Author: Andre Coleman

A lady was crying in the arbitrator room because her husband severely beat him yesterday, the face of the lady was swollen and her hands were injured. It was the case of Domestic violence.

Dignity of women should be respected by every individual of the society, because the Women are the equal partner of the society. According to Beijing conference on women Dr Joaquin Navarro-Valls said (1995) “The dignity of women is prerequisite to any recognition on the part of the State. Without a clear understanding of the meaning of human dignity, discrimination will never be avoided.” But unfortunately such respect and honor could not be maintained and which resulted in an uncompromised issues such as domestic violence. It can be defined as:

“A continuum of behavior ranging from verbal abuse, physical and sexual assault to rape even homicide.” (Department of Health DOH 2000)

Domestic violence is the most serious problems that affect the health and wellbeing of the women. It ranges from single injury to life long disabilities. As Marjorie McAtee (2010) mentioned that: “Domestic violence can have a number of long-term effects on the women who are often its victims. These effects can extend far beyond immediate injury.”

It was shocked me when my friend told the story which said lady presented in front of him. The lady told that:

“I got married at the age of 21 and delivered the first baby girl within the periods of

12 months. On the completion of the second year of my marriage my husband showing irresponsible attitudes towards providing finance and participating in social activities. He starts to abuse language and threaten me; day by day his attitude become worse and he disallowed me to go out even to my parent house. I’m so sacred to him. One night he came very late and he was drunk, when I ask the reasons to late and drunk, he come to me and slaps me and start biting me with his belt, it’s now became his habit to beat , torture and abuse me, many time our neighbors came and intervene us. I’m so worried about my baby because I can not give her proper time. I also feel myself unhealthy as physically and mentally.”

Analysis:

Domestic violence is an extended phenomenon. One analysis on the basis of statistics can help us to understand the widespread of this issue. According to Aurat Founadtion press statement: (Feb. 2010).

“A total of 8548 incidents of violence against women were reported in the four

Provinces of Pakistan and in capital territory Islamabad during year 2009.”

It is not only the nationally spread phenomena but it cross the boundaries and now become the global issue As the Sushma Panday mentioned in her book of Psycho-social aspect of domestic violence:

“According to UNCIEF study report (2000) 20-50 percent of women population of world is victims of domestic violence.”

After going through the story, different question has been raised in my mind such as why domestic violence happens? What are the forms of such violence? How it effects on the health of deprived lady as well as other women? And how it can be prevented or avoided? These questions help me to analysis the said story through various literatures.

There are different domains or kinds of domestic violence which the victim as well as the under discussion lady has been faced, the first kind of violence is physical abuse in which women are being physically abused by biting, hitting, pouncing, slapping or burning. Another one is emotional or psychological abuse in which women is being humiliated and threaded by spouse. Sexual abuse is a kind of violence in which women is being forced for unsafe or unwanted sex with the same spouse or with others. Femicide is form of violence in which women are killed due gender discrimination; honor killings are one of the examples of femicide. The role of health care provider to identify such form would be helpful to plan smooth treatment process to the women health. According to Wikipedia:

“All forms of domestic abuse have one purpose: to gain and maintain total control over the victim. Abusers use many tactics to exert power over their spouse or partner.”

Susan Scott Ricci and Terri Kyle (2008) citied in the book Maternity and Pediatric Nursing that:

“Nurses play a major role in assessing women who has suffered from some types of violenceaˆ¦a visit to a health care agency is an ideal time for women to be assessed for violence.”

Besides the forms of such violence there are several causes responsible for domestic violence and these causes answered that why domestic violence happened to the said lady as well as the entire victimized women. The individual who grow in an environment where violence is practice or taught is an essential cause of violence, because such individuals develops and grow his perception or thoughts accordingly. Poverty or low socio-economic status is a prominent cause of violence because when the wants and needs not fulfilled, that resulted in domestic violence. That similarly happens in the mentioned story. Addiction is equally responsible for the said violence, As the Bethany Winkel (2009) citied: “Almost 80% of domestic violence crimes have a connection to drugs. Therefore, a big part of the solution to domestic abuse is to address the underlying substance abuse.” Mental illness is also responsible for the domestic violence. The mentally unhealthy person unable to cope with situations and domestic violence resulted. Poor self esteem and power relation or male domination is also the cause of said violence, because in our society men treated as head or dominated part of family as compare to women. The role of health care provider to identify specific causes help to guide the victim to resolve the underlying factor of violence. As the Holly McDowall cited:

“While nurses can help to prevent further abuse by placing barriers between victims and the abuse, this is more complex than referrals to shelters.”

After being analysis of causes and forms of domestic violence its essay to understand the affects of such violence to health of the deprived lady as well as other victimized women. As Kristen Fraser citied in article of Domestic Violence and Women’s Physical Health:

“Campbell et al. (2002) argue, based on their findings that abused women have increased risk of gynecological, central nervous system and stress-related health problems.”

Primarily physical health of the women is severely affected from such violence. Bruises, cuts, burns, scars and fractures are some of the sign of the physical violence. Psychological and mental health is also being affected by such violence, depression; stress, anxiety; suicidal ideations and post traumatic syndrome are some of the unhealthy signs which victim as well as deprived lady has been experienced. When the violence is practiced in front of the children it may affect his /her psychological health as well as leads to building up their negative perceptions, similarly happen in mentioned story. When the victim is physically and psychologically is unhealthy can not enjoy the well beings of life and remain unsocialized from family and friends. When one individual is affected in the society from a domestic violence than the concept of violence society is emerged, because every individual is connected to their society as a member. Therefore domestic violence affected the health and wellbeing of the women as well as entire society.

In context of said story or deprived lady; her physical health, psychological and social activity is affected from the violence and on other hand her child is also affected as passive member of violence

After having the analysis of forms, causes and affects of domestic violence. It is very important to look forward the ways that how said violence can be prevented or avoid for the deprived lady as well as the all victims. “cycle of violence theory” which was introduce by researcher and feminist Lenore Walker in 1970 which help to understand such violence It include “Honey moon Phase, Tension building Phase, and Acting out Phase” putting the lady on that cycle we can analysis that problem has been started gradually that leads to severe one. We can avoid such tensions into tension building phase. Another suggestion and recommendation include that self awareness about rights of women, approached for legal rights and mutual consensus is also some of strategies to stop violence. The role of the nurse to in the said violence is very important as Mary Cipriano and Ruth Ludwick citied:

“The challenge is what nurses can do about it. Ask a woman if she is fearful of harm. Write a letter or speak to a legislator about domestic violence. Volunteer your skills at a shelter for victims of domestic violence. Open a discussion with a person from another culture about domestic violence.”

I conclude by saying that the by proper knowledge and understanding of forms, causes effects and preventive methods of domestic violence women can safe from hazardous effects of violence on health and wellbeing.

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Question 6: Discuss why is it difficult to define identity?

The best way to characterize identity may be to see it as “a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writing blend and clash” (Sarup, 1996, p.25). Approaches to identity are multiple and from various fields such as sociology, psychology and psychoanalysis. This vast array of theories offer as many different attributes and definitions to identity which prevent the construction of a simple definition. I will argue that identity cannot be reduced to a simple and unified definition. This is most evident by understanding and analyzing the broad differences and interconnectedness between the major theories on identity, such as psychoanalysis, symbolic interactionism and performativity, which all have something to offer, each focusing more on the aspects that are relevant for their field of study.

The wish to define identity can be traced back to the Enlightenment philosophy in Europe, when humanism and the quest to find who we are and how we should behave as rational and free beings (Mansfield, 2000, p.15). Identity was then studied as a philosophical construct, and the theories, influenced by Descartes and his notion of duality of the human mind between an emotional self and a rational thoughts as constituting our identity, led to believe the subject as being ‘I think therefore I am’ (Sarup, 1996, p.46). This Cartesian approach considering the self as unified stayed the main view for many years. However we now live in a post-Cartesian world, and the development of fields such as psychoanalysis, sociology and social psychology led to a shift in the way to look at identity, by decentralizing the subject (Sarup, 1996, p.46) to take into account different evolution of society and the complexity of human beings.

With the development of psychoanalysis, initiated by the researches and theories of Sigmund Freud, the approach to the study of identity changed focus and meaning. Freud believed that most of our identity is based upon the result of the negotiation of actions and reactions between the individual and the external environment (Elliott, 2007, p.53), such as the family, culture and society. According to him, we are not born with an identity, but we construct one through the process of identification. This is especially true in the early ages of your life when you learn what is acceptable according to social criteria and what has to be prevented, which is then repressed according to Freud into the unconscious; the Oedipus complex is a good example of structuring the subject in terms of identification (Sarup, 1996, p.30). It is the result of these interactions which will define who we are. It is important then to notice that for Freud one’s identity construction is mostly unconscious and resides within oneself (Lawler, 2008, p.78); the focus is, as such, placed on the individual and his capacity to adapt and positively interact with the world.

Following psychoanalytic traditions, academics such as Eissler theorized the sense of identity as being based on memory elements which in turn depend on the capacity of the ego to consider these memories as its ‘own’, and be then able to either repress or integrate them successfully (De Levita, 1965, p.106). Stephanie Lawler, also on memory, argues that identity is not something fundamental and essential, but something produced through the narratives people use to explain and understand their lives (Lawler, 2008, p.17). As such they use their memories to interpret their lives, and at the same time these memories are already interpretations of a past experience: memories themselves are social products.

What psychoanalysis can bring to the study of identity is that it gives a way to consider the place of unconscious and non-rational elements of identity (Lawler, 2008, p.83) which are psychoanalytic elements that are necessary to understand the construction of identity but which are often denied by theorists exploring social dynamics impacts (Sarup, 1996, p.39). Furthermore, by placing the unconscious and ideas of repression at the centre of his model of identity, Freud shows that we can only know ourselves incompletely and with difficulty, rendering identity blurred and unfinished (Lawler, 2008, p.99). However, by concentrating so much on the self’s experience of identity, this approach might lack depth in understanding the impact of some social forces such as inequality, oppression and domination (Elliott, 2007, p.70).

Another approach that developed around that time but in the sociological field, is the theory known as symbolic interactionism. Largely influenced by Mead’s theory, it gives less importance to the individual than psychoanalysis and in contrary concentrates on the effects of interactions between the social reality and an individual. In fact, Mead believes that a subjective self is fashioned and shaped by the cooperative interaction with the world and others. It is indeed through the use of symbols – which meanings we learn and understand thanks to experiences, to languages, values and culture – and according to our surrounding environment that we are constructing our identities (Elliott, 2007, p.32). In other words, according to Mead, we make sense of ourselves only by the time we make sense of the world and others around us, by developing a sense of difference and recognition through symbols such as language. As such, it is necessary to distinguish between the “I”, representing the internal needs, feelings, whishes and the “me”, representing the socialized self, which appears in reaction to what we see around us (Carriera Da Silva, 2007, pp.51-59): it is the consciousness of ourselves we develop in reaction to developing a sense of others, a differentiation from them.

Something common with psychoanalysis is the importance of childhood in development of the sense of self, as Mead believes in the importance of the processes of ‘play’ and ‘game’ in becoming a healthy mind which can interact with others and society (Carriera Da Silva, 2007, pp.48-51). However Strauss, who on that aspect shares symbolic interactionists view, rejects the idea that the self is determined only through early childhood, and would then be static, and in contrary argues about a theory of adult identity change (Musolf, 2003, p. 167) showing that we are flexible beings, and are continuously socialized into new identities (Musolf, 2003, pp. 77, 170). Finally, Strauss’s theory incorporates the structural influences on social behaviors that he believes are neglected in the basic theory. Language is very important, with for example our names being the first act of self-introduction and as such functions as a social object by which others may initially typify us (Musolf, 2003, pp. 164-165).

However, symbolic interactionism has been accused of being too rationalistic, cognitive and conscious, and indeed seems to have little recognition of the relation between desire, wishes, fantasies and social control that is argued in psychoanalysis (Elliott, 2007, p.35).

Later on, approaches started to focus more on how identity functioned to try and explain what it is. This is the case of Anthony Goffman who, departing from symbolic interactionism, believes in the strategic performativity of the self in everyday life as constituting different identities for ourselves where the social sphere therefore represents a stage where we have to act an identity (Lawler, 2008, p104). Our self is reflected to the world as a facade, and the individual is “the creative and reflective agent who decides – and in doing so constitutes self identity – on how to carry out such roles as well as the staging of role performances” (Elliott, 2007, p. 38). We therefore have a set of identities for which we know how to perform and what expectations people have of them, and we are constantly constraint to be on display and perform, as well as adding roles to adapt to every situation (Musolf, 2003, p. 164).

Taking further Goffman’s performativity, Mills argues that the performing self appeared as a result of the structural transformation of society into a bureaucratic consumerist one, and that it leads to the disappearing of real bonds in society replaced by a ‘cash nexus’ as the only uniting element (Musolf, 2003, pp. 164, 172).

Goffman takes some distance from symbolic interactionism however as he focuses on interactions and as such gives no importance to the difference between the I and the me; this leads to questioning the presence of a real self existing outside such practices – the real identity of the ‘I’, hiding behind the personae and roles people assume, but he seems to leave undeveloped this aspect of the theory, concentrating on studying the facades we show and not the true identity we might have behind it (Hetherington, 1998, pp. 150-151). As such theorists like De Levita have interpreted that for Goffman, the roles we play do not hide anything comparable to what Jung would argue (1965, p.132). According to Jung, the persona regroups the totality of the roles which a certain individual fulfils and portrays to the world, a similar idea to Goffman’s performance but their ideas shift as for defining the place of identity in this schema. Indeed it is explicit for Jung that the persona only is a ‘shield’ for our true identity (De Levita, 1965, p.132) which is not so clear for Goffman. In contrary, he argues that the roles/performances are what make us persons; we are constantly acting, but what those roles add up to is our identity (Lawler, 2008, p.106). Take a lecturer for example; he will act differently while teaching in classes than how he is with his friends over lunch, and even differently than how he will act with his children in the evening. It doesn’t mean that he is someone else more true outside of these contexts, or that he is fraudulent about his identity, but that all these roles represent who he is.

Today, with the increasing influence of the media as a social force, Goffman’s theory might be more adapted than ever as these media perpetuate performance demands. Indeed, as Altheide argues, our everyday life saturated by the media reshapes identity into “another piece of merchandise that we shill just as advertising promotes corporate products” with which we play as a toy (Altheide, 2000, pp. 13, 20).

Another way of thinking about identity comes from Giddens’ theory of reflexivity and social change. Today according to Giddens, people are more self-aware, and therefore can make strategic decision for their future and about who they are or want to be (Giddens, 1991, p.35). Identity is not passive and has to be reflexively made from a multitude of often competing choices, and the settings of uncertainty and multiple choices render the notions of trust, risk and ontological security central to the reflexive self. Indeed, as Giddens puts it, trust is “at the origin of the experience of a stable external world and a coherent sense of self-identity” (Giddens, 1991, p.51). His concept considers how in late modernity humans develop a psychological self and re-focus on their identity, to try and reflect on a sense of self, helped by the many experts, information and advices, largely psychological and sociological (Elliott, 2007, p.45), which are now available about how we should live our lives, such as self-help books or TV shows like Dr Phil which reminds of what Rose calls the ‘psy’ complex (Rose, 1999). Therefore our identity becomes what we believe or interpret ourselves to be and how we want to shape ourselves. His way of characterizing individuals as being almost “self-mastering” leads to many critics, considering his theory as too individualistic (Elliott, 2007, pp.48-49).

Giddens is critical of overly pessimistic accounts of the post-modern self as fragmented (Heaphy, 2007, p.94). Instead for Giddens, individuals actively participate in forging their self-identities and in doing so contribute to social life in a way that has global implications. Giddens’ analysis begins with the premise that all human beings possess an awareness of what they are doing and why they are doing so, and they monitor themselves in producing and reproducing social conventions (Heaphy, 2007, pp.95, 119). The problem with this approach is that Giddens fails to take into account power relations and the possible lack of choice or the different consequences of choices. As Lash indeed argues, “contradiction and contingency, he suggests, are far more characteristic of the contemporary self than Giddens’ theory of reflexivity will allow” and he therefore counsels to use Foucault’s insights on power and control where reflexivity’s shows limitation (in Heaphy, 2007, pp.112-113).

To have a greater account of power relation in the creation of identity, one should turn to Foucault and Foucauldian theorists. Foucault’s argument is that particular kinds of identity are ‘made up’ within relations of power/knowledge (Lawler, 2008, p.55). To put it simply, he argues that how we are is an effect of what we know ourselves to be, or in other words, we are addressed, and address ourselves as certain kind of person, and through this process we become that person. Lawler gives the example of the subjectivation of sexuality, showing that we don’t understand sexual preference as something we do but as something we are (2008, p.59). Subjectivation is therefore the idea of becoming subjects by gaining specific identities (Lawler, 2008, p.62). Foucauldian scholars follow his theory and have argued that society is governed through self-surveillance, initiated by social institutions, to encourage individuals to actively condition and shape themselves according to social norms (Heapy, 2007, pp.33-34). Another important element is the idea that we are not regulated by the media but regulating ourselves with it, using different means such as counseling or self help books, because of our strive to be a certain type of person in order to be normal, healthy, self-fulfilled (Lawler, 2008, p.63) which relates to theories previously discussed. According to Rose, the language of psychology provides an important way of constructing one’s identity, of identifying one’s deepest thoughts, wishes and conflicts (Rose, 1999).

However one of the critic against Foucault’s ideas relates to the lack of insight into why people make subjectivation investments in some forms of self-understands and not in others, or also how such understandings come to constitute the self (Lawler, 2008, p.76).

As we have seen through these renowned examples of how to frame identity, there are many approaches to the study of identity, which define or characterize it in different ways, blurring the possibility to give a simple unified definition. Identity is not a thing but a process in constant change of shape and meaning, and that is why it is difficult to grasp it. Because identity is a broad and nebulous concept, it is complex and multiple, and can mean different things depending on your purposes of research and approach. Some of these theories concentrate on how to see the individual from society’s perspective, while some others study the positions of these individuals within the society, but what seems common to most of them is the idea that identity plays a role of mediator (Sarup, 1996, p.28) between the external and the internal, between the self and others.

Reference list:

Altheide, D. (2000). Identity and the Definition of the Situation in a Mass-Mediated Context. Symbolic Interaction, vol. 23 , pp.1-27.

Carreira Da Silva, F. (2007). G. H. Mead: A critical introduction. Cambridge: Polity Press.

De Levita, D. (1965). The Concept of Identity. Paris and The Hague: Mouton & co.

Elliott, A. (2007). Concepts of the self. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self-identity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Heaphy, B. (2007). Late Modernity and Social Change. London and New York: Routledge.

Hetherington, K. (1998). Expressions of Identity. London: Sage Publications.

Lawler, S. (2008). Identity: Social Perspectives. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Mansfield, N. (2000). Subjectivity: theories of self from Freud to Haraway, New York: New York University Press.

Musolf, G. R. (2003). Structure and Agency in everyday life. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Rose, N. (1999). ‘Obliged to be free’ in Governing the soul: the shaping of the private self, Second edition. London: Free Association Books.

Sarup, M. (1996). Identity, Culture and the Postmodern world. Athenes: University of Georgia Press.

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In-text referencing

From Marriage to Live-inaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦ What Next? Change is a rule of life. Any change brings with it some kind of controversy as it disturbs the existing order of life. In Marxian philosophy it is the interaction between thesis(existing order) and anti-thesis(new change) resulting into a new mechanism called as synthesis. When any economic change takes place, it brings with it social and moral changes too. Globalization is such a phenomenon of this century which has resulted into a chain reaction of social transformation in India with special reference to family and marriage system.

Globalization is a term used for a number of economic, social, technological and political changes on a world scale. These changes have impacted human relations in the Third World countries in general and India in particular in an unprecedented way. In the process of globalization, many family ties are lost forever. Globalization has stressed all relationships. In family life, the formerly dominant values of loyalty, duty, obedience, and self-sacrifice are slowly being displaced by the standards of personal fulfillment, companionship, sexual gratification for spouse, equalitarianism, and compatibility, at least among the upper classes in developing countries.

Man is essentially a social animal. Life for us is a long journey full of challenges and problems. We do not want to wade through it alone, but crave for company and loyalty of another individual who will provide a shoulder to lean on and share some of our responsibilities. Thus, the institution of marriage was created in which two adults of opposite sex formally tie the knot in a socially and legally accepted and enduring bond that is meant to last an entire lifetime.

However in the last few decades of globalization, this time-tested arrangement has come under threat. Unbelievable as it may sound, marriage has begun to lose its importance and sanctity. People today express openly,” Do we need to get married at all when we can have everything that marriage offers without formally tying the knot? The Secular education and scientific temperament of people which make them question everything and women have become independent socially and financially and see no problem in living alone. As a result, live-in relationships have become quite common.

The legalization of ‘live-in’ relationships in Maharashtra has raised a great controversy all over India. But then the question that arises here is, why is it that more and more people prefer to have a temporary live-in than to have the permanent baggage to a marriage? How come a society as conservative and as traditional as the Indian society has given place to an idea as modern as ‘live-in’? Marriage is considered to be the sacred bond between a man and a woman. So is the concept of ‘live-in’ immoral? When the government is ready to acknowledge the existence of live-in relationship in India and is making legal arrangements, why has it become a social issue? Marriage or a live-in relationship is a concern of two individuals and the role of society has to be the least in a democratic set up of India where we guarantee certain freedoms to individuals and one such freedom is to choose your life partner. Whether you choose a marriage or a live- in kind of arrangement, it should not lead to one as ethical and moral and the other as unethical and immoral. I think this is and should be more logical way of thinking.

Different views on Live-in Relationship

There are many individuals and couples who are in support of the legalization of live-in relationships in India today.

Famous film maker, Shyam Benegal “It a very good step as it will not only protect the rights of women who enter into a live-in relationship but will also be helpful to the children from such relations in getting their rights in future.

Marriage Counsellor Mangala Samant, “Nearly 20 per cent of IT professionals prefer to have a live-in relationship before getting married. Prolonged working, stressful lives and an inactive social life are some of the reasons for this trend.”

Famous Social Activist Shobhaa De has commented that the dynamics of marriages have changed mainly because women are now financially independent and therefore in a position to question the old chauvinist order created mainly by men. Thus Women who have now certain amount of bying power and dispensing power too, find some space to decide which type of relationship they wish to choose. They feel that they can also choose partnerships as per their convenience.

According to a Survey by The Journal of Marriage and the Family, live in’ relationships are weak commitments.

Social Geographer Soma Das says that people who opt for live-in relationships do so because they do not believe in marriage.

Live-In Relationship

The twentieth century recorded certain changes of far reaching importance in the family system specifically in India under the influence of globalization, westernization, industrialization, modernization and greater population mobility across the sub-continent. Ever since then the Indian family has progressively confronted and combated various kinds of problems and challenges. The Indian society has experienced over a period of a centaury great changes in social norms that appear to be far greater than the expectations of Indian sociologists and anthropologists. The reasons for these far reaching changes were

Disappearance of traditional joint family from the urban scene.

Increase in the life expectancy of women from 23 years in 1901-10 to 65 years (it is higher than that of men by three years) in 2009.

Rise in the proportion of female headed households, decrease in the average age of household heads.

Increase in the incidence of separation and divorce, greater tension and conflicts between wife and husband as an outcome of marriage.

Increased freedom of marital choice.

Greater involvement of females in decision making process.

Increase in the mean age at marriage of female from 13 years in 1901 to 18 years in 2001.

Rise in the level of female education.

These dynamics reveal the whole range of changes in the family system- its structure, functions, core values and regulative norms. This has resulted into a substitute for the deep routed family and marriage system called as a “Live-in Relationship” The legal definition of live in relationship is “an arrangement of living under which the couples which are unmarried live together to conduct a long-going relationship similarly as in marriage.”

In present time more and more couples choose not to marry, but they desire to have long-term relationships without marriage. Thus they live together without being married, just like spouses. This arrangement is termed as ‘Live-in Relationship’. Live-in relationships among urban, educated, upper-middle class young people began as a declaration of independence, as a way of keeping away from the ‘shackles’ of institutionalized marriages. In fact, it’s a willful rejection of the institution of marriage, and of the restrictions and inequalities it has come to stand for. Live-in relationships, pre-marital sex, divorces, words that were taboo just five years ago, define the changing face of relationships in India today. Live-in relationship is a very progressive concept that gives couples the time to find out if they are compatible.

Some statistics

A United Nations Population Fund study found that 60% of married Indian women were victims of rape, beating or sexual abuse at the hands of their husbands.

In 2005, the National Crime Records Bureau recorded 155,553 crimes against women. The real figure may be much more as a large number of cases that go unreported due to the fear of social stigma.

According to Kavita Jain, an expert, certified counselor and trainer on subject ‘Parenting’, 60% increase found in live-in relationships in India since 2004.

According to the census of India data, of all the households nuclear family constituted 70 percent and single member or more than one member households without spouse (or eroded families) comprised about 11 percent. The extended and joint family or households together claim merely 20 percent of all households. This is the overall picture about the entire country, whereas in the case of urban areas the proportion of nuclear family is somewhat higher still.

The available data from the National Family and Health Survey-1 of 1992-93 (henceforth NFHS) suggest that joint family does not make up more than five percent of all families in urban areas (Singh, 2004:137).

In Maharashtra, a state that has witnessed two out of every five marriages end in divorce, according to figures from 2005.

Reasons for increasing Live-in Relationships in India
Economic Factors

Tremendous growth of Indian call centers in the last few years resulting in considerable socio-economic and cultural developments in Indian society

No legal hassles, financial complications or complex negotiations for dividing assets and debts between the partners

The increased career options available to the Indian youth have helped them improve their personality, knowledge, become more mature and ready to take different challenges

Key changes brought by the BPO industry as increased financial independence of today’s youth. (on an average a call center employ earns anywhere between Rs 10,000-15,000 and lives with his family, it translates into a higher purchasing power.)

The impact of consumerism on the financially independent youth is clearly visible. The general trend is to spend eating out, entertainment, buying branded consumer goods or electronics or even buying a car or house. (motto of ‘live life king-size’.)

Both the high income group and the lower income group are in a position to readily accept newer kinds of relationships. A girl from a poor family in need of shelter without much hesitation can consider no harm in living with a man of a slightly higher financial status without marrying him.

Frequent switchover of jobs

Increased opportunities for the economic emancipation of women via lucrative jobs in emerging services and information technology (IT) industry through globalization (in Maharashtra, where the female workforce mans the IT, outsourcing and services industries)

Social Factors

Divorce cases are on the rise as the present-day couples believe that it is better to end a relationship than carry on with the burden of a dead relationship for life and the couples do not hesitate to seek divorce at the slightest provocation

The long and odd working hours, and ‘too soon and too much’ of a responsibility, snacks at work impacts on the mental and health conditions of these people. Their working hours also give them hardly anytime to interact with their families or friends

Change in social equilibrium: The BPO sector employs thousands of women every year, providing new and convenient forms of work for women, which helps them take care of their family in better manner. The call centers also prefer women as they are perceived be more hard working, patient, loyal and with better interpersonal skills than men.

Though there are many families who perceive employment in a call center for women a ‘taboo’, this perception is slowly changing. Due to the international secure working atmosphere, higher salaries, gender-neutral (Zero-tolerance for sexual abuse), free pick-up and drop-off facility at home, BPO is viewed as ‘the’ choice for a majority number of women.This has helped them have more confidence, a positive attitude and outlook towards life and helped in the overall empowerment of women

delay in the age at marriage, higher rates of marital disruption and more egalitarian gender role attitudes among men and women

Today, career is everything for Indians. Marriage can wait, hence, they prefer live-ins “Career has become their focus point, and rather than getting married, they accept live-in relationships as a part of their lives,”

relationships are becoming more cross-cultural, they are also more contractual now, probably leading to more clear-cut expectations from each other

Subjective Factors

Avoiding responsibility as the prime reason.

Lack of commitment

Disrespect of social bonds

Lack of tolerance in relationships

Element of convenience.

Freedom

No need to surrender any rights or accept any obligations.

Test of emotional and physical compatibility

Freedom to the partners to walk out of the relationship as and when they want.

Live-in-relationships are not new in our society. The only difference is that now people have become open about it. Formally they were known as “Maitri Karars” in which people of two opposite sex would enter into a written agreement to be friends, live together and look after each other. Ancient Indian laws contained the concept of the Gandharva Vivah(consensual marriage) A change is visible in our society from arranged marriages to love marriages and now to ‘live-in-relationships’. All these were the same live in relationships but less explicitly expressed. When live-in relationships first came out into the open in India, it created an uproar, with accusations of it being against Indian morality and culture. As the decades have gone by, the number of couples opting for cohabitation, without the strings of marriage, has increased significantly. It is a trend that is more evident in the last decade. That the Indian government has recently recognised live-in relationships on par with marriage, in a new law on domestic violence proves that this is a growing social reality. With this frame of reference let us turn to marriage system in India.

Marriage

A marriage is taken as a life-long union for the couple, as it is a sacrament, rather than a contract between the couple to live in a social union so long as it is cordially feasible. Even in the event of frequent mental and physical torture, most Indian women persist in marriage, According to the 2001 census, India consists of 192.7 million households spread over 0.59 million villages and about 5,000 towns.

Reasons for the long lasting of Marriage System in India:

Remarriage of divorced or separated women is quite difficult.

Women have not been entirely averse to cohabitation as the socio-cultural norms have always attached a certain social stigma to divorce.

Substantial benefit marriage offers to the couple is emotional commitment and support.

The partners demand loyalty and bare all their secrets to each other and share their finances to buy assets for the family. There is no other relationship that can match the emotional support, social recognition and legal rights that a marriage provides.

Social and Legal recognition.(The society recognizes and respects the relationship).

Marriage is protected by the law and both the partners have their clearly defined rights and obligations.

Strict provisions to take care of children, upbringing in case of parental divorce.

Lot of money and effort to dissolve a marriage because it is a very formal and water-tight arrangement. One just cannot walk away lightly.

Children need security of home , raised by both parents for best results. Home is something to come back to, after a grueling day and for children to thrive.

For the sake of future generations it has to be preserved with all its sanctity.

People had both respect for and fear of social values and public opinion.

System of religious belief has provided enough sustenance to the institution of marriage and family

However, the relatively higher divorce rate in cities, connote that marriage is an institution in trouble, or else expectations are so high that people are no longer willing to put up with the kinds of dissatisfactions and empty shell marriages that the previous generations tolerated. High rate of remarriages clearly means that people are sacrificing their marriages because of unsatisfactory relationships. Our whole socialization is such that for any unsuccessful marriage which results in such violence or divorce, it is always the woman, who is held responsible. Cultural beliefs and traditions that discriminate against women may be officially discredited, but they continue to flourish at the grassroots levels. Family relations in India are governed by personal laws.

This social transformation thus underlines the need for a substitute for marriage in terms of a live-in relationship which has an edge over marriages like,

It gives the partners a chance to understand each other. The partners are free from any social obligations and can hence live without any guilt. They reduce the number of divorces and the mental torture families go through. It reduces domestic violence as the partner can leave anytime

Marriage does not offer personal freedom to partners as a live-in relationship does

You need not stick together if both partners are really incompatible. The trauma is much less than divorce because divorce itself is hurtful with false allegations and counter allegations making it a cruel battle of wits where no one wins.

Apart from these advantages there are Bottlenecks of Live-in Relationship in India.

The biggest drawback is the social stigma in Indian society. People have yet not accepted this form of relationship.

Custody and status of children

Because there is no social responsibility, the partner is free. He/she may make misuse of this fact and constantly change partners.

Can definitely hurt sentiments of many communities.

In a country like India, where love is not merely give and take, it is doubtful that living relationships can always succeed.

When the couple is married, they may not be able to give up the social and domestic responsibilities which they could casually bypass while in a living relationship.

A Live-in relationship is not as open in India. It may cause a sense of discomfort to people living around.

Most of the times, living relationships goes against the family. By the time the family accepts, the couple may loose interest in each other.

Individual choice has always been subservient to the communal sentiment or public opinion

In January 2008, the Supreme Court validated long-term live-in relationships as marriages. A Supreme Court bench headed by Justice Arijit Pasayat with P Satasivan declared that children born out of such a relationship will no longer be called illegitimate. Legalizing ‘live-in’ relationships has generated a fierce debate across the society with a section hailing it as a pragmatic move while others fearing that it will destroy the sanctity of marriage. In a country like india this is one of the odd step taken, but still its a better one. After 61 years of independence, Indian women are increasingly realizing their rights and exercising personal choice. In a bold move, the Maharashtra state government recently proposed an amendment of Section 125 of the Criminal Penal Code to protect the pecuniary and other interests of the “other woman”, with a change in the definition of the “wife”. The legislation seeks to provide security to women who enter into cohabitation with a man out of choice or may have been hoodwinked into it. The bill now awaits the approval of the federal government and the president’s assent. Live-in relationships have been part of the Indian ethos for a long time though a legal sanction has always been lacking. Live-in relationships may have attained legal recognition, despite the controversies surrounding it but whether it has social acceptance is another issue altogether.

Conclusion

In a Parliamentary Democracy of ours, legalizing of such a relationship itself is advancement and perhaps it is time to re evaluate our notions of marriage and work with natural forces rather than against them. It is ridiculous to deprive adults around age thirty to remain virgin if they don’t get married. It’s against nature. Perhaps time is ripe to rethink the meaning of marriage; time to give two adults choice to look for compatibility before they exchange vows to remain forever with each other. All these concepts are too progressive for our present-day society and will take some time before finding universal acceptance. But the very fact that these phrases are being openly talked about confirms that the concepts have arrived. Commitment is an important aspect of any relation. Any relationship, whether a live-in or marriage should ensure that it causes no domestic violence, that leads to mental imbalance and psychological differences in children.

In terms of Karl Marx’s doctrine of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis, the live in relationship is anti-thesis of the family system based on marriage as a thesis and a synthesis is awaited in terms of Universalization of this concept in a country like ours. Perhaps the synthesis would be the wide acceptance of the term DINK (Double Income No Kids).

When discussing the subject of retirement, the first issue that one comes across is that of defining what retirement is, and when it occurs. According to Denton and Spencer (2009), the Oxford English Dictionary defines retirement as follows: “To withdraw from office, or an official position; to give up one’s business or occupation in order to enjoy more leisure or freedom (especially after having made a competence or earned a pension)”. They continue to add that retirement can be voluntary or involuntary; gradual or sudden; temporary or permanent. Hence, there is no one clear definition which embodies all the possible situations.

In contrast, Banks and Smith (2006), argue that retirement is made up of the following characteristics; it is a sudden, rather than a gradual process, it is a permanent and voluntary choice, it equals to drawing a pension, and it is a decision made by the individual rather than cooperatively with household members. This is the concept of retirement that is adopted by most economists. In addition, retirement is a state of mind in the sense that the individual recognizes him/herself as being retired. The definition is hence a subjective one which may mean different things to different people and populations. In itself, it is a broad word which encompasses a number of different elements.

For many workers, retirement is seen as an opportunity of long awaited freedom from the responsibilities and stress of employment. It brings change and marks a transition into the later life stages. It is a time of recreation and travel, and an opportunity to develop new mental and physical routines. Planning and anticipating retirement play an essential part in the lives of many workers and their families. Recently, the new phenomenon of early retirement has become increasingly more popular (Rosenkoetter & Garris, 2001).

Shaw and Hill (2002) stated that a commonly used definition for retirement is “an age-related withdrawal from active working life”. However, one has to define what constitutes an “active working life”. Some researchers have chosen to allow their respondents to classify themselves as to whether they are retired or not. This approach, however, has the disadvantage that the definition of retirement will not be the same for everyone as some people who are working and receiving a previous job pension may consider themselves retired whilst others who have stopped working and are taking care of grandchildren, for instance, do not consider themselves as retired. Hence, different definitions of retirement result in different retirement patterns for men and women. The authors go on to argue that as there is no single best definition for retirement, the definition should be adapted according the question being asked, therefore multiple definitions would be helpful when dealing with specific differences in men and women’s decisions to leave the paid work force.

Origins and History of Retirement

In their respective works, Graebner (1980) and Costa (2000) provide a brief history on the evolution of retirement. Back in the 1850’s, 77% of men who were over 65 years were still working. Not working was viewed as inappropriate and hence people worked as long as they could. In pre-industrial America, most worked in agriculture, and in this area there was no retirement. When a man became too old to do strenuous work such as ploughing, his son would usually take over whilst he shifts to less demanding chores. Before the Civil War, the elderly were viewed as valued people, for a number of reasons such as their knowledge, hard-work, moral guidance they offered and the contribution in reforming the country. As they grew older, they were still respected and played important roles in the community and families. After the Civil War, though, this began to change. The nation shifted from being primarily rural to an increasingly urban society transformed by industrialization. Unlike agricultural workers, urban workers did not have the familial support to enable them to shift to less strenuous work as they aged. By the 1880’s, the American economy relied on manufacturing, and relationships between young and old workers started to become troublesome. The idea of retirement started to develop as a means to deal with these conflicts.

As industrialization grew in the United States, business and government leaders realized that they need to develop a mechanism which would stimulate economic growth whilst assisting in the replacement of less efficient older workers with cheaper, younger ones. The preferred mechanism for this was the mandatory retirement of older workers. With the introduction of machines, one began to realize that older workers were neither fast nor strong enough to operate machinery and this slowed down production. By getting older workers out of the way, the workforce would be replaced with a younger, faster, and more efficient one. Attitudes toward elderly people became increasingly negative. By the early 1900’s factory owners restricted the hiring of older people and reinforced retirement policies which were mandatory in order to get rid of the ones already employed. Since many business owners were uncomfortable with the idea of getting rid of loyal older workers leaving them without any employment and income whatsoever, some of them offered pensions or helped to build company homes for the elderly. By the year 1920, mandatory retirement with a small pension became the preferred method for moving older workers aside. Hence, employers eliminated older workers but in the mean time felt secure that the retired worker would have enough money to survive. Without any doubt, some older workers resisted this plan. Social services were almost inexistent and retirement meant a lower standard of living. Yet, when confronted with so many retirement rules, workers found themselves forced out of their jobs so much so that by the year 1920, almost half of all white male workers over the age of 60 were no longer in the workforce. Still, older workers discovered that retiring and receiving some sort of, even if an insufficient, pension was better than being pushed aside without nothing at all.

The first federal retirement legislation became known as “The Railroad Retirement Act” of 1935, and was a testing ground for later development. The easiest way out of chronic unemployment in the country became the retirement of all older persons; the only problem was making sure that pensions are available.

Things changed once again during World War II when anyone who could went back to work. This put back the country into full employment once again. However, after the war, retirement was once again the mechanism which controlled costs and employment rates. Even though pensions became increasingly common, many retired workers remained unhappy about the idea of retirement so much so that an alarming number even refused to apply for social benefits. Hence, business and governments started to instil ideas to older workers with the idyllic thoughts of leisure, and the well-earned reward of free time at their age. This is when insurance companies started to make large profits out of life insurance policies and when sociologists formed the theories of aging. By the late 1960’s, the mythology of retirement was completely assimilated into American’s minds.

In the mid-1980’s, mandates changed pension rules so that widows were not left without any benefits. Also, social security benefits were increased and as a result, the percent of pensioners living in poverty significantly dropped. By the 1970’s and 1980’s, pensions were fixed to a retirement formula which depended on the length of service and final salary of the person. This meant that a worker would not know what pension he would receive until he actually retired. To avoid all this, business shifted from traditional defined pension plans to defined contribution plans where they promised that a contribution of a certain amount would be done towards each worker’s pension.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Retirement

According to Coni, Davison, and Webster (1992), during retirement income is likely to be reduced, however occupational pensions which are becoming more common offer greater monetary security. Those who have become overly dependent on trappings of their employment may realize that their status has changed and that they miss the company of the work-place. On the other hand, retirement should be looked upon as a time of opportunity, which after all, may last for more than 30 years. If the approach towards retirement is a happy and an enthusiastic one, then it is very likely that it will live up to expectations. When it comes to learning new material, older learners usually do better due to higher motivation levels, and increased self-knowledge. The authors go on to argue that everybody has to find their own way through old age and retirement, and if one, at his or her age, feel happy and comfortable doing something, then that thing is right for him or her. When it comes to relationships, retirement may be the only time that one can truly live together with their partner since they are no longer kept apart by employment and family, even though difficulties may arise in this regard as well. Regarding fitness, one should keep in mind that the fitter one is, the less likely it is to become ill and the more likely one would make a full and swift recovery. Since the elderly are affected with degenerative changes, attention should be paid to both physical and mental fitness. Muscles waste in a sedentary lifestyle but they have the ability to redevelop and this can be achieved by doing an activity which one enjoys and gives them pleasure. These include; walking the dog, ballroom dancing, and even cultivating a garden. Mental activities should be taken up to develop and maintain the mind by learning, re-learning, or improving a foreign language. Prevention of illness is a lifelong need, and good habits must be started early and maintained throughout. A common reason for eagerly anticipating retirement may be the wish to be freed from a strict routine inflicted by employment, which is understandable, but also inappropriate. Retirement should provide the opportunity of restructuring one’s routine. This can be done by establishing enough time for physical activity, some time for learning, time for family and time for one’s self. Having said all this, during retirement, one may be faced by unpleasant tasks, decisions, and situations. Therefore, fore-thinking potential problems such as loneliness, bereavement, becoming a carer, or becoming disabled, will always help to deal with such dilemmas.

Windmill (1992), states that retirement can mean a loss of status, a sense of no longer being a useful society member, losing one’s sense of purpose, and becoming part of the ‘receiving end’ of society. However, one should understand the importance of preparing for retirement so that mental, physical, and social changes do not come by as a shock. Retirement means planning finances, doing leisure activities, and considering health and housing needs.

Eliopoulos (1993) adds that retirement may be the first experience of the impact of ageing for many. It is facilitated by learning how to use, appreciate and gain satisfaction from leisure time, which is also a therapeutic outlet for life stresses. The author also mentions the stages of retirement developed by Robert Atchley in 1975, which, however, not all retirees go through: the remote phase where retirement is anticipated but preparation is seldom done; the near phase when preparation for leaving the job begins; the honeymoon phase which is the euphoric period that follows retirement; the disenchantment phase where depression may be experienced; the reorientation phase where realistic choices are considered; the stability phase when an understanding of a retirement roles is achieved and the termination phase when retirement role is lost due to illness or disability.

Studies suggest this life event may be a stressful even for those experiencing health or financial issues at the time of retirement; however, those who manage to plan out their retirement are less likely to experience financial burdens. For some, retirement may mean loss of income and identity, loss of status authority, loss of purpose in life and loss of peer contacts (Miller, 1995).

Retirement in Malta

Locally, workers nearing the retirement age may be eligible for a retirement pension. A person would be eligible to a Contributory Retirement Pension if he or she satisfies a number of conditions; the person has reached the retirement age, 61 for males, and 60 for females, the worker has been employed or self-employed for not less than 10 year prior to retirement; the worker has paid at least 156 contributions; and that on the day of retirement, the worker has satisfied the relevant contribution conditions (Ministry of Education, Employment and the Family, 2011).

The General Workers’ Union (2009) offers a course entitled “Preparazzjoni ghall-Irtirar” (Preparation for Retirement) and also houses a Pensioner’s Association whose major task is to “attend to special and particular needs of pensioners and retired workers”. It protects rights and interests, and safeguards pension levels and standard of living. Cultural, social, and educational activities are held annually and membership is open to all retired workers.

Planning for Retirement

According to Coni et al., (1992), we should all be planning our own retirement throughout our lives, and that even school-aged children should receive some form of instruction about the topic. This would enable younger people to have a better understanding of what ageing is and learn about some complexities of being old. Having hobbies and leisure pursuits at a young age may introduce them to activities that they enjoy. Hence, once retired, one would be able to revert to these activities.

Financial planning must also start early because in order for one to have a secure retirement capital, an adequate income must firstly be assured. Unfortunately, attention also needs to be paid towards the possibility of widowhood (especially in women), and that remarriage may be an additional complication.

Rosenkoetter & Garris (2001), state that in a study carried out in 1989, retirement planning was the second strongest predictor of satisfaction amongst male respondents, and in another study in 1997; it was found that retirement planning correlated with positive attitudes towards retirement. By participating in pre-retirement programs or courses, one can start assessing his or her attitudes and preparedness towards retiring. These courses would be most successful if they manage to address financial and health matters. Since retirement may prove a new meaning and value to one’s life, pre-retirement counseling assists individuals in their preparation. In an Australian study, it was noted that retirement may be a stressful and challenging event and that planning was directly correlated with successful adaptation.

The authors conclude that post-retirement perceptions of planning most of the time may not correspond with pre-retirement preparation. In their study, more emphasis was placed of financial planning and psychosocial adjustment to their life after employment. There was a significant increase in sedentary activities with may correlate with an increased risk of health problems found in this age group, hence retirees should be encouraged not only in social interactions, but in physical activity too. Differences were found in planning according to the person’s employment position, which relates to the need of developing post-retirement planning programs which are individualized to the type of worker.

In their study, Phua and McNall (2008) concluded that as men age, concern about securing their finances increases and that this issue remains at top priority among people approaching retirement. The authors say that studies show that retirees eventually adjust their spending patterns according to the dynamics of their financial situation. Expectations towards marriage and having children is another issues that affects pre-retirement planning and this includes a need to resolve the conflict between saving and increased demands on financial resources that a family can require.

According to Elder and Rudolph (1999), retirement satisfaction is based on both financial and non-financial variables. Results from their study indicated that attending preretirement courses and planning meetings were positively related to retirement satisfaction. Also, planning out activities correlated with an increased likelihood of retirement satisfaction.

Theories of Ageing

Throughout the years, scientists have been trying to develop theories of ageing in an attempt to answer questions such as “Why do we age?” and “How do we age?”. Early sociologic theories, in the 1960’s, focused on adjustments of older people towards loss of roles and reference groups. Theories which are based on these themes include the disengagement, activity, and continuity theories.

In 1961, Cumming and Henry published their first sociologic theory of ageing: the disengagement theory. According to this theory, a process of mutual disengagement takes place during aging where both the individual and the society in which he or she belong withdraw from each other (Redfern, 1996). This process is an inevitable one, and is governed by society’s needs which dominate individual needs. This theory further states that older people desire this withdrawal, and as the social contacts of a person diminish, disengagement becomes a circular process that further limits opportunities of interaction (Miller, 1995).

Another theory of ageing is the activity theory which is based on the belief that in order for one to age successfully, he or she must keep active. It was first stated by Havighurst and Albrecht in 1953 who said that social role participation is essential for positive adjustment to old age. In 1963, Havighurst and colleagues created the term “activity theory”. In 1972, then, it was Lemon and colleagues who formalized the theory which proposed that older people could only remain psychologically and socially fit if they remained active and that loss of roles in old age affect life satisfaction negatively. Above all, the quality of interaction is more important than the quantity of activity (Miller, 1995).

The continuity (or developmental) theory was put forward by Neugarten in 1968 because none of the other theories successfully explained ageing. According to this theory, a person’s coping strategies are in place long before he or she starts to age, however personality features are continuously dynamic and evolving. Therefore the best way to predict how a person will adjust to ageing is by examining how that same person has adjusted to situations throughout his or her life. This theory hence brings out the importance of the relationship between personality and successful ageing (Miller, 1995).

Some other proposed theories of ageing include; the subculture theory proposed by Rose (1962, 1965), which states that old people have their own norms, beliefs, habits, and expectations and hence have their own subculture, the age stratification theory by Riley in 1972, which explains the interdependencies between age as an element of social structure and ageing and cohorts as a social process. Other theories include the person-environment fit theory and the human needs theory (Miller, 1995).

One of the most significant achievements of modern society is the rise in human longevity. Since 1800, life expectancy at birth has gradually increased over the subsequent two centuries, from forty years to nearly eighty years (Bongaarts 2006). These remarkable changes in human biology have produced challenges for scientists, doctors, sociologists and policy-makers. Over the last century, the growing realization of the changing demography of ageing has provoked sociological and biological research to explain the effects of these changes on society. The aim of this essay is to discuss how different theories of ageing have tried to approach older people and their circumstances.

The study of ageing as social gerontology took root in the late 1940s, at a time of great social and demographic change. After World War 2, society in Europe and the United States of America (USA) had palpably changed, prompting sociological research into changes in ageing amongst other sociological phenomena (Vincent 1996). The modern political and economic environment viewed ageing, for the first time, as a ‘problem’ for society (Jones, 1993).

This view of ageing was at odds with the prevailing functionalist sociological theories of the time. Talcott Parsons was a key proponent of general functionalism, and viewed society from the ‘macro’ perspective of needing functioning parts in order to maintain its well-being. The analogy was with the body of an organism – just as the body has many specialized organs which are required for the body to function, society is also the sum of its parts: youth, family, education, labour force, professionals, religion, government etc. Society required these parts to be working together in order for society to function with equilibrium (Giddens 1993).

The biology of ageing had been actively researched since the days of Darwin and Mendel, yet the interaction between ageing and society remained unexplored. Indeed, the Social Science Research Council in the USA concluded in 1948 that the scientific community had paid little attention to the interaction between biology and society (Achenbaum and Bengston). The first psychosocial theories on ageing and society took shape, and were published a decade later.

Social scientists Elaine Cummins and William Henry published the first important study of aging in 1961. They advanced what they called ‘the disengagement theory of aging’. This theory was based on data from the Kansas City Study of Adult Life, in which researchers from the University of Chicago followed several hundred adults from middle to old age. The authors concluded from this study that growing old was a process of ‘disengagement’, whereby the tendency of ageing adults was to withdraw from society and live out their ‘declining’ years with as little interference with others as was possible. Whilst these findings reflected the social practice of the day – such as the ‘granny flat’ or retirement home environment, the authors also proposed that this theory had advantages for the individual and society.

According to Cumming and Henry’s model, the major shift in interaction between the aged and the rest of society occurs when older people begin to realize their declining physical and cognitive functions and their mortality. They propose that this leads to removal, both consciously and subconsciously, from social networks. Simultaneously, society distances itself from the elderly, and the roles and responsibilities of these elderly members of society are passed along to the younger ones.

From a sociological perspective, it has been suggested that disengagement has theoretical benefits (reference?). For the elderly, disengagement facilitates gradual withdrawal from society, whilst preserving social equilibrium. Ageing removes the capacity for older people to function as parents, professionals or working members of society, and therefore it promotes self-reflection for the elderly who are freed from roles of responsibility within society (ref?). Ultimately, it prepares the elderly for a decline in health and death.

From the perspective of society, disengagement allows knowledge, responsibility, wealth and power to be transferred from the older generation to the young. The roles of the old and the young in society evolve, such that disengagement from roles of responsibility ensures that the younger population have jobs and roles into which to develop. It makes it possible for society to continue functioning after valuable older members die.

Clearly, disengagement theory must be viewed in the context of the era in which it was developed. Largely, the theory of Cummings and Henry reflected the practice of the day. Elderly people in industrialized nations in the 1960s were encouraged to live out their declining years without ‘interfering’ with progress and development. In rural settings, elderly people may still have contributed through the use of learned practical skills, although during a time of rapid technological advancement these skills were less valued than by earlier generations. This is a form of role discontinuity, whereby what is learned at one age may be useless or conflict with a subsequent period on one’s life.

This contrasts with contemporary views of ageing, whereby aged populations are more familiar with the technological advances of the second half of the last century. Retirement and disengagement in this context may not be to the benefit of society or the individual. Moreover, until recently few positive role models for elderly individuals existed. Those in the public eye and the media have tended to be youthful in appearance, hindering the socialization to old age. However, with the demographic growth and visibility of the elderly population has come more role models of active and healthy ageing.

In this setting, disengagement of individuals before they reached the stage of imminent mortality, whilst they are still able contribute to roles in society, may cause both social and financial isolation and lack of self-worth. Loss of role through loss of spouse, divorce or retirement can lead to an erosion of identity and self-esteem (Rosow 1985). This, coupled with the relentless improvement in healthcare for the elderly, suggests that disengagement theory may be a product of the post-World War 2 era rather than universally applicable.

These problems with the universal validity of disengagement theory were recognised within a few years. Activity theory can be viewed as a counterpoint to disengagement theory. Activity theory views old age as an extension of middle age, rather than a separate psychological and biological stage of life as proposed by disengagement theory. Activity theory actually pre-dates disengagement theory. In the 1950s Havighurst and Albrecht (1953 cited in Katz 1996) insisted ageing can be lively and creative experience. Any loss of roles, activities or relationships within old age, should be replaced by new roles or activities to ensure happiness, value consensus and well-being, and that this approach has benefits for the individual and society. The theory builds on the principle that the biological process of ageing can be modified by modern healthcare, and therefore the only differences between and old age and middle age are these modifiable biological processes, not societal wants and needs (schulz and rockwood).

The basis of the theory is that there is a positive relationship between activity and life satisfaction, and the greater the role loss the lower the sense of self-worth or satisfaction (Lemon 1972). Therefore, a person’s sense of self-worth is related to the roles held by that person i.e. retiring may not be so harmful if the person actively maintains other roles, such as familial roles, recreational roles, volunteer and community work. However, early research failed to substantiate a psychological benefit of continued engagement and activity. Lemon, Bengston and Peterson examined key elements of activity theory in a cross-sectional sample of future residents of a retirement community. In this study little connection was found between activity and satisfaction. However, this study suffers from similar criticisms as the Kansas City Study of Adult Life. The study group consisted of Caucasian, middle-class, married individuals interested in pursuing an active retirement. These issues reflect a common problem with sociological research into the theories of ageing – limited diversity of populations and the presence of confounding factors such as attitudes towards activity and engagement, limit the universal applicability of findings and determination of causality.

A further problem with both these theories is their ‘macro’ approach to the sociological phenomenon of ageing. Activity theory neglects the individual issues of inequality and heterogeneity between age groups. It is clear both activity theory and disengagement theory may be suited to certain individuals or groups on society, and may not be universally applicable. Whilst Phillipson (1998) sees these functionalist schools as important in shaping social theory, such functionalist theories may ‘impose’ a sense of causality on aging by implying that an aged person will either ‘disengage’ or will be ‘active’. Thus, it can be argued that these arbitrary social theories are a form of ‘academic imperialism’, whereby the activities of individual elderly people are dictated by macro-orientated theories rather than taking account of individual experiences or using inductive reasoning.

Continuity theory incorporates aspects of activity theory and disengagement theory within the functionalist framework. Continuity theory maintains the social-psychological that were developed from the Kansas City Studies. The basis of continuity theory is that individuals maintain a consistent pattern of behaviour as they age, by replacing lost roles of adulthood with similar ones, and by maintaining a constant attitude of adaptation towards the social environment. Life satisfaction is determined by the consistency between current activities or lifestyles with one’s lifetime experiences (Neugarten, Havinghurst, Tobin 1968). This consistency in behaviour implies that central personality characteristics and core values become more pronounced with age. That is, that people who have always been passive and withdrawn are unlikely to become active upon retirement, and vice versa.

Therefore, this theory does not advocate significant psychological change with age, unlike the other two ‘macro’ theories. It is a micro-level theory, encompassing individual experiences and adaptations. However, micro theories suffer from the limitation if not being generalisable, and therefore not being able to be empirically tested on a broader scale. Moreover, by focusing on the individual, micro-theories may overlook the role of social factors in modifying the ageing process (you need references for these points).

By contrast, the theory of political economy of old age is a macro-level theory that emerged as a reaction to functionalism, and focuses on social factors modifying ageing. The theory draws upon Marxist views of the capitalist nature of modern society and how old age was socially constructed to meet the needs of the modern economy (Estes 1979). This grew out of a wider move towards modernization in sociology, attempting to explain the changes in society as consequences of population ageing, industrialization and fertility decline. Therefore, socioeconomic and political factors, not individual factors, are the primary determinants of the experience of ageing. These include age and class, as well as gender, sexual orientation and race.

As Phillipson (1998) points out, in the UK huge forms of social expenditure were allocated to older people. Consequently, not only were older people viewed in medical terms but in resource terms by governments. This built upon the idea of ageing as a ‘burden’ to modern society, as Phillipson (1998: 17) states:

‘Older people came to be viewed as a burden on western economies, with demographic change… seen as creating intolerable pressures on public expenditure’.

The major focus of the political economy of ageing was an interpretation of the relationship between aging and the economic structure. In the USA, political economy theory was brought to prominence by the work of Estes (1979), and Estes, Swan and Gerard (1982). Similarly, in the UK, the work of Walker (1981), Townsend (1981) and Phillipson (1982) contributed to understanding age and ageing in modern British society. In the USA, Estes, Swan and Gerard (1982) state that the class structure is the major determinant of the socio-economic position of older people in society. Estes justifies this position by using a Marxist view of society to explain how a individual’s social worth is dependent on their productivity. All subsequent policy towards age and ageing can be explained from this premise. Negative attitudes towards older people, and their impoverished position, can be explained by their loss of social worth brought about by their loss of a productive role in modern society. Estes (1979) also claims that political economy theory highlights the role of the state in contemporary society. Since the state dictates the allocation of resources, this determines the allocation of retirement and pension schemes, and is therefore a further key determinant of social worth of elderly people.

Phillipson (1982) builds on this point of view, ad goes on to state that retirement is linked to the timing of economic reduction of wages and enforced withdrawal from work, and hence many older people in the UK in a financially insecure position. Therefore, the state can determine the social position and future of its elderly citizens, and indirectly shape prevailing social and cultural attitudes to the elderly. Indeed, any discussion about change in the welfare state leads to further legitimisation of the ‘burden’ stereotype of the elderly in society.

Echoing this point of view, Townsend (1981) states that society creates the social problems of old age through ‘structured dependency’ embedded in institutional ageism, through lack of material resources due to poverty, retirement policy, the negative consequences of residential care, and poor structure of community care. Townsend puts forward the idea that there is a ‘structural’ perspective of ‘rules and resources’ governing older people in modern society. Townsend claims that the approach is: ‘one whereby society is held to create the framework of institutions and rules within which the general problem of the elderly emerge or, indeed, “manufactured”. In the everyday management of the economy and the administration and development of social institutions the position of the elderly subtly changed and shaped’. (Townsend 1981: 9)

Similarly, Walker (1981) argues for a theory of ‘political economy of old age’ in order to understand the position of older people. In particular, Walker (1981: 77) builds on the idea that the structure of modern society propagates dependency among groups such as the elderly – a ‘social creation of dependency’. Phillipson (1982, 1986) writes in a similar vein, and considers how capitalism helps socially construct the social marginality of older people in key areas such as welfare. The key argument of these writers within the Marxist school of thought is inequalities in the distribution of resources should be understood in terms of the distribution of power within society, rather than in terms of variation between individuals.

In addition to the argument that social and governmental policy contributes to the socializing and marginalizing of old age, political economy theory criticizes the emphasis on community engagement and the consequent social devaluing of elderly people who cannot or choose not to engage in these activities. Activities such as participation in volunteer programmes and social work may be viewed as a way to meet public service gaps created by reduced public funding. Although the benefits of volunteering have been proposed by activity theory, from the point of view of political economy it is social and structural factors that influence the individuals decision to volunteer or participate. For example, elderly individuals who are also carers for their spouse or their grandchildren may not be able to take on additional social roles, and may leave the individual vulnerable to social criticism. Indeed, it has been noted that a paradigm of ageing that only values productivity and civic-engagement can stigmatise and disempower elders who cannot contribute to society because of illness, disability or limited time and resources (reference?).

The life-course perspective is not necessarily a theory, but a framework of ageing as a lifelong process. It attempts to explain how ageing is shaped by earlier events, including social structure and history along with interactions with family and culture. Individual development of personality and cognition interact with these other factors affecting life-course. Time is the key variable, since it influences relationships in three ways: life experiences influence relationships, family events and family transitions influence individuals and interactions, and events in a broader social historical context also influence social role and values. Social context interacts with individuals and influences them and their relationships.

This framework takes account of the diversity of roles and role changes across lifespan, since it views development as occurring at all stages and not just any one stage of life. It takes into account the gains and losses that occur through life-course, rather than viewing development as a linear process. Therefore, development is considered multidirectional, with stability or development in areas, and decline in others. For example, ageing may lead to impairment in short-term memory but not in creativity or social function. Therefore, this approach takes account of micro and macro levels of development and provides a framework to shape further sociological research into ageing.

In conclusion, sociological theories of ageing have evolved alongside changes in demography and economics since the early 20th century. The functionalist theories of activity and disengagement approached ageing in the context of the prevailing view of the time. Although based on empirical evidence – the observational studies from Kansas city – these studies were limited to middle-class Caucasion populations and yet were extrapolated to macro-level theories. As such, both these theories suffered criticisms for their lack of generalisability, and newer theories were developed as an immediate reaction.

In the context of economic troubles during the 1970s, the sociology of ageing began to be viewed in an economic perspective. The view of structural aspects of society interacting with healthy or unhealthy ageing has advanced sociological thought in this area, and laid the foundation for contemporary views of ageing. Current demographic issues such as the prevailing economic climate, declining fertility and improvements in healthcare have changed the sociological view of ageing. As such, these issues must be addressed as further research attempts to view life-course influences on ageing at both a macro- and micro-theoretical level.

Social ecological perspective is a discipline which tries to look into various results and correlation of social factors in the environment. It also examines the interaction among people within a certain natural environment and the challenges on the important affordances for knowledge which are provided by the very environment. Generally it provides the insight on how people in a certain environment influence one another in a way (Naess, 1989). This way, ecology is both reactive and creative; it also makes people contemplate on the changes within the system and around the environment. Social ecological systems go beyond an individual, since the world we live in have a greater impact on how we live.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) argues that it is not only the environment which affects the person directly, but there are some other layers factors. According to his research which basically began with thesis equations Bronfenbrenner states that behavior depends on the environment and the person. Bronfenbrenner (1979) also considered; community, individual, culture and environment as nestled factors. This is clearly illustrated in Charles dawn book on web of life. There are several outcomes which results from cross-level influences and interactions between and within levels that social ecology perspectives address. Interactions are parallels or discontinuities and cross-level effects according to (Rousseau & House 1994). Therefore this paper is going to provide a comprehensive overview on the theoretical concepts and constructs relating to social ecological perspectives, review on discrimination and inequality in relationship to this topic and then conclude by highlighting on how to achieve a better social perspective.

Levels of influence comprises of; Individual, interpersonal, organizational, community and public policies. The social ecological perspective looks into correlated relationship which occurs between individual and environment they live in.

In individual levels people are mandated to implement and enhance the lifestyle fluctuations to minimize risk and have better health. Family history, personal attitudes, beliefs all contribute to individual influence. They can be eliminated by encouraging good beliefs, behavior and attitude. Individuals who habitually engage In many unhealthy and dangerous behavior, for example intake of saturated fats, irregular sleep, lack of frequent physical exercises, alcoholism, high level of frequent stresses, live unhealthy lifestyles which can be controlled at individual level. The change of single pattern of unhealthy behavior can be modified. This can be archived through social influence patters like modification of an individual’s behavior, attitude and thoughts in terms of actions and the way others feel. Some of the ways in which to achieve social influence is; cognitive change where there is modification of individuals opinions and how he/she feels. Behavior modification entails individuals change on how he or she views the surrounding and effective modification with a shift with ones assessment of entities.

Interpersonal levels are a collection factors which raises risk as a result of relationship with family, peers and intimate partners. These are seen to modify behavior and experiences. These can be eliminated by promoting peer programs that educate on equality, trust and mutual respect among others. These interpersonal attributes are strong on how an individual perceives oneself. These qualities and factors can be learned, like in membership of a group, but many are ingrained (e.g., ethnicity, gender). “In the interpersonal sphere, there are also many components of the individual, including psychological and cognitive factors, like personality, knowledge and beliefs” (Gregson, 2001). Gregson continues by stating that;

The individual in his or her own micro system is constantly shaped, not only by the environment, but by any encounter or other individual they come in contact with”. This shaping is well explored in child development, as it would be unreasonable to believe a child is solely a product of the societal environment. There are multiple, simultaneous influences in child behavior and learning including culture, school, teacher, parental support and education level, involvement in extracurricular activities, etc. Examples of Microsystems outside the self also include groups of friends, family, unorganized athletics, or social clubs (Gregson, 2001)

The community level factor depends on an individual’s experiences and how he/she interacts with community in general involves social environment for example a neighborhood, schools and work places. “This can be promoted through social and norm campaigns based on trust, respect among others. A clear illustration is overweight and obesity where people normally believe that it is an individual’s responsibility which is correct to some degree” (David, 2001). The community also plays a crucial role for example where work places, schools food stores or restaurants do not provide healthy food options, in the neighborhood and where there are no fields for jogging, places for exercises, safe and accessible facilities for children to play, no proper healthy facilities and where physical education is not offered in school. All this are community responsibilities. According to David (2001) the community can promote healthy behavior through implementation of policies and environmental factors such as healthy cafeteria meals, Incentives for bicycles and pedestrian commuters, smoke free workplaces, sidewalks and bike paths, insurance cover for preventive services like tobacco cessation and work site wellness programs. These can lower the risks of diseases like stroke, diabetes, cancer and other heart diseases. The barriers to healthy behaviors are interwoven among the community in general. When these barriers are eliminated or lowered, behavior change will be achieved. Behavior change will then become more sustainable, this is according to James (2003). According to Gregson (2001) on the other hand these aspects can be rules, policies, and acceptable business etiquette within a more formal organization. He further argues that “there are some organizations that foster entirely different atmospheres than other corporations giving an example of Google, where employees may wear pajamas to the office”. “The organizational component is especially influential with younger, more impressionable employees, as it helps to shape the ethics and expectations of a typical organization for these individuals. Examples include schools, companies, churches, and sports teams” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner also claimed that the richer the medium for communication in this system, the more influential it is on the micro system.

Societal levels are larger things that influence individual behavior, they include; religion, gender, societal norms, cultural beliefs and societal policies.

This can be prevented by working in conjunction with social bodies associated with policies, mutual respect, social norms, gender equality, mutual respect, trust, and foster intimate relationship. These influences are more easily seen than the other factors, mainly due to the magnitude of the impact. Examples of significant intercultural effects include Communism, Western culture, Military, Islam, and Christianity. For instance, the macro system of Communism is a Marxist philosophy that believes that wealth should be shared in the macro system. A Communist country, such as Cuba (exo), governs and regulates the environment within which corporations (meso) and society or individuals (micro) exist. Media plays a significant role on all levels, as it communicates information and assists in the development of expectations for all individuals in the respective culture (Bronfenbrenner 1979)

The best way of achieving healthy behavior is put in to consideration of factors at all level which are; interpersonal, organizational, individual, public and individual. By so doing, behavior change will be implemented and sustained.

In the corporate scenario a lot of disagreements are understandable others while others are explicit. In these scenarios there are stakeholders who are workers, clients, shareholders and managers who normally raise conflicts. Interactive and cross-level consequences while observing from a different angle are seen, this is because a lot of companies think they only have the duty of creating monetary value for the stakeholders whilst upholding responsibilities to their customers. In some organizations, it is usually hard to tell events where devotion is taken too far towards owners and workers at the expense of the clients.

Directions of influence

“Isomorphism’s are parallels that cause impact on one level then the resulting impact affects other levels” (Rinderle 2006). People carrying out Researcher on isomorphic models are required to see an equal impact on both the magnitude and direction in cases where at least one cause changes in level shifts.

Discontinuities are basically antonyms of isomorphism. They cause effect one level or group hence producing an unequal, potentially in the opposite direction, they cause impact on at least one or more groups.

Top-down effects are most prominent of any social ecological component, according to5 (MCLeroy 1996) the environmental outcomes shapes the persons behavior. The nested factors are basics which react while in crisis situations (Rinderle 2006). “OK-FIRST” is a program that alienates people on how to help others respond to whether related dangers in a better way (Oetz 2006). Historical interactions also shape peoples conflict behavior. This is clearly illustrated in several situations as observed in the many conflicts of the society. Media also plays an important role in strengthening these issues.

Bottom-up effects illustrate how people or society affect the upper levels, as in how people form coalitions to achieve their goals 7(Rinderle 2006). There are also effects on cultures as a result of global corporations’ existence in some countries. For example, china has raised the accessibility of news to reach a larger audience in a Communist nation. 8 Guerrero (2006) shows emotions are as a result of feelings which includes anger, jealousy, greed, guilt among others and the feelings affects the events likely to happen.

Interactive effects are interdependent variables and taking place simultaneously in many groups 10(Rousseau & House 1994). For example in Italy where culturally different workgroups, conflicts among group members may occur. This deters relationship impacts in accomplishing the goal of group members for an organization and learning at the personal level. Thus technology also plays an important role in community, cultures, interpersonal conflict and organization (Rousseau & House 1994).

Political conflict

The role of politics is in the making up of decisions. Politics encompasses the appeasing of all stakeholders towards realizing an ultimate objective, “decision may be required of an individual, organization, community, or country. A decision a congressman makes affects anyone in his or her jurisdiction. If one makes decision not to vote for the President of the United States, one has given oneself no voice in the 15election” (Ungar, 2002). If a lot other people decide not to put in their efforts to vote, they would have unintentionally permitted a greater part of others to carry the day on their behalf. Internationally if the administration of a country like America decides to inhabit another nation say in the Middle East, this will not only have an influence on the administration of that country but it will also have an effect on American soldiers and the whole environment where they come from. Another thing is that when America uses funds on conflicts that are political in nature, the value of the U.S. currency may be negatively affected. This shows that many cross-level and interactive consequences of a decision can arise. An example of this is like the act of a terrorist could possibly interrupt with the lives of soldiers, the lives of people close to them and the country at large.

Economics

Basically, from a top-down view point, the physical environment determines a considerable extend to the lifestyle of a person and the country as whole. If the area is hilly or very dry and there is limited land for agricultural activities, the nation generally will not grow compared to other countries. The general, human habits, cultural characteristics and economics are shaped by geography and output is determined by natural resources, technology and human resources. Entrepreneurial mind has an impact on technology. These indicates that there exits bottom-up effects on economics.

Health

People’s efforts to modify their own healthy practices are mostly dictated by social, economic and cultural setbacks. Poor educational status, time and money, energy and chronic exposure to neighborhood violent and proximity to friends and family members who often exhibit healthy threatening behavior are some of situation factors that can affect people’s best efforts that and intentions to improve their health practices.

There are several ecological variables that can improve or stop danger to individuals healthy physically. To eliminate diseases, an individual should keep off from an environment in which they may be more exposed to virus or where there body defense system would be compromised. This also entails possibly avoiding workgroup if they are breathing or inhalation dangers or keeping off from a sick work mate. Some environments are good for health benefits. Staying around people who are physically fit will encourage you to be active, good diet and physical exercises in general. The state putting a ban on saturated fats manufacture may add value to top-down effect on individual’s health in a country.

“Efforts to persuade a person to adopt health practices can be unfruitful if the person is not ready to embrace the suggested behavior. This can also be limited by exposure to environmental toxins and safety hazards” (Haekel, 2003). The current research studied predictors of health-related social influence tactic use in close relationships. According to the social ecological perspective, predictors were grouped as reflecting characteristics of the agent of social influence, characteristics of the target of social influence, characteristics of the agent and target’s relationship, and characteristics of the social influence situation. One hundred and nine spouses reported on situations in which each partner was attempting to influence his or her spouse to change a health-related behavior. Using the actor-partner interdependence analysis approach, results revealed only actor effects for characteristics of the agent, primarily partner effects for characteristics of the target, and both actor and partner effects for characteristics of the situation when predicting health-related tactic use. Effects for relationship characteristics only emerged in interactions with respondent sex. These results indicate that social influence in marriage involves reciprocity and interdependence.

Physical and social environment can serve as a media for disease transmit ion; waterborne and airborne diseases. The environment can also act as a stressor exerting detrimental effects on people’s mood, performance and physiology as a result of their exposure to uncontrollable demands such as noise, political upheaval or interpersonal relationship. The environment can act as source of safety or danger; residing in an area contaminated by chemicals, geographically unsafe, or socially violent.tne environment can also serve as an enabler of healthier behavior exemplified by inhalation of safety devices in motor vehicles, proximity of physical fitness devices to work place or home and exposure to interpersonal modeling or cultural practices that foster health behavior. The environment can act as provider of health resources such effective communication sanitation systems, public health services and legislation ensuring citizens access to health insurance and primary care.

Risk communication

In event of a natural disaster or hazard, there are ways of ensuring that people who are affected are safe. SEM can be required in helping one analyze when information and receivers and those involved. These conditions are environmental influences which are far reaching. The person’s level of education, understanding, and privileged circumstances may determine the kind of information the person receives and the mediums through which the information is conveyed. If the information received is altered through the mode of communication, there would be a bottom-up effect on the people involved.

In general MCLeroy (1996) points out that:

The social perspectives try to, eliminate obstacles on healthy risks, generate conditions favorable for individuals well being plus all people around, creates a positive reception on how people be at vary, facilitates individuals interdependence, coexistence and interrelationships that are found among other individuals and the society as a whole, they try to show in which way; broader physical, social, political, economical, ethnical and cultural context and histories influence the ways in which individuals( and other people) make meaning out of observation and experience and it embraces the sense of care and concern for others (MCLeroy 1996).

Other things that social perspectives accomplish are; they help in the recognition of competitive interests, access to resources and relationship with authority which is seen to manipulate people’s abilities, societies and countries to gain stability. These perspectives also assist in the reflection of self and thinking critically that eventually ends in positive actions, encourages social justice, helps learners to counter the ever shifting world, and enables youthful people to look past their selves while working towards expectations and a future encouraging people in taking necessary actions where appropriate in order to develop better healthy practices.

Bullying and Victimization

The idea of a multiple society influencing an entity is not a new concept. In fact much has been researched on the interplay between the individual, family, peer group, school, community and culture. This reciprocal interplay between individuals involved in the bully/victim continuum can be clearly illustrated, the social ecological perspective can be applied to the conceptualization of bullying behavior.

According to Dolls (2001), “in a nut shell, bullying does not occur in isolation. This phenomena is encouraged/or incited as a result of complex relationship between the individual, family, peer group, school community and culture. The individual is the centre of his/her social ecology”. The individual involved ion bullying may be involved as a bully, bully victim, victim or by stander. Individual factors will influence participation in bullying. “Ecological systems theory purports that all individuals are part of the interrelated systems that locate an individual at the centre and move out of the centre to include all the systems that affect the individual”l Bronfenbrenner (1977). According to his theory, a child is inseparable part of social network comprising of four interrelated systems: Microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and Microsystems.

The child is at the centre of and actively involved with this interplay of systems. The micro system involves the child’s relationship with one system; home, classroom or playground. The Microsystems depicts he the child’s immediate interaction with others, and including others reaction towards bullying behavior. This conceptualization of Microsystems also includes the status of the child along the bully/victim continuum. Thus the bully, bully victim, victim or bystander interact with others in his or her social environment, and this interaction either exacerbates or mitigate bullying and/or victimization behavior. The mesosystem includes the interrelationship between system in the child’s life; home and school. The mesosystems depicts the congruence between two or more environments such as congruence between and home and school in regard to bullying behavior. The exosystems includes influences from other context, such as the effects of a schools district anti bully policy or parental involvement in the school system.

Finally, the macro system is the influence of cultural mores, such as societal attitude towards bullying behavior. The social ecology that encompasses the daily life of youth dictates the engagement and non engagement in bullying and/or victimization behaviors. 19Simons (2000) because individual are affected by their surroundings, it logically follows that intervention the environment in which youth function. Interventions that do not follow the target multiple environments in which youth exists are likely to be fewer effectives than interventions that address social ecology.

This assertion is related to consistent findings that the youth who are involved in aggressive behavior experience problems in multiple area including the family, peer group, school, and community.

It is important to determine whether or not an intervention is effective in preventing and /or eliminating bullying behavior. Thus assessment of bullying phenomena must utilize multiple methods of assessments, use multiple informants and include assessments across the context.

While this can be a daunting task, best practices demands that we asses all the social ecological if we are to accurately determine the effects bullying prevention and intervention programming. An example of this type of best practice is reflected in schema proposed and implemented by Simons (2000) these studies state that data should be collected across all settings (home, school, community, laboratory and others), by multiple informants, observers, children peers, parents, teachers and using multiple methods home observations, lab tasks, classroom, playground questionnaires, records among others.

Conclusion

We can conclude that a better social perspective can be achieved by putting into consideration of factors at all level which are; interpersonal, organizational, public and individual. Behavior modification entails individuals change on how he or she views the surrounding and effective modification with a shift with ones assessment of entities. By so doing, behavior change will be implemented and sustained.

The main purpose of this report is to give the values of marriage in terms of contemporary Chinese perceptions. According to a survey through questionnaire of naked marriages, this report reflects the different view points of marriage between contemporary and traditional Chinese people. In order to indicate the new trend of people’s marriage views, the report will firstly analyze the results of research in terms of percentage. Then, the report will give an account of naked marriages, with people standing on different opinions. Next, it will analyze the main causes from different standpoints. It will state the root reason as well as other reasons. Finally, the report will give the comprehension of naked marriage and reach the conclusion on the basis of the research’s result and the reasons above.

2. Introduction

Naked marriage refers to a phenomenon that people are directly married at a registry under condition of lacking house, car, even their wedding ring. In other word, naked marriage is to get married without debt and luxury. In this case, there are less complicated things to prepare and to undertake than previous marriage. It is a new network vocabulary which gained popularity in 2008. With the development of civilization in modern society, the first objective of a marriage has transformed into love from breeding offspring. As is known, marriage and material are always inseparable in Chinese traditional marriage perception. Before 1949 when the new country was established, both boys and girls should get married on coming of age, and they would be tied in wedlock formally through matchmakers on the basis of financial situation of the men’s family. After the founding of new China, the feature of marriage was simple and thrift which followed the style in revolution time and the wedding just means a common meal. In the 1960s, the marriage began to attach importance to exquisite decorations; it was common to see that couples asked the carpenter to make wooden furniture such as wardrobe, table and chair. When it comes to 1970s, three major items including watches, bicycles and sewing machines were necessary in marriage. Approximately ten years later, however, they changed into the refrigerators, color TV sets and washing machines. In addition to home appliance, many brides must own the gold necklace, gold earrings and the gold ring, which afterwards were called three pieces of gold. At the beginning of 21st century, house, money and the car becomes the new contents of three major items. Contrasts to the Chinese family concept in the past, the modern couples emphasize freedom and independence to a higher degree and pay less attention on wedding from the standpoint of marriage. Meanwhile, marital status is regarded as one of the privacy in the eyes of young white-collar, and then the phenomenon of hidden marriage appears. Under such background, naked marriage is brought to the public’s attention.

3. The Analysis of Research

In the investigation of naked marriage, as for the question of whether naked marriage is the trend or the helpless option, 18% of the respondents choose trend while 82% of them choose helplessness. When being asked the opinion of the relationship between naked marriage and happiness, the number of people who hold the views that the naked marriages can obtain happiness accounts for 44 %. In their opinions, only love can endure the test of lacking material products, can it mean precious. The ratio of people with the opposite views is just the same. They argue that economic basis is the prerequisite for the daily life and the absence of substance will cheapen the quality of life and the degree of happiness. Another 12% people are uncertain about this. Interestingly, the research indicates that the attitude to the naked marriage between men and women are quite distinct. 80% of men are in favor of naked marriage while 70% of women feel that naked marriage is infeasible. In regard to the approval of naked marriage, the proportion of people who welcome the naked marriage takes 57.7%, they argue that love is the core of marriage and couples can make efforts together to buy house after marriage.in the meantime, those who disapprove of naked marriage accounted for 35.7%.

The research also reveals that the majority of people who agree with the perception of naked marriage family are at the age of 20 to 35. Furthermore, most of them are urban white collar with high education and large income.

4. Literature Review

As a token of modern marriage perceptions, naked marriage has been brought to public attention with people standing on both sides. Some people welcome this new form of marriage with applause, arguing that holding a wedding for others’ watching is costly and time-consuming. As a result, it can be omitted if couples themselves feel it is unnecessary .The money spending on houses, cars and other things is a great mass of expenditure for their parents. In this case, the things like ostentation and extravagance have nothing to do with marriage. Anyhow, marriage is related to two people and it can be conducted as long as both of them feel proper.

Professor Chen who has engaged in social psychology research since 2002 illustrates the popularity of naked marriage in terms of sociology. She has been holding the opinion that it is sagacious for couples to live together simply. They should get marriage certificate from marriage registration office under the insufficient material conditions. (Chen, Fu-Mei and Li, Tsui-Shan. 2007, p400) It shows the increasing legal consciousness among the new generation of young people. Besides, Lu Rucai thinks that compared to the premarital cohabitation, naked marriage is worthy of being advocated. Moreover, it also deserves to advocate as a simple way of life in the high level of material development. Naked marriage gets rid of the material restrictions and secular ideas and makes couples get married without any burden. (Lu Rucai. 2004, p34)

Other Sociologists also indicate that naked marriage should give praise and support. Professor Chia thinks that it is not only a return of rational knowledge but also a kind of social progress. According to the analysis of them, during the 1950s, due to the restricted conditions, many people’s weddings were naked marriages. However, it has not prevented the passion of this generation in work and life. (Chia, Rosina C. etc.1986, p599) In fact, the form of marriage is considered less important when taking sincere love into account. Accordingly, parents are supposed to put aside outmoded thoughts, and offer more freedom to the next generation in order to reduce their economic pressure.

Feldman also points out that naked marriage encourages to forming a plain life style which is worth recommending. Thanks to naked marriage, young generation no longer acts as the NEET group (Not in Education??Employment or Training). Instead, they rely on their own efforts to create the future. (Jin X, Li S, Feldman MW. 2005, p30)

On the other hand, there are also many opponents who strongly believe that basic material is the foundation of a marriage. Professor Cao who criticizes the naked marriage on a realistic basis, argues that it is not a feasible thing to do, especially in this fast-developing material world where the divorce rate is rising alarmingly. Naked marriage will result in more life pressure and competition. (Liv Jiang and Cao Yang. 2006, p40) In this context, material preparation is equivalent to a promise for a new marriage, particularly for expensive urban living. Having a home and a car is really beneficial to a new family and it helps them grow from a pretty good start.

Jill Savege predicts that naked marriage will not be always in vogue in China. It is common that China has constant custom with long history towards marriage that cannot be easily changed. Marriage has a close relationship with material in Chinese traditional marriage perception. (Shi, Qijia; Scharff, Jill Savege. 2008, p310) In this regard, even through couples have reached consensus on naked marriage, their parents would object strongly to the wedding , and the reason is that they cannot afford a diamond ring and marriage ceremony, let alone a home and a car. In their opinion, house and car represent the capability of getting established in society.

In addition, the scholar Olga thinks that due to the insufficient material foundation, their children may lag behind others at the starting line at birth. Many educators like Lu also point out that good material elements have far-reaching influence on mental development of children, and they reveal that children with good material elements are inclined to form the extroverted and gregarious character which is benign to their future. (Pochagina, Olga. 2004, p140)

Both sides of the scholars discuss the naked marriage from different angles and aspects which offer plenty of valuable ideas for this report. On the basis of their works and results of research, the report makes synthetic and comprehensive analysis.

5. Methodology

This report is mainly to discuss the modern Chinese marriage perceptions by questionnaires and interviews of naked marriage, and it will use data analysis and the qualitative analysis. Data analysis will offer sufficient data to support the facts. And qualitative analysis will see through the appearance to perceive the essence. This kind of analysis will expound from different aspects to form an integral evaluation for the viewpoints of marriage. However it should be pointed out that questionnaires failed to take into account people’s real-life action, the data getting here is the possibility of what people are willing to do, rather than what they would do in practice.

6 Causes of the Naked Marriage
6.1 Social Pressure

Young generation that has reached marriageable age is inflicted with the heavy pressure from work and life, and it is the social pressure that makes young people cannot afford to houses and cars. In recent years, the soaring housing prices in China give rise to the increase of marriage cost and become the biggest obstructions in the preparation for marrying. Therefore young people begin to choose naked marriage as a way of compromise. A survey conducted by statistical bureau shows the average wedding cost in shanghai reached a high point at 18.7 million in 2009 and the spending was in line with that of the United States. Undoubtedly, the wedding cost in Shanghai ranks the first place in China and it is twice more than Harbin that has the least wedding cost in China. Another Investigation reveals that fifty percent of Chinese newly-married couples manage to get married at the cost of emptying their parents’ funding. A new national statistics conducted by Ministry of Civil Affairs show that the total consumption amount produced every year due to the marriage has reached 25 million Yuan.

6.2 Pursuit of Pure Love

The young generation pursues pure romantic love in this frugal way of marriage. From the view point of love, the marriage is based on the ideal of common life between men and women, and then they will form a strong admiration for each other in their heart. True love means a strong pure feeling of a desire for people to become lifelong partners regardless of material constrains, and naked marriage can prove that true love is everlasting. The Associate Researcher Johnson, who works in institute of sociology and demography, argues that naked marriage can aid in getting rid of the secular concepts and making couples get married without any material burden. (Johnson, Julie R. 2010, p27)The ones who have a naked marriage can throw common customs and reveal the true meaning of marriage, so that the so-called honeymoon, wedding and money are not necessities if people are marrying with the people they really want. Besides, No matter how poor the man is, as long as this man has perseverance and ambition, he will not let his beloved women suffer from hardships through his hard working. Only when people eliminate factors such as ceremony and traditional material concepts and just immerse themselves in the joy of marriage itself, will such naked marriage show distingue and faithful. And people can put off difficulties which are tough to handle temporarily in marriage and do them when the conditions are abundant.

7 The Significance of Naked Marriage

On the one hand naked marriage manifests the changing attitude towards marriage in modern China. Choosing naked marriage is not only a familial decision, but also an individual’s choice of love and lifestyle. Contrast to Chinese traditional wedding concept, marriage stands for the spirit of mutual assistance and efforts rather than the actual wealth people possess. On the other hand it also reflects the varying concept of material nowadays. Instead of spending extra money on unnecessary products, couples should make effective use of it and meet the challenge in a positive attitude. Love is a kind of intellectual product that needs the joint efforts of couples to accumulate. Therefore, choosing naked marriage might be taking a test in the future and the state of poverty after efforts cannot be accepted by everyone.

Additionally, the popularity of naked marriage partly proves the struggle of social equity from men. Obviously, men have undertaken excessive pressure of marriage in modern life. As everyone knows, society calls on the equality between men and women for a long time, but these days the actual fact is that society pays close attention to ensuring women enjoy equal rights in employment and promotion with men, whereas the uneven marriage cost that men has taken on is neglected by most people. It seems that the men’s natural responsibility is to buy houses for their families in the perspective of traditional Chinese people, and therefore many young men would like choose to support naked marriage in order to reduce their pressures of being mortgage slaves. But for women, they don’t have a deep understanding of marriage cost due to the lack of houses supplement burden. In this regard, women don’t need to carry too much pressure, thus they inclined to support the concept that it is appropriate to own houses at the time of getting married.

8 Conclusion

This report is mainly to discuss the issue of naked marriage in the current China. It makes a detailed analysis based on the questionnaire survey with respect to whether naked marriage is appropriate and reasonable for love. It is apparent that people hold various views on this phenomenon. And it is a great challenge to the traditional family values. This trend is regarded as the sublimation of love which lacks the material and secular opinions and goes back to the essence of love itself. Of course, when considering choosing naked marriage, people should take account of both the enthusiasm of enterprising spirit and the growth of wealth to make full preparation for the unpredictable future of life. In conclusion, whether adopting naked marriage or not depends on the couple, and if their economic backgrounds and mutual perception of money is similar, naked marriage will bring them the happiness. It makes couples work hard together and start them off on an equal financial platform. But if their relationship is not strong enough, then naked marriage will have a higher probability of failing.

9 Appendices
APPENDIX A: Questionnaire

Dear Sir/ Madam, Thank you for your attention and opening this questionnaire. The project aims to give the values of marriage in terms of contemporary Chinese perceptions. Your opinion will be of great help in my project. Your response will and your information will be coded and will remain confidential.

Thank you very much for your time and support. It will take approximately 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

Please mark the appropriate answer to the questions below.

1. What will you place more weight on when you marry to your fiance?

A. House

B. Pure love

C. Wedding ceremony

D. Car

E. Honeymoon

2. Do you think naked marriage is the trend in modern society or the helpless option?

A. The trend of marriage

B. The helpless option with regard to modern society

C. Not Sure

3. Do you think naked marriage can obtain happiness?

A. Definitely Yes

B. Yes

C. Should be

D. Not Sure

E. No

4. Do you approve of naked marriage?

A. Definitely Yes

B. Yes

C. Should be

D. Not Sure

E. No

Thank you very much for completing this questionnaire.

If you have some questions that we do not list, please write it down below. Thank you

APPENDIX B: Interview Questions

1. What is the reason for couples to choose naked marriage in your opinion?

2. What do you think of the marriage?

Nationalism is a concept that is not easily defined. There are numerous definitions and forms of what is nationalism, and many of these definitions even overlap. However, there is no one definition that is more adequate than another. Keeping in mind that these definitions are constantly evolving, with thorough analysis and the juxtaposition of arguments set out by eight prominent scholars, a clearer definition of nationalism can be attained.

To begin with, the most well know definition today is from Professor Anthony Smith. He states that nationalism is simply “an ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy, unity and identity for a population which some of its members deem to constitute an actual or potential “nation” (Smith, 2001).” In this definition, Smith reveals what he believes the three main goals of nationalism are: autonomy, national unity, and national identity. Even Smith’s profound definition has not been available for very long considering he was born in 1933. Although there is much argument on the definition of nationalism, Smith agrees that there is one main point of agreement and that is that the term nationalism is a modern phenomenon (Smith, 2001). Civic nationalism is basically defined as a group of people which have a certain loyalty to civic rights or laws and pledge to abide by these laws. Ethnic nationalism is basically a group that possesses a common culture, language, land, etc. It is more specific in terms of who can be in it (McGregor, 2010). Smith writes that “every nationalism contains civic and ethnic elements in varying degrees and different forms. Sometimes civic and territorial elements predominate; at other times it is the ethnic and vernacular components that are emphasized (Smith, 2001).” Smith’s most popular argument features civic and ethnic types of nationalism as opposed to eastern and western types. Even more specifically, Smith makes the distinction between both civic and ethnic nationalisms. He also believes that “Many modern nations are formed around pre-existing, and often pre-modern, ethnic cores (Smith, 2001).” Smith is claiming that nations had pre-existing-origins prior to their ‘new origins’ of their new nation. One of the most important arguments by critics is that the civic and ethnic viewpoint of nationalism collapses too much on the ethnic category (Shulman, 2002). Smith’s definition seems to be the foundation for nationalism, although he certainly was not the first to attempt to define it. Other scholars go in to more detail on certain elements of the definition, but most relate back to Smith’s original definition.

On the contrary to Anthony Smith’s definition of nationalism pertaining to the civic and ethnic type, Hans Kohn has argued that the two main types of nationalism are eastern and western. His definition states, “Nationalism is a state of mind, in which the supreme loyalty of the individual is felt to be due to the nation-state (Kohn, 1965).” Kohn’s argument includes both eastern and western types of nationalism which refer to Eastern and Western Europe. “Eastern nationalism conceived the nation as an organic community, united by culture, language and descent (McGregor 2010).” This particular idea could possibly be related to Smith’s ethnic type of nationalism. “Western nationalism conceived the nation as a political and civic community, held together by voluntary adherence to democratic norms (McGregor 2010).” Again, western nationalism could be perceived as a civic type of nationalism. This can be recognized as two similar classifications on two unfamiliar grounds. Kohn believes that nationalism relates directly with eastern and western Europe and that it is also where the ‘state of mind’ of nationalism originated. The main criticism of Kohn’s classification of nationalism is him being over simplistic (Auer, 1997). Two Types of Nationalism in Europe?. He certainly does not go into as much detail as Smith on the definition. He also relates only towards Europe which is why he is being identified as over simplistic.

Next, Carlton J. H. Hayes’ definition of nationalism states, “Loyalty and attachment to the interior of the group (namely the nation and homeland) are the basis of nationalism (Hayes, 1926).” In this definition, a common cultural background and a common cultural group are considered the main factors in forming a nation (Naqvi, Ali). That remains true with most of the definitions of nationalism. Hayes definition of nationalism seems to be more specific to the ‘ethnic’ ties toward nationalism. In other words, Hayes is saying that land, language, and blood are the basis of nationalism. He is saying that nation is something to be proud of (Naqvi, Ali). Hayes also believes that these ‘ethnic’ qualities are the most important; even religion does not compare. “It is attachment to nationality that gives direction to one’s individual and social postures, not attachment to religion and ideology. A human being takes pride in his national achievements and feels dependent on its cultural heritage, not on the history of religion and his faith (Hayes, 1926) (Naqvi).” This quote further proves Hayes’s view on nationalism and how it relates to one’s culture and past, and specifically not related to religion at all. The reason Hayes’s definition is unique from others, is his emphasis on the fact that religion is not a factor in forming a nation. To further specify Hayes’s definition on nationalism he says, “What distinguishes one human being from another are not their beliefs, but their birth-place, homeland, language and race. Those who are within the four walls of the homeland and nation, belong to it, and those who are outside it, are aliens. It is on the basis of these factors that the people have a feeling of sharing a single destiny and a common past. (Hayes, 1926).” This quote goes hand in hand with Hayes’s definition of nationalism and just further explains it. According to Hayes, nationalism does not exist without that ‘ethnic’ background.

Furthermore, according to scholar Benedict Anderson, nationalism is, “a new emerging nation imagines itself to be antique (Anderson, 2003).” This is similar to how Anthony Smith and Carlton Hayes defined nationalism. It is mostly like Smith’s ethnic nationalism, which focuses more on the origin of the nation. Anderson focuses more on modern Nationalism and suggests that it forms its attachment through language, especially through literature (Anderson, 2003). An important part in Anderson’s theory is the stress he puts on the role of printed literature (Anderson, 2003). In Anderson’s mind, the development of nationalism is linked with printed literature and the growth of these printed works. People were able to read about nationalism in a common dialect and that caused nationalism to mature (Anderson, 2003). Anderson’s definition of nationalism and nation differ greatly from other scholars. He defines nation as “an imagined political community (Anderson 2003).” He believes this because “the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship. Ultimately it is this fraternity that makes it possible, over the past two centuries, for so many millions of people, not so much to kill, as willingly to die for such limited imaginings (Anderon, 2003).” Not only is Anderson’s theory distinctive because of the “printed literature theory”, but also because it is the “imagined political community.”

Another prominent Nationalist researcher, Ernest Gellner states that, “nationalism is primarily a political principle that holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent (Gellner, 1983)”. Gellner was once a teacher of Anthony Smith. Although most scholars would agree that nationalism appeared after the French Revolution, Gellner further argues that nationalism became a “sociological necessity in the modern world (Gellner, 1983).” His argument is similar to the uniqueness of Benedict Anderson’s “printed literature” theory, but Gellner focuses more on the industrialization of work and cultural modernization to explain how nationalism expanded (Zeulow, 1999). Gellner believes that “states only exist where there is division of labour, therefore the state comes before nationalism (Gellner, 1983).” Like other scholars, Gellner believes that nationalism is a political force. Gellner also stresses the congruency of nation and politics. He does not believe one can occur without the other one. There are many criticisms to Ernest Gellner’s theory, including Anthony Smith saying, “It misreads the relationship between nationalism and industrialization (Smith 1998).” Not all of the critics view Gellner’s theory as a misread. Most agree that he is the father of nationalism studies and most say that his nationalism work was brilliant (University of Wales Press). One can usually relate their definition of nationalism with Ernest Gellner or Anthony Smith. Gellner stresses the importance of the political side, while Smith puts the importance on cultural. Neither are right or wrong, just a difference of opinion.

Historian John Breuilly defends a more modern theory of nationalism, similar to Benedict Anderson’s. In reference to nationalism, he concludes, “The rise of the modern state system provides the institutional context within which an ideology of nationalism is necessary (Breuilly 1985).” Breuilly argues that the process of “state modernization provides an important factor in understanding historical signs of nationalism (Cormier, 2001).” Breuilly argues that nationalism does not have much to do with ethnicity or ethnic background, but rather more to do with political motivation. Breuilly is not the first scholar who believed that ethnic background had nothing to do with nationalism. In fact, Breuilly’s definition relates well to Gellner’s in the sense that they both argue in favor of political motivation. “Nationalists are seen to create their own ideology out of their own subjective sense of national culture. (Breuilly, 1982).” This particular quote is quite similar to Anderson’s imagined political community theory in that Breuilly does not support the ethnic side of nationalism nearly as much as others nationalists. Breuilly criticizes most scholars due to the fact that they believe in national culture because he believes that there is no such thing. He believes that the political component of nationalism is by far the most important. Breuilly indicates in his definition the importance of the state system; hence the political force necessary for nationalism to occur.

Next, Michael Hechter defines nationalism as a, “collective action designed to render the boundaries of the nation congruent with those of its governance unit (Hechter, 2000).” He further explains, “Nation and governance can be made congruent by enacting exclusive policies that limit full membership in the polity to individuals from on one more favoured nations (Hechter, 2000).” Hechter stresses the importance of the correspondence of the government and the boundaries of the nation; much like Breuilly in the sense that both of them indicate that nationalism requires congruency for it to take place. In Hechter’s book, Containing Nationalism, he expresses his belief that the reason nationalism occurs is because of “self-determination.” Hechter further explains his definition and clarifies that there are two different types of nationalism. The first one is of the ideology of freedom and he gives the example of the French Revolution. The second form is “xenophobic or even goes as far as genocide” (Hechter). This explains where the different views of nationalism come in; civic versus ethnic or eastern versus western. Furthermore, Hechter defines the two different types of nationalism to even more specific forms of nationalism that go beyond his original definition. These definitions include: state-building nationalism, peripheral nationalism, irredentist nationalism, and unification nationalism (Hechter, 2000). Hechter doesn’t argue that there are two definitions of nationalism like other scholars do, but he concludes that nationalism is specific to the means of each and every situation.

In Peter Alter’s definition of Nationalism, he states, “Nationalism is a political force which has been more important in shaping the history of Europe and the world over the last two centuries than the ideas of freedom and parliamentary democracy or, let alone, of communism (Alter, 1994).” His argument is similar to John Breuilly in the sense that he agrees that there is a strong emphasis on nationalism being a “political force.” Alter is saying that it has everything to do with being a political movement instead of the idea of freedom. In reference to nationalism, Alter states, “It can be associated with forces striving for political, social, economic and cultural emancipation, as well as with those whose goal oppression (Alter, 1994).” His outlook on nationalism seems much broader than other scholars. This particular reference virtually sums up many scholars definitions together. Alter does not seem to have a specific argument on nationalism, as in civic vs. ethnic or western vs. eastern but just an acceptance that nationalism could be based on all of these arguments. Again, Alter says, “It can mean emancipation, and it can mean oppressionaˆ¦ dangers as well as opportunities (Alter, 1994).” There is no precise argument when he tries to define nationalism even though he does have the idea that nationalism is directly related to a political force. Alter also states that nationalism was important to shaping Europe, however most scholars agree with that statement to begin with. Most modern scholars would relate to Alter’s style of defining nationalism.

In conclusion, the definition of nationalism is not easily defined and scholars that have tried to define it differ, in some amount of detail, from each other. Each scholar seems to have his own uniqueness and input to the definition, however, these definitions tend to pertain to one certain area of nationalism. According to the eight previous scholars, there are a myriad of styles of nationalism including: political, cultural, ethnic, civic, eastern, and western. Many aspirations are desired because of nationalism, including establishment of homeland, separation, expansion, etc. Although the definition of nationalism is essentially particularistic, scholars have been able to identify a few common ideologies. Some common ground includes; most scholars agree that nationalism started after the French Revolution. They also agree that nationalism occurs because of a desire for national independence. Scholars are always doing research and finding new things which will result in new definitions. Most of the most protrusive definitions of nationalism have come about in the last fifty or so years, so no telling what scholars might come up with in future years.

Education is just as an important factor in a persons’ life now as it was in the past. Only, the difference between now and the past are the people that are able to receive a complete education. Education was gender segregated for hundreds of years. Men and women went to different schools or were physically and academically separated into coeducational schools. Both had separate academic subjects, separate classrooms, and separate expectations. Women were only taught the social graces and morals, and teaching women academic subjects was considered a waste of time. Men had the choice to receive a full education after high school, while women had the household choices ranging from what to wear to what to cook. By being educated for the sake of family and society which needed educated mothers to produce knowledgeable and responsible male citizens, it was expected by men and society that women were to have children, raise those children, and to be the best homemaker. Although today, everyone is entitled to the right to peruse an education, sexism is still maintained in obvious and subtle ways. Ways in which show that gender inequalities are and have been shifting into a more female advantaged educational system.

The inequalities between girls and boys are apparent even before a child begins elementary school. Girls are first introduced to the idea that they are unequal to boys, with girls being dressed in pink and given dolls for toys, while boys are dressed in blue and given toy cars and trucks to play with. Even different behaviors are acceptable for boys than for girls. For example, every time teachers seat or line-up students by gender, they are confirming that girls

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and boys should be treated differently. While girls are praised for being neat, calm, and quiet; boys are urged to think independently, be active, and voice opinions. Girls are socialized in schools to believe popularity is most important and that educational performance and ability are of lesser importance. “Girls in grades six and seven rate being popular and well-liked as more important than being perceived as competent or independent. Boys, on the other hand, are more likely to rank independence and competence as more important” (Bailey, 1992).

According to Dr. Sax, author of the book Why Gender Matters, what parents and teachers should really know about, is that the brain develops differently and is wired differently in each sex. In girls, the language area of the brain develops before the areas for open relations and for geometry. Emotion is processed in the same area of the brain that processes language making it is easier for most girls to talk about their emotions. But for boys, the area involving talking and the areas involving feelings are completely separate. Girls and boys also respond differently when it comes to stress. While stress increases the learning ability in males, the same exact stress actually makes learning more difficult for girls. Ignoring these differences between the male and female mind can increase the chance of misunderstanding among the youth and thus lead to dissocialized outcomes.

Research shows that one is born with either a male or female brain and that nothing can change your brain from male to female. The lay-out of a young boy’s brain is so different compared to that of a young girl that it is easily visible with the naked eye. An example of how a male brain functions differently than that of a female can be seen through a task as simple as

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giving directions. While the male tends to use distances and directions such as east, west, north, and south to map out the path, it is easier for women to use simple reminders such as landmarks.

Knowing how the brain works has a lot to do with knowing how someone learns; it is where everything is stored. When it comes to learning, boys and girls do not learn the same way at all. Psychologists have found that girls set higher standards for themselves when it comes to school, and they look over what they have accomplished more critically than guys do. Recent evidence even shows girls becoming more academically successful than boys, despite reviews showing that girls and boys continue to be socialized in ways working against gender equality.

“Because classrooms are microcosms of society, mirroring its strengths and ills alike, it follows that the normal socialization patterns of young children that often lead to distorted perceptions of gender roles are reflected in the classrooms” (Marshall, 334). Gender bias in education is reinforced through lessons, textbooks, and teacher interactions with students; as well as, through the resources teachers choose for classroom use. For example, textbooks that leave out contributions of women or those that stereotype gender roles. Teachers should be aware of the gender bias hidden within such materials and texts and discontinue their usage.

“We need to look at the stories we are telling our students and children. Far too many of our classroom examples, storybooks, and texts describe a world in which boys and men are bright, brave, curious, and powerful, but girls and women are passive, silent, and invisible (McCormick pg. 41).”

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Girls enter school in the first grade with the same skills and ambitions as boys, but due to biased conditioning in the classroom, they suffer lower self-confidence and aspirations by the time they graduate from high school. Even though, two out of every three teachers may be women, they are usually for sexual stereotypes, favoring the assertive male students and the non-assertive female students. Typically, teachers call on boys more often, give them more detailed criticism, and compliment the quality of their work more than girls’ work, while more likely complimenting girls for their neatness. Such bias and stereotypes sparked ideas into many people about the immorality of these outcomes and because of this, equal education was a major theme to write about among many authors.

Mary Wollstonecraft, a female writer in the late 1700s, took a firm position toward the empowerment of women. In 1792 she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which revolves around the idea that women should share equal rights with men as it relates to education. At the time, women were basically still invisible and secluded from outside activity and they had little to no contact with the world outside their own homes. In order for women to raise well-rounded intelligent children, Wollstonecraft suggested that mothers needed to be educated so that they could successfully raise their children to become contributing members of society (Wollstonecraft Para. 11). She pleaded that women should reject submissive behavior and educate themselves, building up their own self- esteem and respect, which would turn women into “more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers-in a word, better citizens” (Para. 16). The education of women would have these positive effects because women would be free from restriction, allowing them to find happiness in sharing common interests with

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their husbands and allowing mothers to assist in the teaching of their children (Para. 14). Wollstonecraft felt that if women had independence in providing support for their own needs that they would be closer to their entitled freedoms and equality, as well as marry for love instead of support.

Daniel Defoe, also a famous writer, expresses how women were taught to do housework and nothing else throughout his essay The Education of Women. “Their youth is spent to teach them to stitch and sew or make baubles. They are taught to read, indeed, and perhaps to write their names, or so; and that is the height of a woman’s education” (Defoe Para. 2). Defoe thought that if women were taught more than housework, then they may gain more wit. He talks about the possible reasons that men had to not educate women and expresses that if men were to give women the same education, women could possibly be smarter than men as “the capacities of women are supposed to be greater, and their senses quicker than those of men” (Defoe Para. 4). Thus, Defoe believes, men fear women battling for superiority resulting in his views of still restricting women’s education. He limits their education to just learning music, dancing, learning the French and Italian languages, teaching women to hold an intellectual conversation, and learning history. Obviously, these are not the only things that men were educated in.

The passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 banned single-sex education in American public schools, marking a huge landmark in the fight for gender equal education. It states, “No person in the U.S. shall, on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, or denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal aid” (Hansot pg. 19). Before Title IX, women

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were not allowed to be admitted into certain colleges because of state laws prohibiting all women, married or single, from being accepted into their college. Only eighteen percent of women had completed four or more years of college compared to twenty-six percent of young men. Women were also less likely to be in high math or science classes and tended to drop out of school more than males.

After the passing of Title IX, the effects on women became immediately clear within the educational system. The dropout rate of females as well as the number of females who became pregnant declined. There was a significant increase in the completion of bachelor, graduate and professional degrees. By 2004, women were earning 58 percent of all bachelor’s degrees in the United States and according to the Department of Education, the gender gap will only widen in the upcoming decade. “It certainly seems clear that when women are provided with certain important resources and with opportunities to learn and practice specific skills, their academic achievement improves” (Pollard pg. 104). These significant increases in statistics show how Title IX has opened many new opportunities for females.

Title IX was originally enacted to impact high school and collegiate sports; although, it does not specify due to the statute covering all educational activities and complaints alleging discrimination. The statute shows how women can be just as successful as men by allowing both to have equal opportunities. It has made a large impact on the lives of many Americans today, by allowing them to make decisions and choosing any school they would like to attend. It applies to almost everyone, whether you go to an elementary school, or a university or college.

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From all of this, it is clear that women have fought hard for the educational freedoms they are destined to have, but is it possible that women are changing the educational system more to their advantage? Researchers Thomas DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann seek to answer this question and discover the reasons for the growing gender gap. They explained how greater chances of getting and staying married, higher wage earnings, and a better standard of living resulted in the growing number of women achieving success in higher education.

According to data from the General Social Surveys (DiPrete & Buchmann pg. 522) which provides information on educational accomplishment and family background, in individuals born prior to the 1960s, daughters were only equal to sons in families where both parents were college educated. Whereas, in less educated families and female headed households, parents favored sons over daughters. Surprisingly, the female disadvantage was even greater in households where mothers had more college experience than fathers.

For those born after the 1960s, the male advantage began to decline. DiPrete and Buchmann note, “A shift appears to have taken place between these two periods such that the mothers’ level of education has become more important for daughters and the fathers’ level of education has become more important for sons”(pg. 523). Their research shows that after 1966, the status of fathers within the family became a main influence in forming the educational outcomes of girls and boys. In families where the father was absent or only high school educated, a continual shift has occured, changing from a male advantage to a female advantage. Boys growing up in such households had, and continue to have, difficulties in obtaining a college degree, despite the fact that prior to 1966, a father’s education did not affect his son’s educational achievement. On the contrary, daughters growing up under the same conditions demonstrated the highest increases in college enrollment and graduation, further influencing future generations of women.

Throughout hundreds of years, the educational system has been an absolute patriarchal system in which the male is in control. But recently over the past few decades we have seen a shift in this control; a change in the educational system that we as a society are so well adapted to. More women are becoming more academically successful then men and are graduating with honor at higher and higher levels. This can be attributed to many the factors mentioned previously; structure changes within the educational system, women’s increase in labor participation, higher wages, the difference in each person’s learning habits and brain make-up, and the effect of background on education. Each factor influences the academic outcomes of each sex. In a society where man once ruled academia and stood as the working figure, women have progressed throughout history to weaken the male role within education among other feats. They have taken gender bias in education and weakened it for the good of the people to give themselves the overall advantage.

Throughout history, people who are born as “men are granted access to power, position and resources” (“Masculinities”). Cultural norms of gender roles are taught to children by their “family, peer group, and community” (“Masculinities”). Based on sufficient research, this review of literature will first focus on the historical facts about how women’s status is undermined by inequality and persecution because they were deemed as inferior biological beings (“Inferiority”). Subsequently, the review will also answer the question of whether women in the present have successfully achieved their rights and gender roles in society completely. At a surface level, “women’s rights have largely been won” (Gaag 146), because “more women are working, more girls are being educated” (Gaag 146). However, this paper will also investigate how women today continue to experience discriminations and inequality as “more than half a million die unnecessarily each year from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth” (Gaag 146). Lastly, the final part of this literature review will examine how women have broken free from the gender stereotypes to achieve power in terms of work and family and its effects on men and society (Marshall).

A. Historical facts about the Male and Female roles

“Beyond the physical differences between men and women and their different reproductive functions are separate sets of socially-determined behavioral norms and performance standards attached to each gender” (Thomas). However, during the era of Greek Philosopher Aristotle, “Women’s status was very low” (“inferiority”). According to Aristotle, the primary function of women was to carrying on the family tree, and “tending the family hearth” (“inferiority”). “The reproduction of children, especially sons” (“inferiority”), was the main purpose of women, and all of the men’s social activities were “off-limits to her” (“inferiority”). In Aristotle’s theory of genetics, he proposed “that children were made by something he called ‘the substance’, which was found in women, and the ‘form’, which came from men” (“Genetics”). According to his theory, Aristotle suggested that “the form and the substance did not mix together but the form had a magical influence on the substance” (“Genetics”) In other words, “the man supplies the substance of a human being, and the women is only the nourishment” (“Inferiority”). From Aristotle’s point of view, “it is only men who are complete human beings and can hope for ultimate fulfillment; the best a women can hope for is to become a man” (“Inferiority”) However, Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, “thought differently about women” (“Plato”). Plato believed that women had a significant role to play in society, and he thought “women were necessary for society to run smoothly” (“Plato”). According to Plato, even though he believed that females were required to function in a working society, he continue to hold the position that women were no where close to equal to men (“Plato”) On the other hand, Plato realized that “men may have been stronger then women physically but women had strengths that were far superior in other areas” (“Plato”) For example, he believed that “women are naturally maternal and these maternal skills made them better care takers for children” (“Plato”). Similarly to Aristotle’s radical view on women, French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte thought, “women were made for men, and men for country, family, glory, and honor” (“Napoleon”). In the 1800s, “the idea of female equality received a setback in a series of laws known as the Napoleonic Code” (“Napoleonic”). According to the Napoleonic Code, “married women in particular owed their husband obedience, and were forbidden from selling, giving, mortgaging or buying property” (“Napoleonic”).

As time progress from the Ancient Greeks to the early stages of the last century, men continued to be “regarded as the persons in charge of their families” (Thomas). According to census, males were considered to be the ‘head of the household’ by family members, and the power within the household was completely dominated by the male figure (Thomas) and “other family members were defined by their relationship to the household head” (Thomas). According to experts, women’s responsibility of bearing children continued until the early part of the last century (Thomas). “In 1941, over 83% of 15 years old or over had birthed a child and one in five had given birth to six or more” (Thomas). Women’s fertility continued to be disregarded by the society, and their “prominent roles” (Thomas) “of giving birth and raise children within a male-headed family” (Thomas) was unchanged.

B. Present women’s success and failure at achieving the rights and power

According to experts, “women’s rights, in theory at least, are well established” (Gaag 11) and women themselves are more aware of their rights” (Gaag 11). However, even though the matter of gender equality between male and females has firmly been placed on the global agenda, we “cannot hide the fact that for millions of women life is still very grim” (Gaag 11).

Although women are having fewer children, that is “50 per cent of women now have access to modern contraceptives” (Gaag 11), “over half a million women continue to die each year from pregnancy and childbirth related causes” (“rights”). Researcher found that ” accounted for 41 percent of all births nationwide between 1993 and 2006? (Pittman), there are “62 percent of pregnancy-related deaths” (Pittman). Despite the international agreement on women’s rights, “the denial of women’s basic human rights is persistent and widespread” (“Rights”). Like mentioned above, “becoming a mother is still a dangerous business” (Gaag 26).

On the economic scheme of things, “during the 20th century, the proportion of married women working for pay increased more than tenfold from less than 5 percent in 1890 to more than 60 percent in 1990” (Mundy 33). “The proportion of women ages 25 to 54 who are working or looking for work stands at 75 percent, up from 35 percent in 1950s” (Muddy 38) Even though “women have expanded their work hours, battled discrimination, and improved their credentials at precisely the time when the rewards for these are greater than ever (Muddy 38), “Poverty rates are higher for women than men” (Cawthorne). “In 2007,13.8 percent of females were poor compared to 11.1 percent of men” (Cawthorne). It was also proven by experts that women are poorer than men in all ethic groups (Cawthorne). According to collected data, the trend that men are wealthier than women is very apparent (Cawthorne). This again ties to the fact that, “despite some progress in women’s wages in the 1990s, women still earn less than men, even for similar kinds of work” (“rights”).

Lastly, there is no doubt that “more girls are being educated – the gap between boys’ and girls’ enrollments has narrowed” (Gaag 11). “Women have improved their credentials precisely the time when the economy craves their skills and schooling” (Muddy 53). “By becoming well educated, women have raised the chances that they will be employed, and they qualify for much better job than they could have expected 30 or 40 years ago” (Muddy 51). According to experts, “education is a key reason why women’s earnings have risen and why in recent recessions, the unemployment rate for women has been lower than the rate for men” (Muddy 51). Through women’s persistency, “women have improved their prospects more than they realize” (Muddy 51).

C. The drastic change in gender roles and its effects on both genders

“While the stereotype of the male breadwinner is still alive in many people’s minds, experts say the reality is that a growing number of women are earning as much, if not more than, their husbands” (Linn). In a matter of decades, “the traditional male breadwinner model has given way to one where women routinely support households and outearn the men they are married to” (Muddy 5). “Not that long ago, in 1970, percentage of wives who outearned their husbands was in the low single digits” (Mundy 6). The dramatic increases of women earners have altered the way male and female see each other (Mundy 7). Ironically, experts “estimate that there are currently about 2 million working women whose husbands are unemployed and looking for work” (Linn). The effect of the gender roles shift is most apparent in the male than the female (Muddy 14). In “journalism and feminist literature of the 1980s and 1990s” (Muddy14), experts found that men tend to “resist women’s rising economic power, even retaliate against it” (Muddy 14). Similarly, one of the other reactions of men towards women’s earnings is that “men can quit, give up and stop trying” (Muddy 14). For all the arguments about ” women “opting-out” when they have children, today’s mothers- particularly educated ones- are overwhelmingly likely to be employed” (Muddy 38). The roles of men and women seems to have shifted, and ” the earning power of wives compared to husbands has risen, steadily and strongly” (Muddy 39).

On the other hand, the rate of participation in housework labor increased steadily for men, while the rate for women remained the same (Marshall). “Among married men with children, the participation rate rose from 54% to 71%. Furthermore, while the presence of a wife lessened men’s involvement in housework in 1986 (single men had a participation rate of 61%, and married men 53%), 2005 saw roughly 7 in 10 married men, both with and without children, participating in housework” (Marshall). According to data on men and women rate of participation in housework, “married men with children spending significantly more time on housework, and married women spending significantly less” (Marshall). Whereas women, “The number of hours worked has risen” (Muddy 39), “and women are much more likely to be working full-time, year-round, than they were 40 years ago” (Muddy 39). Experts predict, “in the coming years, many women will feel pleased being the family’s high earner. They husband will like it too” (Muddy 140). Series of surveys shown that, “men and women are both less likely to say that men should earn the money and women should take care of the children” in today’s society (Muddy 63). According to the gradual shift in gender roles responsibilities, it’s safe to say that “women’s earning power and the vitality and success signals” (Muddy 15), “will lead to a genuine breakthrough in the relationship between the sexes” (Muddy 15).

Conclusion:

In conclusion, women came a long way in achieving their rights and ideal roles in society. Based on historical facts about male and female roles, females “are the majority of humanity but are everywhere victims of systematic discrimination, oppression and sexual abuse” (“Oppression”). Through their tenacity, women thrived as powerful individuals and economically and socially bypass men. However, according to data, women’s “gains have been made under threat” (Gaag 11), and many continued to suffer from unfavorable conditions such as poverty, childbirth complications, and workplace discrimination. Despite these persistent disadvantages of the female sex, “within a generation, more households will be supported by women than by men” (Muddy 78). “A revolution is under way” (Muddy 65).