians to challenge the discrimination and expected gender roles from a patriarchal and heterosexual dominated society. In other words, British lesbians had to counter sexual discrimination as well as orientation discrimination before they were able to feel fully secure in publicising their sexual orientation and identification. Changing public perceptions of their different gender roles and sexual orientation was, as the main lesbian rights groups realised was not going to be easy, as their experiences during the 1970s proved.^[8]

In Britain the 1960s was a decade that brought about some wide-ranging social changes and promised further changes for the future. Lesbian women could certainly regard the availability of the contraceptive pill and the legalisation of abortion as being an improvement for the choices that all women were able to make in relation to their own bodies. During the 1960s expectations about the gender roles of women began to change, as feminism meant that fewer women were prepared to become wives and mothers without having a career first. Lesbian women also realised they did not have to put up with marriage and children just because it was expected of them to do so. The decriminalisation of male homosexual acts at the end of the 1960s could also be viewed as a demonstration that British society was slowly becoming less illiberal in its attitudes towards people that embraced alternative lifestyles. For the more radical lesbians the social changes in the 1960s were the start of the process of fighting discrimination, rather than the end of the process. British lesbian women and gay men were encouraged to start gay pride movements by the apparent success such groups in the United States were having in altering social attitudes, especially in cities like New York and San Francisco.^[9] British lesbian and gay pride organisations began in earnest during the early 1970s with the objectives of enabling their members to have pride in their orientation identification, as well as aiming to reduce the level of social discrimination which their own members had to endure. The hope was that reduced social discrimination and reduced fear of such prejudices would allow all lesbian women to readily admit their sexuality with pride. These lesbian pride organisations as a whole found that changing social attitudes towards them and their sexual orientation was a slow process, after all generations of social prejudices could not be expected to vanish overnight.^[10]

The effectiveness or otherwise of lesbian and gay pride movements since the 1970s has been an area of much debate. Depending on which criteria are used to judge the gay pride movements the achievements of these organisations will alter.^[11] If judging the achievements of the lesbian and gay pride movements solely in terms of their ability to have anti-discrimination legislation passed these movements were undoubtedly a failure before the election of the New Labour government in 1997.^[12] The only lesbian women to gain from anti-discrimination legislation between the early 1970s and 1997 did so because they also came under gender equality, race relations and disability legislation. Governments from the early 1970s did not believe that legislation was needed to prevent homophobic discrimination, leaving lesbian and gay pride organisations on their own to lower such prejudice aimed at their members. New Labour has taken more steps than any previous governments to pass legislation to reduce homophobic prejudices and promote the rights of all lesbians and gays. New Labour legislation has included passing legislation to end discrimination upon the grounds of sexual orientation to enhance the opportunities for all lesbians and gays to be openly identified as such without fear of homophobic discrimination. Besides specific legislation to protect lesbian and gay rights, lesbians can also use the Human Rights Act of 1998 to make sure that their orientation being publicly identifiable is not detrimental to their rights or their safety.^[13] Under New Labour, lesbian women have finally received legal equality with heterosexual men and women. For instance, lesbian women and gay men are no longer dismissed from Britain’s armed forces if they openly admit their sexuality. Lesbian women and gay men now also have the right to ‘marry’ each other in civil partnerships. The introduction of civil partnerships means that lesbian women in long term partnerships have the same rights as married and co-habitant heterosexual couples in terms of property, taxation and inheritance rights, as well as the same benefit and pension entitlements. Lesbian women now have the same rights as heterosexual women when it comes to the custody or adoption of children.^[14]

In respect of the lesbian pride movements they probably had a more immediate impact on changing social attitudes towards them than they did in influencing governments to pass legislation which tackled discrimination against them. Lesbian and gay pride organisations did not use the same tactics to publicise their sexual orientation. The more radical lesbian and gay pride organisations were happy to shock heterosexuals in British society with the tone and the methods in which they demonstrated their identifications of sexual orientations. More radical groups were even prepared to ‘out’ famous people to make headlines and raise public awareness of lesbian and gay issues.^[15] Other more moderate lesbian and gay pride groups were less keen on showing their sexual orientation and identification in such an ostentatious manner. The more moderate lesbian pride groups would have preferred to be open about their sexual orientation and identification without using over the top publicity stunts. Moderate lesbian groups would have fitted in with insider pressure groups, which attempt to achieve their objectives behind closed doors, rather than in public. Radical lesbian and gay pride groups are examples of outsider groups that have little influence with governments and rely on publicity to bring their objectives to public attention.^[16]

The campaigns of lesbian pride groups were not as successful in changing public perceptions of lesbian women as a majority of those groups would have hoped from the early 1970s. This was especially the case during the period of Conservative governments between 1979 to 1997. The Conservative party more than the Labour and Liberal/Liberal Democrats parties like to represent traditional family values instead of promoting the rights and the lifestyles of lesbian and gay pride groups. When in office the Conservatives prevented lesbian and gay groups’ form educating school pupils about their sexual orientations and identification through the infamous section 28. Lesbian and gay groups lobbied New Labour to have the section removed as soon as possible. The media did not always help lesbian and gay groups convey the messages to the public that they wanted to be sent out, especially right wing newspapers did not want to change public perceptions of lesbian women. The right wing newspapers often portrayed the objectives of lesbian and gay groups in the most negative perspective possible.^[17] Despite the efforts of some politicians, religious groups, and parts of the media the number of people who happen to be publicly prepared to be known as being lesbian and gay in Britain has increased noticeably since the 1970s. It is harder to argue out right that such a situation is entirely due to the attempts of lesbian and gay pride groups to alter the attitudes of British society. After all changed reactions towards their orientation and gender identification could have resulted from the campaigning of such groups, or alternatively could just have been a continuation of increasing indifference to how other people chose to live their lives.^[18]

Thus in conclusion, lesbian women in Britain have not always felt comfortable or able to openly display their sexual orientation, and their gender identification due to the nature of British society. The immediate post-war society in Britain has remained predominantly patriarchal and heterosexual in terms of social and gender relationships as well as expected behaviours, roles, and identifications. That situation meant lesbianism did exist in Britain, it was just well hidden. The 1960s were a decade that kick started the process of altering British society, and provided the stimulus for lesbian and gay pride groups to emerge during the early 1970s. The legacies, influence, and success of such groups are highly debatable. Although these groups certainly raised the profile of lesbians and gays in Britain they actually had little affect on the mainstream political agenda prior to New Labour gaining office in 1997. Lesbian and gay pride groups may have attempted to increase acceptance of their lifestyles and their alternative identifications, yet changing public perceptions of lesbian women has not been universal or overwhelmingly favourable. The way in socialisation operates in such a haphazard way means that the predominantly heterosexual and patriarchal nature of British society will continue for a considerable amount of time, even if the acceptance of lesbian women should continue to improve, and more fluid gender roles should develop further.

Bibliography

Abercrombie N, Hill S & Turner B S (2000) Penguin Dictionary of Sociology 4^th edition, Penguin, London

Eatwell R & Wright A (2003) Contemporary Political Ideologies 2^nd Edition, Continuum, London

Hobsbawm, E (1994) Age of Extremes, the Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991, Michael Joseph, London

Whitaker’s, (2007) Whitaker’s Almanack – today’s world in a single volume, A & C Black, London

Young H, (2003) supping with the Devils – Political writing from Thatcher to Blair, Guardian Books, London

1

Affirmative action policies are designed to counter the effects of discrimination. At best, affirmative action is ineffective and at worst distortionary. Moreover, discrimination in South Africa is largely a thing of the past. As such, affirmative action policies in South Africa ought to be abandoned.

Affirmative action policies in South Africa are meant to correct wrongs of the past by promoting equal opportunities for those that were oppressed by the Apartheid system; the Blacks; Africans Indians and Coloureds. The policy focus on policies and strategies needed to redress past racial imbalances in the workplace, education, gender equality

Employment Equity Act (EEA) implemented in 1998 aims at developing a non-discriminatory and socially equitable labour market. Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) was implemented in 2003 and the purpose of the act is to economically empower all black people, including people with disabilities and people living in the rural areas. BEE entails empowering black people through

“aˆ¦ ownership and control of businesses and assets, Human Resource Development and indirect empowerment b means of preferential procurement, enterprise development, profit and contract sharing by black enterprises, local content requirement, etc” Burger and Jafta (2006: 7).

This means other racial groups are still discriminated as it BEE based on race rather than economic standards. It also promotes Black capitalism as it gives Black-middle class advantage, the underprivileged Blacks are made worse off in the process; widening the inequality gap. According to Kovacevic (2007:6) about 60% of empowerment deals went to the companies of only Black businessmen in 2003. In view of that wealthy Blacks are enriched at the cost of those living in poverty. The BEE has been vastly questioned as it does not benefit majority of the Blacks, but just a few elite.

Education equality

Apartheid education system was designed such that blacks were only trained for low-skilled jobs. Affirmative action requires changing of admission preferences such that everyone has the right to basic and tertiary education.

Berverly (1997: 532) found that some South African universities are facing challenges that need ongoing attention and commitment to affirmative action. This is not surprising given that every institution wants to maintain or upgrade its ranking. Majority of blacks complete their matric in public schools where there is poor education system relative to private schools. For higher academic institutions to keep up with international standards, they will be more willing to admit students from private schools than public schools; being white students. Education is the key to employment and better standard of living. Denying one access to better education because of their race or for being poor simply adds more weight to their economic struggles. People with poor education are often unable to secure sufficient resources to ensure a good education for their children. The children are then, in turn, unable to provide their own offspring with an education that will allow social and economic advancement; intergenerational immobility. Racial inequalities in education contribute highly to racial inequalities in employment opportunities and achievements.

Employment and recruitment equality

There was a significant increase in the white-black employment gap between 1995 and 2000. From 1995 to 1997 the probability for blacks of being employed increased substantially for those with matric or tertiary qualification, whereas whites experienced high formal employment irrespective of their academic qualification (Burger and Jafta, 2006: 21). However the transformation changed between 1997 and 2004 when chances of being employed for the whites became determined by education attainment. Employment rates for whites without matric declined while the probability of blacks being employed declined.

Between 1994 and 2001 there was an increase from 2% to 33% of enterprises that observed emigration of skilled labour. White workers have struggled to find jobs in South Africa as a result opted to migrate to other countries because of the redistribution policy. This steered outflow of skilled labour (Kovacevic, 2007). In addition a lot of whites are forced to retire earlier in the public sector, while they encounter difficulties in getting jobs in the private sector (Adam, 1997: 232).

Thompson and Woolard (2002:9) found a substantial increase of 58.1% growth rate of African managers between 1995 and 2001 whereas percentage of White managers declined by 39% in public service management. The percentage of Coloured managers has remained stagnant while that of Indians has increase by a little but significant rate during the period. Given the race distribution of the country, the change for the whites is not that major.

Gender equality

During the apartheid era women were excluded from most types of formal employment except clerical and secretarial work, black women occupied positions as domestic workers and tea-ladies in office buildings. Women were denied access to education (especially black women) and were economically and politically disadvantaged (Kongolo and Naido, 2004). The government has intended to empower women through gender policy framework. This favours women therefore men are being discriminated, however, Mphai (1989: 6) insists that female discrimination in the country is still persistent as females enjoy fewer employment benefits than their male counterparts.

Mathur-Helm (2005: 63) maintains that affirmative action has only allowed women entry into the formal sector but not into senior positions in corporate jobs. This may be because of negative stereotype belief that women are meant to follow and not to lead. Compared to their male counterparts, women do not show leadership potential or skills that men portray, they are also thought to be less objective, less aggressive, less ambitious, less confident, less capable of contributing to organizational goals and less capable at learning technical and mechanical skills. However, women position in politics has improved compared to the private and public sectors as 30% of parliamentarians are women. Thompson and Woolard (2002: 20) found approximately 53% of non-managerial staff in the public services to be women in 2001 compared to 49.4% in 1995. This transformation is not significant enough as it does not match racial transformation performance. What needs to be done as to empower women while at the same time not discriminating against men, the government should invest more in female gender based jobs and encourage female participation in postgraduate studies through schoolarships.

Wage gap

A number of studies have shown whites to be higher income earners than other race groups. Burger and Jafta (2006: 2) found that the White population group still earns more than any other population group in the country. Whites had wage earnings of almost twice as much as the second highest earning group (Indians), with Coloureds and Blacks earning considerably less, on average. This might be because whites not only meet minimum requirements but they are also more qualified for the positions they occupy; which is hardly the case with other racial groups, or maybe because Blacks are not qualified for the positions they hold; they have been favoured.

Conclusion

Some argue that Affirmative action is another form of apartheid and not only does it reduce reduces employment it also retards economic growth. Affirmative action policies should be drawn such that no one is favoured since it is not possible to favour someone without discriminating against another. Africans are benefiting more than other ethnics than were also oppressed by apartheid hence discrimination. Adam (1997: 244) suggest that the policy should be revised such that it is based on the criteria of class and concentrate on disadvantaged people rather than criteria of race as the current definition of affirmative policy in South Africa is broadening inequality gap among classes of the same race. Lee (2010) however cautions that there is not much differentiation between race-based and class-based policies as they are more complements than substitutes. Class considerations can be integrated into selection procedures within the designated race group to reinforce the process of redress.

Adam also adds that the criterion for ‘potential’ should be taken more seriously as it appears that people that are benefitting from affirmative action are those with political connections. This in turn leads to nepotism as the well-off provide their children with labour market advantages hindering the success of the poor and economically disadvantaged.

According to Kovacevic (2007) the BEE programme has failed to properly address issues of poverty and employment not to mention fostering economic growth. It is therefore best to revise affirmative action policy from race base to socio-economic base rather than abandon it to tackle the problems of poverty and employment as to empower the underprivileged. Conferring preferential status on poor, rural, or inner-city persons would draw attention to differences between rich and poor, urban and rural, or suburban and inner-city, but such measures are upheld due to the benefits to bridging these gaps. It is best for the South African government to deal with the scars of apartheid differently than impose another form of apartheid. Class- or need-based affirmative action is permanent and more costly in terms of public funding, vulnerable to the same problems of disparity in aptitude of beneficiaries, and unviable in high-level occupations, management and ownership (Lee 2010: 31).

Affirmative action also devalues accomplishments of members of the designated group who could have advanced without preferential treatment; their achievements are questioned whether they have been attained out of hard work or out of “sympathy”. Affirmative action also stigmatizes beneficiaries as a group, creates dependence on the government, and alienates members of non-designated groups. These issues pose the heaviest challenges to affirmative action formulation and implementation (Lee, 2010). Denying capable candidates opportunities and persistently inhibiting the human development. But the problem is those that were oppressed under apartheid government; Blacks are the ones socio-economically disadvantaged. Given its costs and benefits, the question of whether affirmative action policies should be abandoned in South Africa is inconclusive or debatable as the policy is meant to correct the wrongs of the past. Maybe had there not be any racial discrimination before independence, socio-economic problems would be handled differently. Racial discrimination still persists in the country; it is just not as bad as it was during apartheid. Removing affirmative action might worsen discrimination as the reasons why discrimination occurred in the first place are still there. Should academic and professional institutions find no reason to discriminate thus stop believing that one group that is more productive or smarter than the other; then only then should affirmative action policies be abandoned.

The world is facing many problems that are demolishing its unity, forcing the process of making a better world harder to achieve. One of the most devastating problems yet to be solved is the women’s rights against discrimination. Discrimination, according to Cambridge University’s dictionary is the act of treating a person or particular group of people differently, especially in a worse way from the way in which you treat other people, because of their skin colour, religion, sex. Discrimination against women is a type of gender discrimination. According to the Australian Office of Anti-Discrimination Commissioner (OADC) gender discrimination occurs when someone is treated less favourably than another person because of his or her gender (Justice, 2009). Women’s discrimination is a series problem, it is just not a discrimination against a minority (with all do respect to all minorities). “It is impossible to realize our goals while discriminating against half the human race” Kofi Annan [1] . Annan described discriminating against women discriminating against half of the human race which rely on how important the role of women in the progressing of the human race. The problem of discrimination against women was officially addressed to the world through the first couple of years of the establishing of the United Nations (UN). “Women inscribed their identity as holders of rights in the founding documents of the UN-the UN Charter (1945) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)… the Convention of Civil Rights to Women (1948) and the Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1952)” (Jain & Sen, 2005, pp. 12-13). Many countries and nations have issued legislations against discrimination, and specifically against gender or sex discrimination. One of the most notified acts against discrimination is the “Sex Discrimination Act 1975” by the British Parliament. Many countries and nations have acts against discriminating women; however, women are still being discriminated before the law (Franciscans). Discriminating against women is not just discriminating against a person it is discriminating against families as well; who would want the mother, the sister or the wife to be discriminated at work, at school or at club under no reason but solely because of the gender. The purpose of this essay is to examine the act of discrimination against women and demonstrate on how women suffer in the social life, the political arena and the workplace, and the education. Moreover this essay will adjudge the previous solutions to overcome the problem of discriminating women due to their gender held previously decades ago by countries or nations, and why they did not reap what they have sown. Ultimately, it will propose a solution on how to surmount the problem of discriminating women, because women should not be discriminated due to the prejudice against their gender. Women play the part of half the human race if they were less competent or reliable than men and do not deserve equality God would not let them share every role with men.

Women’s discrimination is much far from being a local issue in a certain part of the world. Women suffer from discrimination, violence and sexual harassment because women most of the times are thought to be less competent than men because of their physical structure. Women are not only discriminated in the developing countries because of the lack of “sophistication”, women are also being discriminated in the developed countries. “Discrimination against women in the UK is “deeply ingrained”, a government report concludes” as cited in (Barriers still in women’s way, 2005). The UK, one of the most important and developed countries that plays a major role in the world issues, has a discrimination problem against women which is described by a governmental report to be “deeply ingrained” or firmly held that it is not likely to be changed. Thus it is a problem that needs more that attention to be solved. According to the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Data shows that discriminatory practices against women exists and dominates in almost all parts of the world (2008). Therefore, we do not need each developed country telling a one that is not that the developed country is free from discrimination or it is in very small ratio that discrimination hardly can be found. Statistically according to figure 1 [2] , the ratio between the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and the developing countries does not gap critically; life expectancy is more in MENA than in the developing countries while it decreases in the other areas. The world needs all countries and nations help because it is not a one nation problem it is a problem that we all command.

Figure

Women social life is covered by many kinds of discrimination. Women in social life suffer from many daily-life appellations, especially in the Middle-East other than the West. In the Middle-East women are classified by their relationship status other than by her contribution to the community. While searching for life partner men get “repelled” from divorced women. In the process of searching, most of the men search for virgin girls whether those men have previous relation or not. Divorced women are treated different than married women. Whereas single-mothers most of the time do not marry after their first marriage because men do not want extra burden or responsibility. On the other hand single-fathers easily can get married most of the time as there is no social norm against them to re-marry. Single mothers do not refuse to marry, however, they are refuted by the men how are seeking marriage. “Divorce is more costly for women than men. The most common impact of divorce on women is the financial insecurity it creates, increasing the possibility of poverty for them and their children. Data show that after divorce, women experience a 73 percent loss in their former standard of living and men experience a 42 percent rise” (Headlee & Elfin, 1996, p. p.52). Not only divorce leave women socially “downgraded” it also leaves her in economical insecurity, and if a women is supporting a child the disaster will be doubled. According to Clarke-Stewart & Brentano, divorced women make only five new friends in the first year of divorce due to the emotional damage of divorce (2006, p. 70). Women are more likely to have blighted social life than men after divorce. Nevertheless, society does not welcome divorcees leaving women in a dark corner of the society.

Politically, women suffer from a great impact from discrimination. Women have been discriminated in the political arena, as the society gives the women politicians less creditability than men due to some ideas stuck in the minds that women are more likely to be secretaries other than being the boss. The media has a huge impact on such negative ideas, giving the women always as the soft secretary that has a model body shape and a voice that rhymes with music. According to Abdel-Wahab’s film, he sketched a wife being a CEO in a governmental institution, while the employees of that institution do not believe that a woman can hold such a sophisticated position (1966). In that film the female CEO proves to her husband and to her employees at the end of the film that she is as competent as any male CEO that has ever held this position. This is the kind of media that needed to be seen today, not the ones that weaken the image of women and strengthens the stereotyping of them in politics and in workplace. According to Constance B. Morella a US Republican Congresswoman, who represents the Seventh District in Maryland, ”in politics (once elected) there is equity in terms of salary, but not in terms of leadership. Women are excluded from many issue areas and commissions where they might serve” as cited in (Headlee & Elfin, 1996). In the US congress the government cannot give smaller salary to women, “of course” or it would be contradicting its own policies out in the public, nonetheless, they do not give women the right of leadership as they might provide help to their country, the US- her country- deny the women’s help in leadership. Unlike men, women pursue politics for the sake of issues and morals not for career advancement. The rejection of women being in the political arena gave them the opportunity to be more active volunteers than men, which gave them more than enough experience to successfully enter the political arena (Headlee & Elfin, 1996, p. 26). Men do not have an extra brain that makes them excel in politics and likely women do not, hence, they are equal and should have equal political opportunities. Women went to work thus, affecting the men’s jobs and the economy mainly because of money. Women worked because they did not have husbands as unmarried or divorced, or they had husbands who were in low-pay jobs. In 1994, 59 percent of married women were working for pay which increased by 19 percent from 1970 (Headlee & Elfin, 1996, p. 3). As of discrimination in the work place, statistically, “pregnant women suffer widespread discrimination at work, figures show, with almost one in 14 mums-to-be denied opportunities for promotion and one in 50 demoted” (Pregnant Women; Discrimination at work, 2006). Pregnant women takes the largest piece in the pie chart according to discrimination, some of the pregnant women do not even get paid for maternity leave, while, some of them do not get promoted and some get demoted.

The problem of gender differences in salary raises a lot of concerns as to its factors, processes and measurement among social scientists and policy makers all over the world.

Gender-based inequality is a phenomenon that affects the majority of the world’s cultures, religions, nations and income groups [5]. When scientists speak of the gender gap these days, they are usually referring to systematic differences in the outcomes that men and women achieve in the labor market. These differences are seen in the percentages of men and women in the labor force, the types of occupations they choose, and their relative incomes or hourly wages [4].

There have been significant increases in the labor supply of women in the last decades both in developed and developing countries. For instance, in the United States female participation in the paid labor force changed drastically in the course of the 20th century: in 1880 only 17% of all American women at working ages participated in the labor market, by 2000 this number had risen to more than 60% [3]. Nevertheless, the Global Gender Gap Index 2007 showing that no country in the world has yet reached equality between women and men – the highest ranking country has closed a little over 80% of its gender gap while the lowest ranking country has closed only a little over 45% of its gender gap.

Factors that describe the gender pay gap

Among various factors that describe the gender pay gap the most important ones are historical, cultural and economic.

Describing historical factors of the gender pay gap, we have to mention that after industrialization women became “secondary workers” in the labor market; they entered the labor market in smaller numbers and for shorter periods than did men. Moreover, occupations and industries were highly segregated by sex, partly because employers developed explicit policies to segregate the workplace and bar married women from employment [4]. Hence the wage structure changes over time but the historical evolution of well-defined systems of jobs and firms has created relatively stable segmentation by occupation.

As for cultural factors, they are closely connected to the historical events. The development of modern family patterns during the past decades has been accompanied by substantial changes in social norms, values and gender relations all over the world. In most of modern societies women with higher returns to human capital and fewer children, increase their investments in education and their attachment to the market.

The economic factors are also very important. Because women are very likely to interrupt their career for children bearing period, and employers avoiding workers with high quit rates (for economic reasons), therefore, women comparing to men are less likely to receive stable well-paid jobs.

Micro-level processes that cause the gender pay gap

As wage differences among workers can be explained by processes that match individuals to jobs, we should research how individual women and men are sorted into different positions and thereby obtain different levels of reward. Margaret Mooney Marini and Pi-Ling Fan have conducted a research “The gender gap in earnings at career entry” in which the micro-level mechanisms of the gender wage gap were investigated. Those are gender differences in job-related skills and credentials, adult family roles, work and family aspirations, the availability and use of information and influence via social networks; gender discrimination in hiring and job placement by employers.

The results of the research showed that explanatory mechanisms focusing on the characteristics of workers explained only 30 % of the gender difference in wages. But the gender differences in aspirations and in job-related skills and credentials were the most important in accounting for the gender pay gap. The allocation of women and men to different jobs by employers, and informal processes of social contact and social interaction via networks play an important role in wage determination at career entry. Moreover, gender differences in family structure had no significant direct effect when the effect of worker qualifications and aspirations were considered [6].

How to measure the gender gap

One of the instruments to measure the gender gap is the Global Gender Gap Index introduced by the World Economic Forum. This index is a framework for capturing the magnitude of gender disparities. It aims to be a tool for benchA­marking and tracking global gender-based inequalities on economic, political, education- and health-based criteria [5]. The structure of this index is in the Appendix.

In this paper we are interested only in the economic participation and opportunity analyzed by the Index. This area is captured through three concepts: the participaA­tion gap, the remuneration gap and the advancement gap. The participation gap is captured through the difference in labor force participation rates. The remuneration gap is captured through a hard data indicator (ratio of estimated female-to-male earned income) and a qualitative variable calculated through the World Economic Forum’s ExecuA­tive Opinion Survey (wage equality wages for similar work). Finally, the gap between the advancement of women and men is captured through two hard data statistics (the ratio of women to men among legislators, senior officials and managers, and the ratio of women to men among technical and professional workers).

Conclusion

The gender gap is a difference in outcomes that men and women achieve in the labor market. Because labor market rewards derive from labor market positions, it is important to understand why women receive less rewarding positions and what the mechanism of the gender pay gap is.

There are historical, cultural and economic factors that influence gender pay gap. Historically occupations are segregated by sex, but women return to human capital more often than in the past and decrease their quit rates during childbearing period. Among micro-level processes that cause gender pay gap, the most important are gender differences in aspirations, job-related skills and definite social networks inclusion.

In order to measure gender gap scientists use the Global Gender Gap Index which examines the gap between men and women in four fundamental categories: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, political empowerment, health and survival.

Appendix. Structure of the Global Gender Gap Index

What is the meaning of disaster and how it has changed over historical time?

One of the most difficult concepts to define is disaster. A several attempts have been made by social scientist through history to define this complicated concept but all of these attempts faced the problem of either it is too broad or too narrow. However, it is very important to define and identify the meaning of disaster. The reason behind its importance is to give us a clear understanding of the concept in order to easily product and prepare for its outcome. It will be the aim of this paper to define and analyse the meaning of disaster. Also, it will present several examples of several types of disaster in different period of time. Moreover, it will show how the definition of disaster changed throughout the history. Another, this essay will discuss the impact of disaster on people and the economy. Finally, it will briefly argue the social norms resulting from disaster.

The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters CRED, defines disaster as a “situation or event which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to a national or international level for external assistance; an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering.”[1] At the same point, another definition of disaster was defined by United Nation the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The organization defined the phenomenon as follows; “A disaster takes place when the following three conditions occur at the same time: When people live in hazardous places like, for example, close to an active volcano, on unstable slopes where landslides are likely to happen, or close to rivers which could flood. When a hazardous phenomenon occurs, be it natural or human-made. When the phenomenon also causes a lot of damage, especially where no preventive measures have been taken.”[2]

Moreover, the Oxford English Dictionary defines disaster as it is “A sudden accident or a natural catastrophe that causes great damage or loss of life; also, an event or fact leading to ruin or failure.”[3]Moreover, the German Red Cross defines disaster as an “extraordinary situation in which the everyday lives of people are suddenly interrupted and thus protection, nutrition, clothing, housing, medical and social aid or other vital necessities are requested.”[4] All of the previous definitions agree on one fact that disaster cause shock and stress for its victims and on the other hand, disasters always associated with destroying economy, property and significant amount of lives. Thus, it is very important to understand the definition of disaster.

After presenting several definitions of the concept of disaster I will present some examples of disaster which will help us in distinguishing and knowing the concept more clearly. Further, it is very important to know the difference amongst any personal tragedy, an emergency and a real disaster. With regard to that, a fire in a house which can be caused by accident even if no one injured still it is considered to be a personal tragedy to some people when in fact it is not. As an instance, Hurricanes, earthquakes, Floods, volcano and Tornadoes are considered to be disasters which made by nature. On the other hand, the man-made disasters can be classified under Crimes, Arsons, War and Terrorism. However, since the 20th century most of the disaster that occurred was a man-made disasters even when the nature play a big role in spreading hazard and threatening people lives, still to some of us disasters which made by a man is what matter and what take all the blame.

The cause of disaster can be divided in to three types such as, man-made and nature made disasters. At the same point, in ancient times any natural disasters occur in people society they consider it as a God-made disaster or some kind of miracles. As an example, in ancient times, especially in the days of Moses, may peace be upon him, they faced years of wrath and years of cams and drought due to lack of Nile water and the inaccessibility of the sky rain than usual. Further, when Moses walked with his people towards the Gulf of Suez and followed by Pharaoh to eliminate them then God revealed to Moses thus; “Then We revealed to Musa: Strike the sea with your staff. So it had cloven asunder, and each part was like a huge mound. (63)”[5] Meaning, the understanding of people about the concept of disaster has changed through time. In the 18th century, the technology and the high standard level of education we have now did not exist back then; also, people were more attached to church and god more than people do now.

Taking into account, the church’s role in influencing many people in terms of placing religious believes in them and linking the occurrence of disasters to God-making; also, when disaster happened to them the church believe God made it as a result of people sins. While, now a days people are more distant from God so instead they blame man or government as an alternative from blaming God. Simply, to some people it is easier to blame a man and governments than blaming nature or God. As an example, no good can come from blaming nature or God but blaming man is much easier.

After examining the causes of disaster and the several types of it, I will present several outcomes that result from this phenomenon and how these outcomes changed over the history and recent days. Disasters have a significant impact not only on people but also on the country with all of its contents. For example, natural disaster such as Hurricanes can ruin people and country property as well as the economy. Furthermore, by ruining the economy of the state that is also means the future of this country is ruined at the same time. According to WBDRM, the World Bank’s Disaster Risk Management, “developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries; and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries.”[6] As an example, Japan and the atomic bomb that hits Hiroshima in the 6th of August 1945. This bomb was a tragedy in human lives. However, Japan lost more than the 140,000 of people that died when the bomb located in Hiroshima, Japan also had a long term effect from that incident. Plus the high number of death, the Japanese society have severely affected in a very disturbing way.

With defining disaster we have to consider and think of the social norm that comes with it. Before analysing the social norms we have to know the meaning of it. Social Norms can be defined as “the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours.”[7] Moreover, a descriptive norm is a type of social norms and it can be “refers to people’s perceptions of what is commonly done in specific situations.”[8] A specific situation means that when a disaster appeared in people lives what matter is their reaction to the crisis.

I personally believe that our perspective and understanding to the concept of disaster has changed through the history and that because everything has changed. Things like people attitude, education level, governments greed and Media. As an example, let us consider the events of 9/11 on the US; it was immediately attached to the work of terror and blames it on man. However, the US reaction was completely irrelevant when they invaded Iraq and that when all of the political analysis agreed that the main reason behind the US government action was the oil. Another example of that, Hitler obsession with oil and his decision to attack the Soviet Union was due to several factors. One of which was economics. There were plenty of oil fields and that is when Hitler saw the resources as sacred in order to make his empire “invulnerable”[9]. That was one of many examples showing the man greediness and where it can lead.

What is more, proving that people attitude towards the concept of disaster have changed; after the bombing on Hiroshima in Japan, the Japanese took all of their rage and anger and used it to developed there country. And just within 7 years Japan healed and moved on and now it considers being the second country in the world with the strong economy. Simply, the history repeats its self and we have to learn the mistakes from the history and learn from them instead of repeating them.

To conclude, it is not easy to define and understand disasters and it outcomes, however, with all the attempts to define this dangerous phenomenon all of the previous definitions agreed on only shock, hazards and loses of lives can result from disaster. Further, disasters either God-made, man-made or nature-made all of them have the same outcomes in terms of losing significant amount of damage on the society and it citizens. With regard to that, people are more pessimistic than before and with more negative attitude towards crisis; as well as their reaction towards it. Japan incident is an important example, which we have to learn from it and people have to move on instead of holding grudge against each other’s and use that anger to build a better society because humans vulnerability with disaster is what considered to be an emergency.

[1] http://www.cred.be/sites/default/files/ADSR_2008.pdf. Accessed: 2nd of Dec/2009.

[2] http://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/world_camp/2004/booklet-eng/Pagina5ing.pdf. Access: 4th of Dec/2009.

[3] http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/disaster?view=uk. Accessed: 4th of Dec/2009.

[4]Quarantelli, E.L. What is a disaster: perspectives on the question. Routledge: London. (1998). P 14.

[5] The holy Quran. Surat: Ash-Shu’ara 26, Aya (63).

[6]http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTURBANDEVELOPMENT/EXTDISMGMT/0,,menuPK:341021~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:341015,00.html. Accessed: 2nd of Dec/2009.

[7] http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_norms.htm. Accessed: 4th of Dec/2009.

[8] http://www.econ.jhu.edu/People/Young/PalgraveSocialNormsJuly07JHU.pdf. Accessed: 4th of Dec/2009.

[9] Daniel Yergin, The Prize. P 334.

Disability is a very personal experience with many pathways. Factors such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and sexuality all play a factor in a person’s experience with disability in the United States. These factors play a role in deciding the needs of the individual and what care they need. The following will show how the different socio-demographic factors play a role in different pathways towards disability. Disability is defined as having limited mobility in either the upper or lower body (Binstock and George 2011).

Disability pathways can vary by age in what stage of the life course the person is in. While not always the case, younger people tend to have less of a risk of becoming disabled than older people (Binstock and George 2011). Disability itself is a difficult term to identify because of the use of the word is not universal as the book points out. The statistic given is that 64% of adults over the age of 65 have some problem with mobility (Binstock and George 2011). This is important to note for age because it shows what age is generally accepted to be the start of some form of disability. Life expectancy has also risen over the past decades as healthcare continues to make improvements. These are important to note because as the population ages, than more people would seem to need assistance as they grow older. One reason discussed for an increase in longevity is lifestyle changes in daily tasks have been made easier for the older population. The text also notes that more seniors are living in places where they can get assistance (Binstock and George 2011). These developments are important when discussing disability pathways because healthcare is always changing and finding new and better ways to care for the disabled population.

Disability pathways can also vary by the person’s sex. According to statistics, Women tend to need assistance with a disability earlier in life than men do while women have a longer life expectancy then men (Binstock and George 2011). These differences present a different outcome than age would as a socio-demographic factor because women might need assistance longer than men in cases like this. This is important to note because sometimes men are the primary caregiver in this situation and if they become disabled also then more assistance would be needed. This can also be true if women are the primary caregiver to men. These examples show how couples would handle differences in sex in aging. Single women and single men would have different pathways to disability than couples would and different ways of dealing with their disabilities. Single people would likely have no choice than to seek outside help for their disability and find ways to help pay for their required help. Single people also tend to have less income over their lifetime and single women tend to make even less creating inequality in access to assistance for a disability. These are important differences to note because couples would seem to have more security than single people in regards to sex because of the income differences.

Another way disability pathways can vary is by race/ethnicity because of inequality faced by the minority population. The data show that, on average, racial/ethnic populations have a lower socioeconomic status (Binstock and George 2011). This can create problems with access to the better assistance, discussed earlier with living arrangements and daily task management. This can also lead to a problem with accessing needed healthcare which can lead to more problems with becoming disabled. The text writes that there is no one reason as to why racial and ethnic minorities have these inequalities by “The law of small effects” (Binstock and George 2011). They further note that more study is needed in the way of “environment” of the people during the life course (Binstock and George 2011). It is also documented that racial and ethnic minorities experience racism and discrimination in their lives and this does have an effect on their overall health (Binstock and George 2011). Race/ethnic pathways differ than age or sex because socioeconomic status plays a larger role in regards to these statues. These are important to note because the study of minorities and pathways to disability are often times harder for the individuals.

Another socio-demographic factor that affects disability pathways is sexuality. Similar to race/ethnicity, discrimination faced by LGBT minority groups would likely lead to shorter life expectancy. Sexuality as a socio-demographic factor would be different from sex or age pathways because of the discrimination factor and because this minority communities do not have the same legal protections as the heterosexual community does. The LGBT population might also have other areas of inequality in relation to pathways to disability such as access to needed medical services and support. These are important to note as more people have come to identify as LGBT in recent years more specialized care is needed for the population.

These demographic and life course concepts show how disability pathways vary and why they are important to study. These concepts show that, while better in recent years, there is a long way to go in terms of equality for minority populations. Minority groups seem to be at the heart of this problem and that shows how individual pathways may differ because of status. Discrimination also plays a role in all levels of the different pathways as it tends to shorten life expectancy.

Question #2

The theories introduced by the various authors in the class are activity theory, disengagement, age integration, and the life course. All of these have useful elements in the discussion of the book “Aging Our Way.” In Loe’s book, the Age integration theory is shown in lessons one and six on connecting with peers. Also lesson ten and thirteen all suggest a life course theory while the rest of the book seems to support Activity theory. The book would seem to show the evidence for the particular theories.

Most of the theories discussed have some evidence shown in Loe’s book, while disengagement theory did not have much support. Disengagement theory is defined by the gaining population disengaging from other people as they grow older (Achenbaum and Bengtson 1994). I think that, while useful, disengagement among the elderly population is not as prevalent as it was when the theory was first introduced. People now have a longer life expectancy and since retirement and I think that the disengagement theory does not take this into account. Disengagement theory as a whole is still relevant to some extent, just not in the context of Loe’s book where the focus of the book is on the various activities done and how the people engage more in their final years.

An example of age integration theory is shown in lesson one in Loe’s book. The couple in this chapter had to integrate with people of all age groups to continue with what they wanted to do. This chapter was about the couple, after retiring, keeping their same routine as much as they could which meant having to branch out and find other people their age to keep going (Loe 2011). This meant that activities would range from sports to music and service that would mean people from all ages would be involved with the activity. Lesson six is about connecting with peers. This chapter follows the age integration theory because it shows people interacting with different age cohorts. In Johanna’s scrabble group the chapter writes about the different socio economic statuses of the members which would suggest age interaction is going on in this group (Loe 2011).

The life course theory comes into play in chapters ten and thirteen. These chapters write about the importance of family and the acceptance of death. Chapter ten is about how family is important and how of accepting non-traditional types of families is important. This chapter makes a point to talk about friends of the people in the study. These people are defined as new family members because of their closeness with the elderly and that they become better friends (Loe 2011). This is important to note in the life course as a transition to old age where roles are redefined after retirement or a medical issue. Chapter thirteen is about death and how they are preparing for it. This shows evidence for the life course theory and how people deal with it. This is important to note because not all people do this and it seemed to be very important for the people mentioned in this chapter.

Finally, the remaining chapters show support for the activity theory of aging. All of these chapters show how the people would engage more leisurely or more supportive activity than they might have in their working lives. Chapter 7 on resorting to “tomfoolery” shows how the people used humor in many ways during their daily lives. Most of this was to engage in social activities as the people in the chapter lived alone for the most part. Chapter 8 on care for others also shows how the activity theory is useful because it shows how caring for others helps all people involved. These examples are important in activity theory because they show people willing to go outside the norm and take different steps than other theories like disengagement would suggest.

I think that the activity theory of aging is more strongly supported by Loe’s book. More of the lessons in the book were about people engaging in activity in their normal routine and finding new ways of socializing. Specifically, lesson thirteen where the chapter is about the importance of touch to the people. This chapter shows the importance of physical contact such as hugs. This chapter was important to show how the activity theory can mesh with physical actions such as a hug.

Chapter eight and chapter nine are about reaching out to family and caring for others also show evidence for activity theory. This is done by re engaging people who may have grown apart in the way of family or by caring for others. Both of these acts involve a high level of activity to achieve the goals. Chapter eight discusses how the elderly can care for other elderly and what benefits this action has. The activity is shown to be very beneficial for the people because they have to check up on their neighbors and their family members. This activity is shown to be beneficial because the activity is needed and wanted in most cases. Chapter nine writes about spending time together with family and the benefits this has. Benefits such as engaging family members that may be new or have been separate for many years.

These chapters in Loe’s book show support for the activity theory of aging because they show that people who are more socially engaged with friends and family have a better time with the aging process. These chapters, I think, are specifically important because they show specific ways people engage in activity with others.