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This essay will look at supported published literature, how it is understood by the leaders of thought in this field, validating and correlating the shared language to describe and defend my own practice in the community of education.

How are we faring against social, economic, cultural and political ideologies? Is it just words? It is my belief, fairness and equality for all has still not been achieved and is an ever evolving work in progress. The differences in society are our connections. Our cultural norms are tacit and white privilege is asking us to challenge them daily and understand what is in “Our Knapsacks”. We as practitioners, do have the power of inertia to intercede between the individual learner and stakeholders to collectively effect real change to ensure a better society for all. “Ireland’s changing demographic over the last 10 years has helped to shape a more socially and culturally diverse society. There is no doubt that Ireland will remain a diverse society and it is important that we celebrate and harness this diversity and ensure that our communities are inclusive”. Speech by Minister Stanton – Equality Then, Now & Future: Creating a more Equal & Inclusive Society

Key concepts and theories will explain real life practices and demonstrate the obligation to promote a critical analysis of social change and inclusion, in the context of the social, cultural and political frameworks. Critical reflection and ethics within daily practice trigger theories of social change, inclusion, quality and diversity in my role as an educator. A learner who is Dyslexic, “Stephanie” (not her real name) is the genesis of the case study and consequently support the growth of this essay. In order to understand other cultures, the lived experience of inequality and inclusion, or lack of will be categorised by three levels of the Micro, Meso and Macro. Taking this into consideration, her lived perspective will evaluate the extent to which Adult and Further Education includes marginalized social groups, what should be contained in an inclusive curriculum and the sense of agency to provide a comfortable supportive environment to enable her to deal with society’s barriers.

Critical factors such as equality form our mind-sets within particular cultures. The particular culture within our families, organisations and government are the markers of difference and operate at different levels in responding to diversity. Possessing an understanding of what is in “my knapsack” as a practitioner, Peggy McIntosh (McIntosh, 2016) enabled me to check my own assumptions and re-evaluate, “Who and what I am” and “Who and what I am not – The Other”.

Micro level considers the teaching and learning viewpoints at individual levels in Adult and Further Education. Long gone are the days of “I Teach, You listen!” approaches, the theory of developing intellect and not listening to the learners voice is non-productive.

The importance of emotions are fundamental in the development to the functioning of an inclusive democratic society. How can I let my learners see that I truly care about their progression, if I cannot demonstrate empathy? Sharing my journey of Lifelong Learning, in a professional and legitimate manner allowing the language of emotions to be present within the classroom, is crucial in the establishment of trust building of respectful relationships. In addition, concurring with Filloux, practitioners should adopt to a discipline of sociology, providing for successful structures and facilitation of learning, in conducive learning environments. “The teacher of the future is thus one who will manage to live out the pedagogical wish of the sociologist..” (Filloux, 1993)

During “Stephanie’s” Wk1 Day 1, Induction Week on a yearlong Level 5 Office Administration Course, through Icebreaker introductions, “Stephanie” disclosed she had not been interviewed or applied for the course herself and was not happy about “having” to attend. As she had not applied for the course her negative attitude could be somewhat understandable. “Stephanie” had received a phone call from the organisation, the day prior to commencement of the course and instructed to arrive for class the following day at 8.30am. This relaxed day enabled Tuckman’s Formation Stage to develop, empowering learners to share experiences, develop relationships and build confidence and self-worth.

On Day 2, following reflection of the previous lesson, further discussions unfolded with “Stephanie” sharing her bad experiences in school to the group. Relationships were emerging, with other learners demonstrating sympathetic responses. Admitting how she struggled with reading, confessing how daily she was publically humiliated by having to read out loud and when she refused to do so, was labelled troublesome. She was regularly called “stupid” or “dumb” by both the teachers and peers and often sent to sit outside the headmistress’s door, when she became argumentative. In her own admission, she said it was easier to start an argument in the classroom rather than feel useless. “Stephanie” felt the only person she developed a relationship with, was the School Secretary. “She took the time to listen to me!” This school secretary had recognised she was different and suggested her best approach to improve her performance in school would be to go to her doctor, and get a psychological assessment conducted. The school would receive government funding to support learners with additional needs and the school would be in better position to support “Stephanie” with her studies. As a result of that conversation, “Stephanie” felt she had personally failed, in addition to the school system failing her, so she dropped out of school, after her Junior Certificate. However, she did go to the doctors who confirmed in a psychological report that “Stephanie” was Dyslexic.

Emile Durkheim suggests Anomie is a lack of moral standards in a society. Unfortunately, it could be argued “Stephanie’s” previous experiences of system failure, in 2^nd level education, certainly had an impact on her individual belief systems, behaviours and overall perceptions of Further Education (FE), hence shaping her negative attitude and barriers to motivation of learning.

In addition to delivering subject matter content, practitioners are also expected to ensure learners are familiarised with the Rules and Regulations of the Institution. Following the 2 days lessons, in a 1:1 session, “Stephanie” was made aware of the facility to apply for Learner Support, if she felt she had a specific requirement. She produced her psychological report, stating “I had come to class armed with it on the first day, but wanted to see if I would fit in with everybody first”. To further support her progression through the course, additional support sessions for an hour, twice a week before and / or after class were offered, by myself. Reassurance was given to “Stephanie” that all strategies and learning experiences would be reflected in her own personal learning style. In addition, Learner Support if approved, would permit an extra 25% additional time to complete all assessments, the support services of a Reader / Scribe would be made available and all papers would be photocopied on yellow paper, to assist with reading. Following the meeting an application was submitted to the organisation for Learner Support.

Micro Level is hugely important in the awareness to issues, context and sometimes problems that Adult learners experience, to develop learner’s skills and confidence in their learning with the necessary practices and strategies. Concurrent with Social Justice Ireland, our social role responsibility, as practitioners, leads to the identification of problems and impediments for progression and inclusion, to change and ensure a better, inclusive, nondiscriminatory society for all. “Working to build a just society where human rights are respected, human dignity is protected, human development is facilitated and the environment is respected and protected. “ (Social Justice Ireland, 2009-2016)

Meso Level is the organisations approaches to ameliorate policies and practices to support and promote inclusion, by facilitating the necessary support apparatuses. It could be argued, the solution to constructed failure, at Meso Level in “Stephanie’s” case at 2nd Level, focussed more on medical treatments, psychological assessments and monetary gain, instead of focussing on the educational solutions and the necessary support apparatuses. Thus, identifying the other so called efforts of “supported others” as self-centred.

Concurring with Fiona O’Connor suggestions, there is a severe lack of professional training given to practitioners to manage diversity within classrooms. Furthermore, at Meso Level is it more ubiquitous. Many employees at this level have never experienced the importance of emotions and emotional work within classrooms, as their roles and responsibilities are often administrative. (Number Crunching). In line with current paradigms to social inclusivity there is an institutional racism still in existence. At Macro Level, the lack of an interview for “Stephanie” prior to the course commencement, highlighted the failure to identify the necessary prerequisites, willingness to learn, commitment to complete such a long course or that she had an intellectual disability and cognitive condition such as Dyslexia, further demonstrates their lack of concern – they do not want to be bothered. Practitioner’s organise the necessary applications, follow up paper work and hiring of Reader / Scribe personnel for a learner who has been approved for Learner Support. All of which is additional duties outside of class time.

The organisations approach to addressing fostering and inclusion of inequality and diversity by practices could be questionable. Are they adopting a “bums on seats view”? Should practitioners be pre advised of the physical, mental and intellectual disabilities of learners in advance of course commencement?

Macro Level is the wider structure context of class, gender and race. Legislative and policy frameworks are regularly being reproduced in the roll out of new revised Strategic Plans, underpinning education, equality and promotion of social inclusion in societal change. However, prior to commencement of the course, “Stephanie” contacted The Department of Social Protection (DSP) to clarify why she had a place on a course, as she had not applied for one. The information received, informed her she was from a marginalised group, on a Long Term Unemployed Register, therefore it was compulsory to complete a course. This was further outlined in written format, and stated that her failure to attend the course could result in deductions from her Social Welfare Payment. DSP enforcement, can be argued as having a negative impact on learners’ readiness to learn and a barrier to motivate individuals to partake in learning and progression to Adult and Further Education.

Disability Acts, Equality Acts and legislative Strategic Plans provide opportunities to collaborate together and ensure that all of our citizens are entitled to lifelong learning (LLL) advocating “the central pillar of the European Union (EU) strategy, to create a dynamic and competitive knowledge- based society and economy” (NUI Galway, 2011). Is this at a cost to the individual? Where is the freedom of choice?

The educational systems in place are clearly strongly integrated into the society. However, in my opinion, it is impossible to expect equality in education in short of progression and advancement towards equality in the social, economic, cultural and political systems. With this in mind, changing education is the catalyst to those revolutions in changing cultural values and opinions.

As previously identified, Marxism removed the focus away from struggling individuals and onto group struggling. It is my belief, fairness and equality for all has still not been achieved and is an ever evolving work in progress, ratifying the only way to effect real change is to do so collectively.

References

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To what extent do Turner’s concepts of ‘liminality’ and ‘communitas’ cast light on pilgrimage as a social process? The concepts of “liminality” and “comunitas” is “evanescent, like a wisp of smoke in the wind.” (Shure, 2005) It attempts to achieve some formalization of a social process in a theoretically perspective, though academically this can be achieved; it is very hard to master the full and in-depth concept of the pilgrimage. As all academic essays require the clear and standard definition of the question, Turner’s concepts will subsequently be explained and furthermore the meaning behind both the “pilgrimage” and “social process” will be dealt with in detail. Turner draws on concepts of Van Gennep’s model of rites of passage; liminality is a state of transition argued by Turner, it is “neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial. (Turner, 1969, p. 95) The attempt of the essay will show how the liminality identifies itself as period of transition with the social process of a pilgrimage, identify the equality and communitas will attempt to illustrate the process of a pilgrimage, however is structure truly lost during a pilgrimage and what is the concept of a social process and does a pilgrimage really fit into this definition, is a pilgrimage one of equality and individuality or that of a structured formation or a social experience.

“The rite of passage”, focuses on the fact that a member of a group neither belongs to the group she was a part of or the group she will belong to after the luminal stage has been completed. A typical liminal stage can be seen as the child between becoming an adult and staying a child, puberty as a liminal stage in every individual persons own life pilgrimage. (Turner V. E., 1978) Continuing with the notion of liminal periods one can observe that in Mary Douglas’ Purity and Danger, illustrates that the individual is a polluting force on the external groups as liminal individuals are of “no status, insignia…kinship position, nothing to demarcate them structurally” (Turner V. , The forst of symbols: Aspects of Ndembu ritual, 1967, p. 98) Liminality, In the use of Van Gennep’s model of the three, Turner illustrates the phases of the ritual, the ritual is an catalyst and exemplifies the transitional period. The transitional period is identified as the liminal period. (Turner V. , 1967, p. 94) Seclusion from everyday life is a typical consequence to the liminal period which is the attempt to remove the individual from the society, subsequently forcing the individual into an interior pilgrimage of development of self. The application of classification is often used, in doing so this continues the transition and the removal of previous identity, furthermore denoting the status of transition. Turner develops this concept further in the ambiguity that is suggested, the concept of seclusion, and the non identification of the individual of gender or class. Turner continues to suggest the equality of this transitional period however many anthropologist are hesitant to apply this to an overall spectrum as in various societies the formation of structure is still imposed. (Turner V. , 1967)

Turner’s three phase concept is simplistic in concept and difficult in application, phase one being the communication of sacra, where secret symbols are communicated to the ritual subjects in the form of exhibitions of sacred articles, actions, and instructions; the symbols represent the unity and continuity of the community. This then transcends into the liminal period of “ludic deconstruction” (Deflem, 1991, p. 13) and then subsequently the recombination of the individual; Turner develops on this and we move into the phase three, which is the removal of all social structure and what is left is solely the authority of the instructor and aim of the ritual. (Turner V. E., 1978) This phase three fuelled Turner into formalising the concept of Communitas as the identification of one.

Anti-structure and Communitas are blood brothers in the opposition to structure, Turner clearly notes that communitas is present within in a liminal stage when structure is not present (Turner V. , 1969, pp. 94-96) as criticised above Turner clearly identifies this to be present within a period of liminality in a ritual process. The removal of all social elements and the exclusion from this constitutes a community bond, one of human kindness; constituting this ritual communitas of individuals in a separate transition society such as the concept of limbo between heaven and hell, between life and death. Turner further explains communitas in the Ritual Process, explaining that they refer to two further modalities of society. (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974) A Dialectic process between various communitas, a general view of equality of individuals (later works such as Eade argue against this concept) and that of the structured individuals in a hierarchical system such as in the Hindu religion. The Dialectic has been used throughout time such as in Revolutions and the “maximization of communitas provokes maximization of structure, which in turn produces revolutionary strivings for renewed communitus”. (Turner V. , 1969, p. 129)

Communitas is observed as something that is a phase in a process of a ritual not something that will continue after the process has been completed as the fate of any type of communitas is inevitably a “decline and fall into structure and law” (Turner V. , 1969, p. 132), after which a new form of communitas may rise again. (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974, p. 282) The concept of a pilgrimage and the community are centred to many scholarly debates, Eade and Sallnow question the role of the pilgrimage in sustaining or negating the social structure. (Sallnow, 1981) In following onto the concept that is discussed, the contrast to Marxist understanding to the pilgrimage as a structural maintenance juxtaposed with Turner’s pilgrimage concept of spontaneous communitas. Therefore in discussion of the experience does it not bind one to the larger concept of a community? (Eade J. a., 1991, p. 5)

The pilgrimage is an area of anthropology that had lacked any in-depth focus within the field till Turner’s “Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture” and when formalising concepts on the pilgrimage one is prone to focus on the most powerful rituals performed by religious members and not necessarily the simplistic rituals of everyday life Eade & Coleman suggest that pilgrimage has been neglected due to this assertion of a pilgrimage of a liminal nature, and that of a daily life furthermore suggesting that a pilgrimage is something of extraordinary nature such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, a pilgrimage to a holy shrine Why in this definition has pilgrimage has been removed from everyday life and imposed on that of a religious ritual background, one could suggest that the simplistic notion of going in search of a new pair of shoes or a job is a pilgrimage of the individual. In doing so one is removing themselves from the pre-persona and transition into the new entity and within this liminal stage they are neither. (Eade, 2004) Though Turner states that the individual accounts such as “documents or oral narratives of the personal experiences” allow us to “envisage the social process” of a pilgrimage, subsequently suggesting that even though a pilgrimage maybe an interior one between the divine or one or a social community to Mecca, a pilgrimage none the less is a social process. The pilgrimage as a social process is formed on the symbolic and structural elements, directly important when considering the apparent or lack of “structure,” “anti-structure,” “communitas,” and “liminality”. (Turner V. , 1974) (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974) Turner observes structure as “a more or less distinctive arrangement of mutually dependent institutions and the institutional organization of social positions and/or actors which they imply”. (Turner V. , 1974, p. 272) Therefore in such pilgrimages as Muktinath in Nepal such social relations as caste cause the formation of “distance and inequality” (Turner V. , 1974, p. 272) (Edwards, 1972)

“That religious pilgrimage serves to highlight social principles which are idiosyncratic to a particular religious system” (Messerschmidt, 1980) Most of Turner’s work was based on the Christianity bases of a pilgrimage as a result “communitas behaviour was expected…inherent principles and idealistic expectations” (Turner V. E., 1978) though juxtaposed with the pilgrimage of Hinduism, it is very much a contradiction as a Hindu society is hierarchical and subsequently even though through transition this structured formation is enforced. In relation to the question being addressed, this example illustrates Turner’s specific concepts of liminality and communitas do not act coherently throughout all religious pilgrimages. Even though structure plays an element in this example of a pilgrimage. Pilgrimage does not inherently maintain or remove the structure, though Starke and Finke suggest that it rather strengthens the bonds between the individual to a symbolic community. Therefore even though Messerchmidt suggests that structure is within the liminal stage and subsequently communitas does not exist, could not suggest that the symbolic bond that is being achieved is subsequently causing a communitus that exists in a greater place. (Stark, 2000) If we look at the Hajj, it is one of the largest and most well known religious pilgrimages to date, that brings pilgrims back into “the time of the Prophets and into the utopian-like society that previously existed”. This pilgrimage is international, members of Islam ascend Mecca to fulfil a once in a life connection to a spiritual community, it is a pilgrimage of the individual however a social process which will forever be linked into history, with the notion of communitus one could further suggest that the linking with a spiritual holy place one is not just linking to a communitus of the present but that of the past and future. If all are equal at this period of time and structure therefore the communitus above time. (McCarter, 2005)

Turner’s concepts of “liminality” and “communitas cast a light on the social process of a pilgrimage in some specific notions. It has been clear that Turner has centred all research majorly on a Christianity stance and subsequently foreshowing other religious pilgrimages that actually do not have the removal of the structure within the liminal stage and therefore the inherent structure is transposed from the pre to post formations of the individual. As the question directly asks to what extent does Turner’s concepts cast light, it can be seen that metaphorically Turner has been the lighthouse to the development of anthropology of the pilgrimage; however inevitably with the development of theories, Turner’s concepts notwithstanding will always foreground others. Though as Modern development requires less need for lighthouses, so do the concepts of Turner no longer stand alone with theories of social process and pilgrimage. Turner illustrates that ritual is a response to a society’s demand but that is actively involved in the human interaction and meaning. His actions and concepts are far from “static”. (Deflem, 1991) Furthermore supported in new research of John Eade, one can see that within Turner’s concepts the expression of a pilgrimage as something that is not a daily process has once again cast a shadow on the mundane concepts of a pilgrimage. One, can see that the direct social understanding of a pilgrimage is that of a religious one; the search for the divine inspiration and “where miracles once happened, still happen, and may happen again” (Turner V. E., 1978, p. 6)

The Issue of “The Unspeakable” In The Theoretical and Fictive Representation of Sexuality
Khalil Jetha

The unspeakable in the theoretical and fictive representation of sexuality traditionally refers to the weakening of masculinity and the empowerment of feminine sexuality. From a theoretical standpoint, the “unspeakable” is the bending of gender lines, the empowerment of women and the abatement of male dominance. The unspeakable in the fictive representation of sexuality is the destabilization of masculine sexuality and the introduction of femininity in a male psyche. This includes literary methods such as the metaphorical connection of male psyches with the Oedipal Complex, homosexual inclinations and subservience to female characters. Books such as Michel Foucault’s The History of Sexuality examine the theoretical representation of male and female heterosexuality’s innate connection to homosexuality as the “unspeakable”. The fictive representation of sexuality demonstrates the unspeakable as the switching of traditional gender roles and the application of sexual foils to personalities as present in Nella Larsen’s Quicksand. Aspects of the unspeakable also translate to racial representation as shown in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye; in order to understand the difference in sexuality’s representation in both theoretical and fictive media, one cannot dismiss race as inherently connected to sexuality.

Michel Foucault (1926-1984) widely criticized the traditional, Judeo-Christian perception of sexuality as outdated and inaccurate, widely neglecting several aspects of sexuality. The greatest unspeakable in European society was the notion that sexuality existed outside of a procreative dimension. As society evolved, Foucault argued, it was not the proletariat, lower class traditionally viewed as immoral that wrought the several facets of sexuality on the world. Rather, it was society’s “bourgeois or aristocratic” families who discovered “the sexuality of children and adolescents was first problematized [sic], and feminine sexuality medicalized [sic]” (Foucault 1978, p. 120). The changing perception of sexuality in Europe’s upper echelons revealed an unspeakable aspect; namely, that women and children exuded sexual identities independent of the accepted norm of domestication and procreation. The presence of sexuality in women and children lessened the degree of male dominance, hence the “unspeakable” attribute. The male fear of a loss of influence in society was most pronounced in the upper class, the primary reason high society’s families were “the first to be alerted to the potential pathology of sex, the urgent need to keep it under close watch and to devise a rational technology of correction”; “it was this family that first became a locus for the psychiatrization [sic] of sex” (Foucault 1978, p. 120). Patriarchal society’s destabilization was the reason sexuality’s existence in anyone than adult males was so widely reviled. The bourgeois considered sex to be frail, something that ought to be relegated within their society. The bourgeois fear of sexuality outside the male persona branched out, giving way to every unspeakable; more specifically, the unspeakable aspects of sexuality represented theoretically and fictively were based on any threatening idea that would compromise tradition. In what appeared to be a “struggle against sexuality,” society evolved a strategy to take advantage of the sexualities of “women, children, and men” by gearing them toward the familial unit most accepted. Female sexuality, though disturbing the procreative process, was given a voice that aimed sexuality and desire for men to coincide with the nuclear family unit. Juvenile sexuality was exploited, encouraged to blossom because its final realization would be the familial, patriarchal household unit (Foucault 1978, p. 105).

In History of Sexuality, Foucault asserts that sexuality “must not be thought of as a kind of natural given which power tries to hold in check, or as an obscure domain which knowledge tries gradually to uncover” (Foucault 1978, p. 105). Sexuality develops independent of society, and each individual’s sexuality will evolve differently. Sexuality, Foucault argues, “is the name that can be given to an historical construct: not a furtive reality that is difficult to grasp, but a great surface network in which the stimulation of bodies, the intensification of pleasures, the incitement to discourse, the formation of special knowledge, the strengthening of controls and resistances, are linked to one another, in accordance with a few major strategies of knowledge and power” (Foucault 1978, p. 105-106). From a modern theoretical standpoint such as that of Foucault, sexuality is represented primarily as a revolutionary social entity. The traditions of a Judeo-Christian ethic system would view sexuality as a divisive manifestation, an animal instinct that should be controlled in men and eliminated from women and children. The unspeakable, from a theoretical standpoint, was its mere existence in women and children; any deviance from accepted models resulted in a compromise of male superiority. There were two primary threats: one was the existence of sexuality that deviated from traditional male sexuality, and the second was the existence of empowering sexuality outside of the male contingent of society. Precedence was always given to procreation; sex was meant only to create life, not to be used for pleasure. The threats to male dominance were clear, even in the queering of sexuality. Change is the most prevalent in the realm of the unspeakable, represented in theoretical sexuality as anything deviant from tradition.

Despite the spectre caused by multiple future changes to society, Foucault noted that it was “worth remembering that the first figure to be invested by the deployment of sexuality, one of the first to be ‘sexualized’ was the ‘idle’ woman” (Foucault 1978, p. 121). The “idle woman” was one given precedence and favour over her counterparts. She retained the domestic role of her predecessors, and was the accepted female figure within society. In her foil emerged the “nervous woman,” the woman afflicted with “vapours”; in this figure, the hysterization of woman found its anchorage point (Foucault 1978, p. 121). Theoretically, the unspeakable in female sexuality was that which strayed from the accepted patriarchal model. The “nervous woman” was actually the sexually empowered phenomenon of the alpha female. The problem with a sexually empowered female was the psychological impotence of a man who would fall under her influence. This psychological rendering is roughly equivalent to the metaphoric neutering of man and society.

Contrary to the traditional view previously stated, Foucault agrees that the neutering of the genders is potentially dangerous. However, Foucault recognizes the presence of sex in both genders, and also does not hesitate to divide the two into a gender-based dichotomy. He claims that if society failed to recognize the difference in gendered sexualities, it would create “sexuality without sex,” which effectively amounted to “castration once again” (Foucault 1978, p. 151). He aims to show how “deployments of power are directly connected to the body—to bodies, functions, physiological processes, sensations, and pleasures” (Foucault 1978, p.152). The representation of the unspeakable here is countered by Foucault’s assertion that the unspeakable is a necessary part of society. In response to the historical construct of sexuality detailing the “hysterization [sic]” of women, Foucault defines the unspeakable of sexuality in three ways:

“…as that which belongs, par excellence, to men, and hence is lacking in women”

but “at the same time, as that which by itself constitutes a woman’s body, ordering

it wholly in terms of the functions of reproduction and keeping it in constant

agitation through the effects of that very function” (Foucault 1978, p. 153).

Representations of the unspeakable in fictive sexuality can also be attributed to race and gender, as evidenced by Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye as well as Nella Larsen’s Quicksand. The Bluest Eye’s protagonists’ encounter with Maureen Peal, a light-skinned black girl whose birth defects were ignored in favour of her fair complexion, demonstrates the phenomena of social racial aesthetics (Morrison 63). Most evident is Maureen’s denigration of the girls Claudia, Frieda and Pecola; Maureen subconsciously defends her birth defects as beauty because she is “cute [and they are] black and ugly” (Morrison 73). The unspeakable component here is the empowerment of white over black, but upon closer inspection it becomes the sexually empowered girl versus the sexually unwanted others. Maureen’s birth defects would erstwhile render her unwanted by men and therefore a member of the weaker contingent of society. However, the social standard merits fair complexion over dark, empowering Maureen over Claudia, Frieda, and Pecola. Despite the fact that Maureen is technically a black girl, her proximity to the white race earns her the contempt of girls whose deep desires to be wanted by society represent the unspeakable. Maureen, though vilified in The Bluest Eye, is the least sexually threatening and exudes the least unspeakable characteristics. It is Claudia, Frieda, and Pecola, who in their desire to be pale and possess “the bluest eye” aspire to have the power that Maureen flouts in front of them. The white race equates with power and masculinity, while the black race is the powerless neuter in the world Toni Morrison portrays. Similarly, Nella Larsen’s Quicksand presents the unspeakable in sexuality with the racial and sexual dilemma of Helga Crane. A“ despised mulatto” reviled because she could not be confined to a comfortable social norm, Helga embodies the unspeakable ambiguity traditional society feared (Larsen 1994, p. 5). Helga represents the same power standard as the white and black races portrayed by Morrison. If power can be ascribed to sexuality and the standard of male strength over female weakness, then Helga therefore presents to society not just a mulatto, but also a woman on the verge of becoming powerful. Larsen establishes this standard, describing such instances as shocking Helga. Helga, for example, “[shudders] a little as she recalled some of the statements made by that holy white man of God to the black folk sitting [respectfully] before him” (Larsen 1994, p. 2).

Helga’s description in Quicksand is sexually favourable, suggesting the duality of a black woman becoming sexually desirable, crossing the borders established by society. Helga’s attractiveness is described in several colour references, the first description made by the narrator evoking the sentiment that “an observer would have thought her well fitted to that framing of light and shade” (Larsen 1994, p. 2). Helga is a manifestation of the disconcertment of a woman in a patriarchal society, as she “could neither conform, nor be happy in her unconformity” (Larsen 1994, p. 7). Not only is Helga unable to accept any stance on her race, she is also hard pressed to find acceptance for her sexual power. The same “parts of her that she couldn’t be proud of” ironically “visualized the discomfort of James Vayle” in her “maladjustment”; she “had a faint notion that it was behind his ready assent to her suggestion anent a longer engagement than, originally, they had planned” (Larsen 1994, p. 7). Despite Vayle’s family and their intolerance of Helga’s familial and racial ambiguity, Helga’s fiance represents Helga’s exertion of power over a man. With such odds mounted against his union to Helga, the logical assumption would be his abandonment of a relationship. However, Helga’s identity as a black woman with white features empowers her to be desired by him; James cannot let go as he is dominated and has little choice in the matter. Larsen shows James’ powerlessness, describing him as “liked and approved of” in the town of Naxos, but “[loathing] the idea that the girl he was to marry couldn’t manage to win liking and approval also” (Larsen 1994, p. 7). Even Helga is cognizant of James’ helplessness, as she knew “that a something held [James], a something against which he was powerless” (Larsen 1994, pp. 7-8).

The unspeakable factor in sexuality is multi-faceted. While all types of sexuality are different, they are all unspeakable in their common root as threats to heterosexual, male dominance. Theoretical presentation of the unspeakable is largely based on the existence of non-conventional sexualities, while fictive presentations manifest themselves in different media as shown in Morrison and Larsen’s works. Though the scope of so-called sexual deviance is large, the general premise remains the same.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Foucault, Michel. (1978) The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. New York: RandomHouse Books.

Larsen, Nella and Deborah E. McDowell (ed). (1994) Quicksand and Passing. NewBrunswick: Rutgers U P.

Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000.

1.0 Concept of Suicide1.1 Background

Sir Thomas Browned originates the word “suicide” in 1642 in his Religio Medici. It was derived from “SUI” (of oneself) and “CAEDES” (murder).since then, this word has caused much controversy and evoked many professionals to continuous research and debate upon its definition in various ways from every aspects: medical, social, psychological, administrative, legal, spiritual and religious purposes.

Suicide is no longer uncommon in the society and every day, there are people from many walks of life living under the same roof without us knowing what problems they are plagued with. Back centuries, suicide was a taboo subject to be discussed and yet, many are engaged in such behavior although it is believed that most suicide cases are unreported. To some, suicidal actions are glorified especially to cults and religion purposes. As time progresses, the mentality of the society changes along with time and the stigma of suicide is slowly undergoing much debate and understanding. Now, suicide is regarded more of a tragedy instead of ritual because part of the reason is that the society undergoes globalization and no longer practices scarification. Even if there is a minority of tribes who endorses scarification, the groups are negligible throughout the globe. Also, suicide in this era more often is done due to personal reasons; be it mentality, spiritual etc.

In 1763, the first attempt was done scientifically by Merian to understand the rationale behind suicide. It is believed that suicide was not perceived as a sin or a crime. Instead, suicide has been regarded as a disease of mankind. After the death of Jean Jacques Rousseau in 1822, which had sequentially and graphically described circumstances of his death, Farlet manages to conduct a first in-depth examination on suicide. This enables better understanding on suicide with broader perspective. A famous psychiatrist, Dr R. Gaupp, says that amongst people committing suicide they possess unique and bizarre personality traits. For the past 50 years, it is concluded by series of researches that suicide begins from the state of mind, coupled with external factors, resulting in suicide. Herein, we will look in depths of suicide amongst Malaysian school students.

1.2 Definition

A suicide idea is when one thought of ending one’s own life. One thing leads to another, suicide ideas often leads to suicidal attempt and suicidal behaviour. Suicidal behaviours are thoughts or tendencies that started off a person and put them at risk for committing suicide. Simply said, suicide is an intentional or voluntary determination to end one’s life, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO). A suicidal person often closed one’s options in life, and looks at another darker side of negativity. To them, dying is a pre-requisite for the end of all sufferings. A famous sociologist, Emile Durkheim whom not only proposes the theory of functionalism but also studied on Suicide, states that: “the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result” (1982, p. 110 [excerpt from Suicide]).

1.3 Description

Suicide is not an uncommon issue these days and it is widely discussed in institutions although it is still condemned by the society. Much about discussing facts and truths behind this dark sentiment of life, there are common myths about suicide which we need to eradicate in order to comprehend the problem better we are able to curb this issue. When we listened to people whom talks about suicide, we assumed that these people would not do it since they are open to discussion. To include, people who are open to discussion should not be overlooked because they might also consider the options of suicide since the minds of a person is incomprehensible. In addition, the society views the troubled ones as people whom cannot be saved and are unwilling to seek help. Since they intend to commit suicide, nothing can stop him. These misconstrued assumptions are proven wrong because they are lost and sometimes hope for care and understanding. Indeed, these are individuals whom should not be segregated. Another notion that should be avoided is that people believed that suicide indicates lack of faith in religion. This is incorrect because there are certain religions which encourage suicide in the name of faith.

Thoughts and attempts of suicide as well as committing suicide are major concerns throughout the world and it is still a growing concern amongst the society. Very much obvious, most suicidal case involves adolescents and young teens. The teenage years are one of the most difficult stages in life, as identified by psychologists. Although teenagers are thought to enjoy life without worries of financial stability and mid-life crisis, suicide seems way an inconsiderable option to them since they ought to have no problems at this phase of life besides studying. But many changes in the mind which takes place during puberty can change their identity and their vulnerable self if they may have to cope with a broad range of personal and social obstacles. Since young people are so fragile, they may experience difficulty in dealing with stress.

Children prior to puberty had hardly been bothered by suicidal behavior, probably due to their inability to envisage or execute a suicide plan. When puberty hits adolescence, risky psychiatric factors, such as depression and drug abuse become imminent and play a part in contributing to the causes of frequency in suicidal behaviour. Some children especially girls, view the transition from primary to middle school stressful. In addition, as one gets older parental supervision decreases, so teenagers are more likely to engage in unhealthy behavior without their parents’ consents.

Suicide is divided into several commonly used terms to identify its symptoms and causes. Here are the descriptions provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) regarding suicidal terms that needed to be taken into account:-

Suicide: a planned act of killing oneself intentionally. The act can be performed by the person with or without the full knowledge or expectation of any fatal outcome.
Suicidal attempt: A medical intervention is required in this case, after the person whom intended to end his or her life committed a life-threatening act with a conscious intent.
Suicidal gesture: A series of self-threatening behaviour on display, which may be detrimental or non- detrimental.
Suicidal idea: The power of mind to thought or set up the process to end one’s own life.
Suicidal risk: The tendency of ending one’s life depends on this characteristic, depending on its presence or absence.
Suicidal pact: Two or more people in agreement to die concurrently by committing the act of suicide.
Suicidal cluster: People who gather in groups to commit suicide together, usually for a common objective.
Suicidal counters: To prevent suicide, this set of factors operates within the individual, family or society.
1.4 Facts and Figures

With many reasons believed to be the causes for suicide, facts and figures of statistics below are generally shown to highlight suicide from methods of ending life in different ethnic groups (inference is drawn from analysis of data from suicidal cases from the University Malaya Medical Centre mortuary ) to why it is committed : –

It is estimated that 450 million people suffered from mental of behavioral disorder.
Every year, close to 1 million people committed suicide and 1 in 4 families have at least a member with mental disorder.
There are 25 million schizophrenic patients and 50 million who suffer from epilepsy, which About 40 million or 80% are assumed to live in developing countries
Most of them lived for 33% of the years with disability are due to neuropsychiatric disorders (depression, alcohol-use disorders, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder).
From 2000-2004, University Malaya Medical Centre found suicides of 164 male (65%) and 87 female (35%) victims with their ages ranging from 15 to 80 years.
The age group with the highest total of cases between 21 to 30 (83 of 251; 33.1%)
The highest rate of suicide was among Chinese (ethnic groups) with a total of 120 cases (120 of 251; 47.8%) by using the common method; jumping from height (41%).
Whereas, Indians commonly commit suicide by hanging themselves (49 of 87) and poisoning (20 of 37; 54.1%); and Muslims had shown the lowest cases of suicide (18 of 251; 7.2%).
1.5 Types of suicide

“Collective tendencies have an existence of their own; they are forces as real as cosmic forces, though of another sort; they, likewise, affect the individual from without…” (Thompson, 1982, p. 109 [excerpt from Suicide])

To separate true suicides from accidental deaths, Durkheim proposed this definition of suicide: “the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result” (1982, p. 110 [excerpt from Suicide]). Then, Durkheim proposes four types of suicide:

1) Egoistic suicide

Minimal social integration allows outcasts and segregation of individuals who are not considered fit to be bounded to specific social groups. These individuals are left with little social support or guidance. Thus, tendency to commit suicide increases. For example, students especially girls in schools wanted to belong in groups or so-called cliques. Most of the times, the ones whom are shunned off are the ones to be laughed at and criticized.

2) Altruistic suicide

The opposite of egoistic suicide. This type of suicide results from too much of integration. Self-sacrifice is the prominent trait and members of the group were so integrated that they lost their individuality and ever so willing to sacrifice for the group’s interest. For example, black metal groups in school do underground sacrificial methods at times in their act of worshipping.

3) Anomic suicide (of moral regulation)

When means were unable to fulfill needs, an imbalance of means and needs arise.

i. Acute economic anomie

Traditional institutions such as religion and government failed to practise moral restraints on a capitalist society. Hence, the ruling of private individuals to determine one’s fate in life. This type of suicide does not apply in Malaysia because it is a democratic country where everyone has the equal rights to flourish in their own ability.

ii. Chronic economic anomie

Social regulation gradually diminishes after a revolution or urbanization. As a result, traditional social rules deteriorated. Wealth and property was not enough to make individuals happy, as was demonstrated by higher suicide rates among the wealthy than the poor. For instance, richer students gain easier access to drugs because of their high allowance making it affordable for them. Later on, usage of drug substances will lead to suicide (will be discussed later in this topic). This also explains why students in urban schools are more prone to suicide instead of rural area students.

iii. Acute domestic anomie

The inability of an individual to adapt to sudden changes in life results in this suicide. For instance, a student who could not cope the loss of his or her family members might consider suicide as an option to end the suffering.

iv. Chronic domestic anomie

The way marriage is seen in different regulations and needs for each gender. Bachelors tended to commit suicide at higher rates than married men because of a lack of regulation and established goals and expectations. On the other hand, bachelorettes are lower risk to commit suicide because without marriage, they are not confined to boundaries set by the household. This is not an issue for students in Malaysian schools unless if young girls are married off during schooling. Such cases are rare in Malaysia unless in rural areas like in Sabah or Sarawak.

4) Fatalistic suicide

This type of suicide did not receive much attention because it is a rare phenomenon of the real world. People who are over regulated and receive unrewarding lives like the slaves or childless married women might consider suicide. Their future is relies on others to determine. Cases do happened like prostitution or human trafficking, but this type of suicide does not relate much to the field of education.

1.6 Warning signs

“Rarely, suicide spurs a moment of intense decision”, says Dr Suarn Singh, Head of Psychiatry, Ministry of Health Malaysia.

More often, there are many clues to look out for to identify school students at risk of mental and social distress and signs leading to the actual attempt, such as:

A change in behavior- speech or actions – such as constantly saying that “I can’t go on” or “I want to end it all”.
Attitudes or appearance takes a toll on health and individual becomes recluse and not care of how they look usually by not grooming.
Behaving recklessly by not taking safety measures, e.g.: crossing the road without looking.
Giving away prized possessions and valuable items.
Individual may be accompanied with unpredicatable mood swings like crying, self-mutilation and impulsiveness.
Identify the distress and dramatic change that affects the student’s performance in school (e.g.: attendance and behavior)
Lack of interest in school, overall decline in performance, misconduct in class, unexplainable absence or truancy.
Abuse of substance, smoking or drug (including cannabis).
Violent behaviour which sometimes involves the police.
1.7 Risk Factors and Risk Situations

When accessing suicide patterns amongst students, all parties including school staffs, families and friends should be aware of the victim’s behaviour. Repetitive self mutilation should also be taken into note because distraught teenagers tend to repeat their acts. Particular suicide behaviour under circumstances is interdependent with the environment and genetic factors. Various states or neighbouring countries that features factors of cultural, political and economic differences may play a role in risking the youth’s decisions of suicide. On the other hand, risk situations are hurtful or injurious events which are experienced by the victims. These occurrences may wound the victim’s personal dignity and self-image. Example, a suicidal student may encounter with peer pressure in school, bullying, disappointment and failure in academic or high expectations from parents during examination.

Suicide has become an intense debate, yet, it still remains as an ambiguous subject to fully grasp. A normal person will never understand to what extent these youth will do just to end their lives. Researches were done and found that major risk factors are linked to young people who are plagued with these causes that might have been the reasons leading them to suicide. The major risk factors to include are:

Cultural and sociodemographic factors
Family pattern and negative life events during childhood
Cognitive style and personality
Anxiety disorders
Substance abuse
Eating disorders
Psychotic disorders
Current negative life events as triggers of suicidal behavior
Cultural and sociodemographic factors

Different countries are linked to different cultures and demographic structures. In the third world countries, low socioeconomic status, lack of education system and unemployment are risk factors for suicide. Although Malaysia is a developed country and cannot be compared to third world neighbours, suicide still happens rampantly in urban areas, which is developed and suicide rates are expected to be lower instead of a drastic statistics to show. When urbanization enforces competitions, psychological impact of torture may lead to self-conflict between oneself and the society. One is expected to perform to the standards of society’s customary demands. Likewise, in Malaysian schools, students are very academic inclined. This is a powerful risk factor for students to be depressed and may resort to self-destruction. Also, students and adolescents whom lack of self-identity and cultural roots may opt for this choice of suicide under stressful environment. That said, “Each individual young person’s growth is intertwined with collective cultural tradition”, as stated by World Health Organization (WHO). Since Malaysia is a multiracial country, there are more than one race that plays a greater attribution of gender nonconformity and identity issues. Imagine an Indian girl being placed at a Chinese school with the majority of Chinese, she is hardly accepted into the culture of the majority. When a student begins to fear a serious acceptance problem, they will lack of support in order to experience an optimum growth during that phase of life.

Family pattern and negative life events during childhood

Personal loss and conflict, associated with parents or romantic attachments are one of the commonest reasons for suicide amongst students. Physical or sexual abuse, family feud played a part in suicide contemplation as well. Usually, suicidal youth will leave a note or tracks that they are about to suicide. Like the diary, short notes of apologies, so on and so forth. More often, suicidal students want to escape the pressure from demands of the environment or from psychological aspects that the truth is a painful unbearable fact to handle. Broken families and traumatic experiences e.g. rape, mental torture, etc. leave a scar for life in the child especially when the child is unable to manage with the aftermaths of trauma. There are evidences that suggest suicidal students often come from destructive families with more than one factor risks. The effects are cumulative and these problems are usually not known because suicides are more likely to refrain from seeking help from others. Here are a few negative aspects to take note of a dysfunctional family that often characterizes cases of suicidal students:

Family with the history of suicide.
Alcohol and substance abuse member in the family.
Abusive family (physically, mentally or sexually).
Divorce and separation of family
Very high or very low demands of standards from the parents.
Lack of attention and care from family members.
Cognitive style and personality

It is arguable between the relationship of a certain suicidal trait and an array of cognitive style and personality that risk suicides amongst young people. It is generally equivocal and ambivalent because suicidal patterns vary amongst different individuals. The following traits are observed in a suicidal youth, particularly students during adolescence:

Instability in mood.
Aggressive and needs anger management.
Anti-social
High impulsiveness
Inability to grasp realities and rigid mentality, often in their own world of illusion.
Great feeling of worthlessness and despair.
Anxiety and inferiority.
Provocative behaviour towards others including family and classmates.
Ambivalent relationships with the society (family, friends, people).

Suicidal behaviour is overrated amongst school children and adolescents with the following psychiatric disorders:

Anxiety disorders and Depression

It is known from studies that have proven the connection between anxiety disorder and suicide. Whilst traits of anxiety appear to be independent of depression, its effect always leads to psychosomatic symptoms if not treated. Unlike depression, anxiety disorder is prominent to detect and victim will always shows signs of worries and unhappiness with themselves.

Discussion about depression should be taken seriously. Depression is often beyond recognition. Students may seem fairly disappointed or angry at minor disturbances and may never considered suicide. But if the symptoms of depression last for more than a week or so without improvement, help is needed. The signs of depression noticed amongst students or youth include:

Utter degree of sadness
Gradual withdrawal from everything.
Student becomes recluse and isolated.
School performance dropped with no apparent reasons.
Loss of interest in activities that student used to enjoy.
Feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, helplessness
Lack of motivation.
Differences in sleeping habits and fatigue.
Change in appetite and eating patterns.
Self-neglect and self-hatred.
Physical complaints, sad thoughts or death.
Anger management needed for reckless attitude and temper.
Substance abuse.
Restlessness and agitation with one self or others.

School students with depression symptoms oftentimes present anti social behavior and both are precursor to suicide. It is noticed that depressed female student will be more silent and withdrawn from others, whereas on their male counterpart, students of that gender becomes aggressive and disrupted and seek a great deal of attention. Prior to that, students can kill themselves too without having to be depressed and they can also be in a state of depression without killing themselves.

Substance abuse

Students who abused alcohol and drugs are often linked to suicide. Teenagers are oftentimes found to have committed the act of suicide after consuming the substances. Sometimes, students used these substances to ease their stress and depression. In another case, youth whom have never thought of suicide may have done so after taken alcohol because alcohol suppresses rationale thinking. Simply, their actions are based on an impulsive act which leads them to ending their lives even so they might never have contemplated suicide when they are sober.

Eating disorders

Eating disorders happen mostly to the female genders whom are dissatisfied with their own bodies. In the eye of the society, thin slender girls are objects of desire. The media often portrays catwalk models, who are skinny and scrawny. In schools, fat students are always being sneered and jeered as well as being outcast. Anorexic and bulimic girls are susceptible towards depression and suicide risk for anorexics are as much as 20 times more than youth in general.

Psychotic disorders

Albeit, we hardly heard of Malaysian students suffering from severe psychiatric disorders like the schizophrenia or manic-depressive disorder, those affected are still in jeopardy with suicide risks. But most psychotic youths started off with other risk factors, such as excessive smoking and substance abuse.

Current negative life events as triggers of suicidal behavior

As aforementioned due to inherited genetic factors, destructive families and negative aspects in life, students of this age find themselves susceptible towards suicide because when current negative life events happen in concurrent with their condition they find it difficult to cope furthermore. This susceptibility makes it difficult to cope with negative life events adequately, and that said, stressful life events precede suicide. They reminds of the student of sense of hopelessness and despair.

2.0 How Schools can Prevent Suicide

Usually, suicidal students hardly attempt suicides within the school compound. But when the outbreak of a student’s suicide takes place, even off school’s territory, the news will shock others, causing extreme emotional distress amongst students, staff, and parents whilst school activities will come to halt for weeks before it is resumed. Hence, schools play an important role for preventing suicides. Many young students whom are affected by mood disorders or substance abuse later on contemplate suicide. Whilst the other emotional setbacks linked to suicide includes conduct disorders, aggression, split personality disorder, and intense feeling degree of hopelessness (Berman, Jobes, and Silverman, 2006).

Here, the school’s responsibility and roles to play are summarized by the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) (Poland and Lieberman, 2003):

2.1 Detection/ Awareness

School administration and staff personnel should take note of students’ behaviour for signs of suicide. Interaction on a regular basis is encouraged amongst the school and students. School counselor must play his or her responsibility in helping problematic students before any occurrence of suicide.

2.2 Parent notification

When awareness is created, any changes in attitudes or suspicious acts arise the school should update the parents or guardian of student’s. Face to face discussion is recommended to come about ways of preventing the student from suicide, which includes close supervision or referral to professionals. Also, a record of victim’s parent and victim should be kept confidential.

2.3 Support for students at risk of suicide

The school, psychologists and counselors, should monitor and support suicidal students. Counseling and follow-up services shall be recommended.

2.4 School-Based Suicide Prevention Programs

Schools should train teachers and staffs to help recognize students at risk of suicide. This can be done through training and appropriate mechanisms necessary. These mechanisms include a series of programs specially designed to counteract suicidal risks. Schools must heed these vital steps to control suicide among their students:

O School-based suicide prevention program and school-based mental health services

Health screening, mental health survey and educational activities are carried out at school level to help students recognize and seek help when needed. Programs like health promotion program and risk prevention can be effective if made comprehensive to students.

O Suicide prevention gate keeping program

People who have regular interaction and contact with students in school are teachers. They need to know how to recognize students’ behavioural patterns and warning signs. Also, teachers need to be actively involved in dialogue to explore the risk of suicide amongst students and to ensure that the victim must receive proper guidance and treatment when it is necessary. Records must be kept up to date and problematic students must be scrutinized.

O School crisis preparation and response plan

This prepares the school in the case of emergency, from natural disaster to violence within the school. The school crisis preparation plan should include procedures of preventing self-destructive students as well as students in the midst of contemplation. Also, guidance must be taken into account as a reference for teachers and staffs to respond such cases when such tragedy arises.

O Postvention

Such term is used to measure preventions to be implemented after a tragedy takes place. The purpose of this program is to lessen the risk of those witnesses to be affected directly after the incident. Suicide or unexpected death of another student can result in a traumatized individual. This program includes grief counseling for students and school party. Postvention helps to identify other students whom may be at risk after a trauma, and to support students. Sometimes, school works with the media to ensure such coverage of news does not lead to additional risks of suicide.

3.0Suggestions: A guide for Teachers and School Staffs

It takes time for a student to attempt suicide. Rarely, suicide occurs out of sudden with no warning. Most cases, teachers and members of the society who observe the victim on a daily basis is able to distinguish a behaviour of norm and suicidal. The following are three (3) steps of prevention: before, during and after a suicide:

3.1 General prevention: before any suicidal incident

Early recognition helps save lives. Experts advised that it is not a wise approach to teach about suicide explicitly. Rather, they recommend tackling this problem by replacing issues of suicide with a positive mental health approach.

a) Mental health of schoolteachers and other school staff

Teachers are the role model in any causes. A positive teacher is able to change the outlook of a person’s perspective in a brighter light. Hence, strengthening the mental health of a teacher only can he or she guides the students into the correct path in life.

b) Students’ self-esteem

Positive self-esteem is vital to protect students against suicide. One with topnotch of esteem will cope better with stress even how difficult one’s situation may be. To nurture positivity amongst the students, a few rules should not be taken lightly. Firstly, students must never been pressured constantly to fare better than other students. They must always look on the brighter side of life experiences in order to forge a positive identity. Every student should be cherished as who they are and be accepted for what they are. In addition, the school should work on introducing life skills by having experts giving talks and later on assimilate a positive workshop as part of the curriculum.

Most importantly, the programme is able to send out messages of knowledge to peers on how to be supportive and seek help if necessary. Plus, the school should revise and review the education system to enhance the development of every student holistically.

c) Emotional expression

Students should learn on how to express their emotions appropriates and to take charge of how they feel seriously. When things gone awry, they should confide in parents, teachers, adults, doctor, friends or even religious advisors.

d) Bullying and violence at school

Issues on bullying have been a serious matter for ages since bullying make suicide seemed more pleasant to students to escape from humiliation and personal dignity. Because the victim could not determine what others had done to him/her, the victim had only his own life to control. Thus, specific skills should be taught in schools to prevent bullying and violence. This way, only the school can provide a sanctuary for safety and intolerance of the negative aspects.

e) Information about care services

In Malaysia, Befrienders are not unfamiliar to the society these days. Students should be aware about the availability of these services and by making it accessible to the young people, so that they can utilize the help lines in the case of crisis and psychiatric emergency. To include, there are over 240 Health Centres nationwide in Malaysia that have psychiatric units and also counseling unit for help. The latest news up to date, Prof Hu

This essay will set out to explore Durkheims concept of social facts, and will seek to explain the importance of these facts in relation to his work. Durkheim identified a group phenomena within society which he claimed could be studied independently. These phenomena referred to the different acts that we all engage in within society, such as values, beliefs, and laws that we follow, he referred to these as social facts. (Giddens, 1971)

A social fact is defined in two ways; first is that they are external to the individual, and secondly they have some sort of control over the individual, such as a law that the individual knows exists and therefore certain behaviour will result in some sort of penalty.

Social facts were an important aspect of Durkheim’s work, as he was attempting to see a role for the social which was distinguished from the psychological and biological aspect of life and the individual. He identified that these facts are rooted within society in group beliefs and values; they are not something that affects us in a psychological or biological way, such as eating and sleeping, as although these are done by all within society they are a natural biological process. (Morrison, 1995)

Durkheim identified two different types of social fact; material and non-material. Durkheim saw material social facts as stemming from institutions such as religion, the governments, and law institutions. These are the physical structures within society that exert influence on individuals within society. The nonmaterial social facts come from areas that form our moral codes, beliefs and values which do not have a physical presence. Durkheim’s view was that sociologists should study these social facts in an attempt to find the cause and also the functions of them; whether they are used to pass on values to children to maintain social order, or as a form of control for the institutions. (Durkheim, 1938)

Durkheim’s theory of social facts was initially a breakthrough, as it gave way to study entire societies rather than just the individual. Durkheim developed the idea of studying social facts thorough many studies of his own.

Durkheim theorised that through the study of statistical data it would be possible to view society in an objective manner. One of Durkheim’s most famous studies was the study of Suicide. He sought to explore this as a social fact, and not one which most consider to be a very personal, if not very anti-social act.

He saw suicide as being a social current which are characteristics of society, but may not be as stable as other social facts such as citizenship and work.

The social currents in the case of suicide are shown as suicide rates, a statistical representation of social facts according to Durkheim.

Durkheim’s study showed that there was a pattern within suicide rates amongst different societies and different groups within those societies. This pattern was clear amongst different societies and although the pattern changed, it stayed apparent across all societies that he studied. (Durkheim, 1951)

One of the main patterns that emerged was in religion. Durkheim saw religion as a social fact, which was a controlling factor amongst those who followed it. Therefore to have a pattern amongst suicide emerge due to this control was a breakthrough in terms of his research within social facts.

Durkheim’s research illustrated that there was difference in suicide rates within Protestant and Catholic countries and communities. There were a higher number of suicides within Protestant society then Catholic ones. All branches of religion have a negative view of suicide and condemn it in various ways, therefore Durkheim theorised that there must be some other factor within these two that causes the difference in suicide rates, such as social organisation and family structure. In further studies Durkheim finds that when a family is more integrated the suicide rates drop. (Durkheim, 1951)

Durkheim’s studies led him to believe that differences in suicide rates can be attributed to the degree of integration into society and the regulation of society. Durkheim considers the ‘degree to which collective sentiments are shared’ (Ritzer, 1992) to be the key to the level of integration. As Catholics have a more integrated society and family then Protestants this can be the key attribute as to why Protestants have a higher suicide rate; the main difference being the social organisation between the two religions and how this differs greatly. Durkheim also acknowledged that those who have larger families are less likely to commit suicide then those in smaller families. As Catholics are renowned for having large family organisations this can be seen as another cause for the differences in suicide rates.

The conclusion that Durkheim came to from this study is that the social suicide rate can be explained sociologically. He argued that different groups within society have different consciousness and it is these that can produce different social currents which lead to a difference in suicide rates. Durkheim claims that by studying these different groups within society some of the differences can be analysed which then means the effect on suicide rates can be seen, and also changes within the society in the collective conscious can lead to a change within these currents in society, which again can lead to a difference in the suicide rate patterns within these different groups. (Durkheim, 1951)

Durkheim’s Suicide study was groundbreaking in the sense that it showed how social aspects of life can be used in order to explain the actions of individuals as opposed to the psychological and biological causes. The study illustrated Durkheim’s ideas behind social facts and showed how suicide rates can be an expression of the social currents that can affect the social facts that occur within society.

Durkheim’s method was seen as radical at the time as it made sociology a standalone subject amongst the social sciences. With his method of research and his theories he managed to distance the social from the psychological and biological and be seen as a true subject in its own right. The empirical studies that he did showed that social facts based on the collective conscious couldn’t be categorised within psychological or biological as they existed outside of the individual conscience.

The work he did was important for anthropological studies as well as sociological ones as many researchers after him gathered empirical research of social facts in order to explain different social phenomena.

Durkheim’s work and method of analysis paved the way for analysis today as his method is still used. Social causes are now recognised within causes of suicide and are often used in new studies of suicide rates. Durkheim’s work helped researchers in understanding the social factors that can help explain the phenomena of social facts, and how a social explanation now needs to be found when studying different aspect of society.

Durkheim had created a theory based around the collective conscious which he had reinforced with his social facts, and with this he had created a way to study the effect of these social facts on social phenomena. The methods he had created had completely revolutionised the way in which research could be conducted, and the theories could interpret the behaviour seen in difference societies. He had made way for different thinking in regards to anthropological research and made it possible to study entire societies instead of an individual lost within a society. Many theorists since Durkheim have developed further his ideas in their own research into social facts and explaining the difference causes for behaviour within our society.

The concepts of a nation in which individuals are left open the idea identifying with a territory calling it their identity gave way for the concept of nationalism. Nationalism in its context makes people conscious of the fact that they belong to a nation. This coupled with sentiments of security looking for advancement of the nation will enable visualise nationalism as the whole process of forming and maintaining nations or nation. [1]

Like Marx and Engels agreed with the theory of ideology as a system of beliefs that falsely stimulates the awareness of workers under an economic system established on private ownership of capital, Nationalism employs the concept of nation to achieve its political objectives thus serving as a political ideology.

Whether nationalism depicts an ideology in the sense that it can be seen as a political movement or a collective sentiment of shared identity or a form of loyalty or attachment to the state or a process of nation-building or a set of symbols and myths expressed through a common language or a proactive sentiment and behaviour towards protecting and enhancing the nation’s cultural heritage, it still has its philosophies centred around the visual modalities of psychological impacts in a community to the end that the nation is believed to be the vault for supreme loyalty [2] .

Nation in this context is referred to as a “large social group integrated by a combination of various kinds of objective relationships which includes economic, political, linguistic, cultural, religious, geographical, historical, and their subjective reflection in collective consciousness” [3]

In harmony with its own system of beliefs, Nationalism assumes that in an international pluralism perspective the world is naturally divided into different distinct existence called ‘nations’, each with its own indigenous right to exist, self-rule and be free from foreign encroachment. Although nationalism is perceived to lack political content rather encompasses national identity [4] it assumes that in light of politics being legally authorized, the nation is the ultimate source of political power for the person who rules it. It further supports that each nation has the right to determine it one’s own fate and to embark on its course of action without compulsion [5] . No wonder Breuilly referred to Nationalism as “political movements seeking or exercising state power and justifying such actions with nationalist arguments.” [6]

Taking a close look at how famous individuals define nationalism and comparing views, Handler, described “Nationalism in an anthropologic perspective as an ideology about individuated being. It is an ideology concerned with boundedness, continuity, and homogeneity encompassing diversity. It is an ideology in which social reality, conceived in terms of nationhood, is endowed with the reality of natural things” [7] while Breuilly from a historical perspective relates nationalism with political movements seeking or exercising state power. [8]

Accepting that there are normative differences between nationalist movements does not put in plain words why nationalism has taken such different forms in different societies. Therefore approaching this from an analytical angle will better explain the issue through classifying these dissimilarities.

Beginning with the class of nationalism that absorbs or incorporates culturally distinctive territories in a given state, this State-building type of nationalism which emerged as a result of the premeditated efforts of key leaders who turned a multicultural population into a population of uniform culture is exemplified in the period between the sixteenth and twentieth century when the leaders of England and France attempted to promote the growth of homogeneity by causing populations with distinct cultures in the Celtic regions to assimilate to their own culture. But in as much as this type of nationalism tends to focus primarily on culture, the underlying principle is often motivated by the effects of economic geography on the controlling influence of the state. Conversely, key rulers of a certain culture can unify their country by expelling or exterminating populations of unfamiliar culture.

In order to understand the general inclusive concept of nationalism as an ideology, a system of assumptions and standards that warrants the term and gives it meaning needs to be examined. This is why Michael Freeden logically laid out various key elements of the core structure of nationalism which in turn assists in constructing ideas that argue about and deliberate on the ideology and its application. Topping the list is “the prioritisation of a particular group – the nation – as a key constituting and identifying framework for human beings and their practices”. Followed by, “a positive valorisation is assigned to one’s own nation, granting it specific claims over the conduct of its members”. Thirdly, “the desire to give politico-institutional expression to the first two core concepts”. Fourthly, “the space and time are considered to be crucial determinants of social identity” and lastly, “‘a sense of belonging and membership in which sentiment and emotion play an important role”. [9]

Taking a critical look at the first element of nationalism, notice that nation in this context does not need any particular format to be clearly expressed because it might be envisaged as an entity of the same kind or with different and diverse ethnic, religious, or political backgrounds. Yet, regardless of this imagination, the state of being a nation will always inhibit other modes of categorising the humanity of a particular nation. In light of the above, recognizing that liberal nationalism adopts the existence of entities with the sources of identity and illiberal nationalism incorporates other areas under nationality, therefore in a similar way, the outcome of these nationalist classifications may either be affected equally or given support, the possible ways of assigning political ‘community’ in different categories will be reached. In the Functional aspect of this classification, people often identify with functional rather than territorial groups. This was why Marx, applied his awareness of this belief when he said: “Workers of the world unite!” [10] , a request for workers all over to become unified against the unfair conditions they shared, irrespective of their nationalities.

While the second method is focused on religion which ascertains and sets off loyalties that hardly lean on territorial location or boundaries. In many cases a factor of time and uncontrollable conditions can dramatically change religion as well as gender and class. The third method revolves around regionally and globally.

Having looked at the first key element of the core structure of nationalism, let us examine the second element which explains a nation that identifies with a pluralistic community where members with different ethnic, religious, or political backgrounds exist has slim chances to establish or make certain broad principles or rules centred on its expectations on the behavioural attributes of its members. Conversely, a nation that identifies with a uniform type of homogenous culture has the tendency to control its members. While valorisation in this context includes all spheres of “loyalty demands” and “superiority claims” there is no definite vital link between racism and nationalism. And even though this statement clearly connected with the former parliamentary government of Europe, for instance, the victory of National Front Fascist, Jean-Marie Le Pen in becoming one of the final two candidates to settle a tied election by running for the French presidency in 2002, the reverse was the case for liberal classes of nationalism belonging to the era of colonies becoming independent from the country that used to control them. [11]

Avner made a very important point concerning the forth element of nationalism that over the years, people give emotional attachment to their land [12] . For instance scenarios likened to Africans seeing themselves as sons of their motherland (nation). This depicts a broad view of the concept of nationalism which refers to its land boundaries, people living within the territory; history of people of the land as well as their culture and traditions usually makes people have a sense of belonging to the nation.

CONCLUSION:

After minutely examining the various subjective explanations of the meaning of nationalism both in an ideological perspective and with reference to nation, it is obvious that nationalism is a multilateral and powerful political ideology. Despite the fact that there are normative differences between nationalist movements, in a conclusive way, the elements of nationalism that served in constructing ideas that argue about and deliberate on the ideology and its significance.

Jonung defines the presence of occupational gender segregation as when women and men are differently spread across occupations than is consistent with their overall shares of employment, irrespective of the nature of job allocation. Gender segregation mean when the percentage of one gender is higher than that of males and females in an occupation. It reflects the gender differences in employment opportunity. The number of occupation with segregation against women is far greater than the number of occupations with segregation against men. Occupational gender segregation consists of two main component dimensions known as horizontal and vertical segregation (Blackburn et al, 2000).

Horizontal segregation is known as under or over representation of certain group in the workplace which is not ordered by any criterion (Bettio and Verashchagina, 2009). According to Anker (1998) horizontal segregation is an absolute and universal characteristic of contemporary socio-economic systems.

It focuses mainly when men and women possess different physical, emotional and mental capabilities. Such discrimination occurs when women are categorized as less intelligent, hormonal and sensitive (Acker 1990). Women are labeled as unreliable and dependent workers when they are pregnant. They are less competent as they will not work as long and hard as others. They become more stressful and sensible to tiny issues happen in the workplace. Martin (1994) declared that in masculine management style, most of the time women possess ‘soft skills’ and men possess ‘hard skills’. It is this concept which creates gender segregation in the workplace.

Vertical segregation referred to the under or over representation of a clearly identifiable group of workers in the workplace at the top of an ordering based on ‘desirable’ attributes such as income, prestige, authority and power.

Huffman (1995) finds that women do not possess enough supervisory authority at work, in education, occupational experience and prestige. One reason that women lack authority is because most women are more concentrated in female-dominated occupations which comprise fever position of authority than male-dominated occupations. Moreover, it is viewed that men’s have greater status value, that is men’s personality are more valuable than women’s and they are much more competent. (Broverman et al. 1972; Deaux and Kite 1987; Eagly 1987).

Men possess more powerful position in the workplace (Bridges & Nelson 1989). Women’s wage rates are lower than men’s even when their qualifications are similar. As women enter an occupation, this reduces the amount of prestige associated with the task and men leave these occupations.

Sex discrimination-discrimination, harassment and glass ceiling

In many parts of the world, women have experienced breakthroughs in their rights in employment. Despite these advances, women from every country and culture continue to face sex discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace. The international community has recognized both discrimination based on sex in the terms and conditions of employment and sexual harassment as violations of the fundamental human rights of women (Gudrun and Danya, 1998)

Although sex discrimination is prohibited by law, it continues to be a widespread problem for working women. There are three forms of sex discrimination that have an effect on women in organizations: overt discrimination, sexual harassment and the glass ceiling. Each has negative effects on women’s status and ability to perform well at work.

Overt discrimination

Overt discrimination is defined as the use of gender as a decisive factor for employment-related decisions. This type of discrimination was targeted by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited making decisions based on sex in employment-related matters such as hiring, firing, and promotions.

It consist such behaviours as to refuse to hire women, to pay them inequitably or even to steer them to “women’s jobs”. Overt discrimination also led to occupational sex segregation where jobs are classified by low pay, low status and short career ladders (Reskin, 1997).

Sexual Harassment

MacKinnon (1979:1) defined sexual harassment as “the unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in the context of a relationship of unequal power”. As in overt discrimination, sexual harassment is a persistent gendered problem for women in the workplace around the world. Sexual harassment, a form of sex discrimination, is but one manifestation of the larger problem of employment-related discrimination against women. It now appears obvious that sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination.

There are three psychological dimensions of sexual harassment that continued to persist worldwide: sexual coercion, gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention ((Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Gelfand et al., 1995). The case of sexual harassment in the workplace is mainly due to obtain more power and status than the opposite sex (e.g., Baugh, 1997; McKinney, 1992; Piotrkowski, 1998; Riger, 1991; Welsh, 1999)

Statistical discrimination is another form of sex discrimination in the workplace, it consists of sex-typed job assignment (i.e. “error discrimination”-Aigner & Cain 1977, England & McCreary 1987, Bielby & Baron 1986a). For example, employers segregate men into jobs with physical demands and women into jobs demanding social skills (Bielby & Baron 1984, Farkas et al 1991). However, employers’ use of sex in job assignments exceeds technical or economic justifications: within the “mixed-sex” occupations that either sex could presumably perform, small differences in job requirements were accompanied by large differences in sex composition (Bielby & Baron 1986a:782).

The Glass ceiling

The term ‘the glass ceiling’ refers to invisible or artificial barriers that do not allow women from advancing past a certain level (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission -FGCC, 1997; Morrison and von Glinow, 1990).

These barriers reflect “discrimination … a deep line of demarcation between those who prosper and those left behind.” The glass ceiling is the “unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements” (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission 1995b:4; emphasis added). This official description suggests that the definition of a glass ceiling must recognize that it reflects a job inequality that is unexplained by a person’s past “qualifications or achievements”; it reflects labor market discrimination, not just labor market inequality. The usual, but imperfect, method for detecting discrimination is to look for inequalities that are unexplained by prior characteristics of the employees. Inequalities that derive from past discrimination in education or training or from choices that people make to pursue nonmarket goals such as family, volunteer work, or leisure are not generally considered as part of a glass ceiling. Therefore, glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee.

The glass ceiling is a third type of discrimination that affects women in the workplace and it is an important factor for women who do not get enough access to power and status in organizations. It also includes gender stereotypes, lack of opportunities for women to get promotion and prevent women to get higher income than men.

Hell’s Angel is book that gives you the brutal truth about the life after war in America. It gives personal insights to how the sub cultural life in the United States was impacted by the consequences of war. The book isn’t intended for the politically sensitive or readers who expect a romantic perspective of the post-war sub-cultural life in America.

It is a compelling and captivating personal account of a Sony Barger’s life and the scrapes that he managed to get into. Born in California in the year 1938, Barger spent his younger years growing up in Oakland. This was between the early 1940s and 1950s. His mother abandoned him when he was hardly four months old. Barger lived with an alcoholic father and an elder sister. He relay s that he was suspended from school on more than one occasion for physically attacking teachers and fighting with other students.

However looking back at those times now, Barger states that he doesn’t look upon himself as a bully or aberrant person. Despite of losing interest in school he continued to spend a major part of his time reading and working at a grocery store. He emphasizes that he didn’t resort to robbery or stealing. When he enlisted in the army in 1955, he was kicked out fourteen years later after it was found that he was underage (sixteen) and had submitted a forged certificate.

His return from the army led him to a few tedious jobs but he didn’t continue with them for long. He was on the lookout for a purpose in his life, a reason why he existed and he was to discover with time that his purpose in life would later turn out to be a member of a motorcycle club.

While still in high school Barger organized his first club called “Earth Angels” in 1954. Two years later, in 1956, he became the founding member of his first bike club namely Oakland Panthers. He left the club as fast as he had managed to make it because he felt a lacking of unity. In his own words said that he quit the club very early even though he was one of the starting members. Although they use to party a lot and he use to love it, but then there more selfishness than brotherhood.

He talked to some fellow bikers about starting another club, and suggested they name it “Hell’s Angels” after a patch that one of these fellows, Boots Don Reeves wore. The patch had a skull on it wearing an aviator cap and a set of wings. They went along with the idea and got more patches of the same design made in April 1957(Lavigne, 2004).

What is deviance?

“Deviance in a sociological context describes actions or behaviors that violate cultural norms including formally-enacted rules (e.g., crime) as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores). It is the purview of sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and criminologists to study how these norms are created, how they change over time and how they are enforced.

Stephen Pfohl has described nine methods of conceiving deviant behavior.”

It is evident from the book that Sonny Barger was totally engaged in deviant behavior. However he failed to perceive his behavior as deviant or unnatural. He was convinced that he was doing “normal” or socially acceptable things like reading and working which he believed would balance out his deviant behavior.

The Classical Perspective

The Classical perspective as described by Pfohl was evolved from three major elements:

Rational choice

Deterrence

Incapacitation and Just Desert

The element of personal choice widely influences deviant behavior. People engage in deviant behavior on the basis of what their concept of rationality or rational choice is. Sonny Barger didn’t perceive that it was irrational to forge his birth certificate to get enlisted in the army. Why? Because people tend to choose any kind of behavior no matter if it is conforming or deviant, in Barger’s case the latter, based on their personal rational calculation. Central to this rational calculation is a cost and benefit analysis. Barger found more pleasure in deviance because it maximized his personal pleasure. Though the classical theory states that “choice can be controlled through the perception and understanding of the potential pain or punishment that will follow an act judged to be in the violation of social good” however Barger’s case was different. A complete understanding of the consequences of his act couldn’t make him stop what he was doing (Sampson, 1967).

General Deterrence is defined as follows:

“People will engage in criminal and deviant activities if they do not fear apprehension and punishment.”

Sony Barger’s case if summarized in a line can be defined as that of general deterrence. Since the beginning of his engagement in deviant behavior, he was aware of what the punishment would be but fear of punishment and apprehension didn’t exist in his mind.

The Social Disorganization Theory

This theory is believed to be one of the most important theories put forward by Chicago School. The theory directly liked high crime rates to ecological characteristics of the neighborhood. Young people from disadvantaged neighborhoods were believed to be participants of a subculture where being delinquent were an approved behavior. The youth acquired criminality through a process of social interaction in social and cultural settings.

The social theory stands on the basic principle that the location of an individual is equally important if not more with the age, gender and race of a person in determining whether they would involve themselves in illegal or criminal activities (Anne, 2004).

Taking Sonny Barger and his book into account it is evident from his family life and neighborhood description that he had a strong impact of the both on his personality and life which led him to engage in criminal activities later on in his life. Abandoned by his mother at the age of four months, and compelled to live with an alcoholic father Barger found solace in his deviant behavior. Assaulting teachers, forging birth certificates and attacking fellow students at school was all part of what he considered to be normal.

Barger has rejected the conception that Hell’s Angels was a criminal organization despite of admitting that its members have had a criminal record, most of us were card-carrying felons. He has admitted the usage of drugs when he said that acid was something we all had in common, selling illegal drug sold heroin from the late sixties into the early seventies directly to junkies, forging driver’s licenses was also printing up fake driver’s licenses.

The social disorganization theory goes on to say that some ethnicities even tend to encourage criminal activity since it is “not considered criminal or wrong”. Research has found that delinquent behavior is highest in those areas that suffer from economic problems. Economic instability and weakness is one of the major drivers of delinquent behavior.

Post World War 2 and in the 1940s and 1950s, Oakland’s shipbuilding industry disappeared and a decline in automobile industry was also observed. Jobs became scarce in this situation. The city was one of the six cities in the county that experienced one of the largest strike movements in history. All this led to the economic instability and downfall of the city and its residents. Financial instability and insecurity may have also triggered Sony Barger’s behavior of deviance and nonconformance. The lack of sense of protection and security that he faced as a child from his home, led him to constitute a club which had members who believed in supporting the fellow members and being united in even the toughest times. The story of Hell’s Angels Motorcycle club represents the best example of brotherhood in which men can even fight to death for each other without regard what the cause is. They stood up for themselves and they believe to be there no matter what happens.

The Functionalist Perspective

The functionalist perspective was shaped by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons during the mid of 20th century. However it has its roots in Emile Durkheim’s work. The definition of functionalism is as follows:

Functionalism has a concept that everyone in the society has some kind of purpose, which is the cause of existence.

This school of thought believes that people who are indulging in deviant behavior and nonconformance to societal norms and regulations serve a purpose as important as those who conform to the norms. A widely quoted example to explain this phenomenon is that crime, that is believed to be a nuisance by people all over the globe, is believed to serve a purpose by functionalists. It creates the justification or need of employment of lawmakers, police force, criminal investigators and more. It was concluded by Durkheim that crime and deviance serve three major functions for the society:

Deviant behavior reaffirms social norms. It helps clarify them

It promotes the concept of social unity

It questions or challenges the status quo

If Sony Barger’s life and happenings are looked at from the functionalist perspective, it rationalizes his doings. Despite of his denials that Hell’s Angels is a criminal organization or that he had engaged into any social and moral wrongdoings, his life’s account in the book will help readers realize the importance of conformance to norms. Deviance can prove to be beneficial for the society sometimes. Like in the case of Sony Barger who was convicted of conspiracy to violate federal law to commit murder and served a 4 year sentence in prison, people reading the book will realize how non-conformance will result in a negative repercussion.

Conclusion

In conclusion Sony Barger’s book “Hell’s Angel, The Life and Times of Sonny Barger and the Hell’s Angels Motorcycle Club” are a practical application of some of the major theories that have been analyzed by Stephen Pfohl in “Images of Deviance and control”. Stephen Pfohl’s work helps one gain a deeper insight on Sony Barger’s sociological perceptions and ideology. It helps you understand the reasons or factors that are behind the behavior that was adopted by Barger throughout his life.

Anomie and forced division of labour for Durkheim and rationalization and bureaucracy for Weber summed up the problem of industrial societies. Discuss.

Introduction

Emile Durkheim

Max Weber

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Anomie represents a concept that was introduced by Emile Durkheim (1997, pp. 303-304) in “The Division of Labor in Society”, which was first printed in 1893. Durkheim (1997, pp. 303-304) utilized the word to describe the deregulation of society whereby the rules representing how people should behave with respect to their interaction with each other was breaking down thus creating confusion as to what in what others expected from one another. In said book, Durkheim (1997, p. 184) advises that that term is where the moral and social norms are not clear, and the removal of behavioural limits represented a path to deviant behaviour. Durkheim is credited with turning sociology into a science as well as its installation as part of the academic curriculum on France, and is considered by many to be the father of sociology (emile-durkheim.com, 2006).

Max Weber (cepa.newschool.edu, 2007) is also recognized as one of the founders of sociology. He advises us on many instances that in the world of modernity, that the gods have deserted us (Turner, 1993, pp. 115-117). As Durkheim focused upon a set of social features that represented the subject of sociology, Weber essentially is considered as defining sociology (Marxists Internet Archive, 1999). This exercise shall delve into concepts and terms with respect to how anomie and forced division of labour under Durkheim, and rationalization and bureaucracy for Weber summed up the problem of industrial societies.

Durkheim

In defining sociology as an academic subject, Durkheim separated sociology from psychology, philosophy as well as economics and other disciplines through stating that sociologists study features of group life (About Sociology, 2007). Durkheim defines solidarity as representing the cohesion of society’s human groupings into social unity, which can consist of mechanical as well as organic (Durkheim, 1997, p. 13-14). Mechanical solidarity represents a condition whereby the individuals within a society are linked via a ‘conscience collective’ (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 61-65). The preceding represents a condition whereby the belief systems and the sentiments that are common in the citizens within the same society (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 31-33). Thus, the individuals within the society are connected, or linked to each other as a result of their common beliefs, thereby belonging to society as opposed to belonging to themselves (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 31-33). A horde is what Durkheim (1997, pp. 126-127) termed a group or collection of people whereby their cohesiveness is founded in resemblances. Such a group, horde, has no organization or form, and within this group the collective membership look upon each other as kin, whether or not such a relationship exists by blood or union (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 126-127). Within such a group, horde, punishments and responsibility are collective in action and nature and represent the more primitive, or non evolved societal types whereby individual personalities are submerged in the collectivity of the group (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 126-127).

As individuals come to rely upon others, outside of themselves for various aspects of life, they have, or are moving towards an organic solidarity (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 69-71). People become and are reliant upon each other whereby individuals have parts to contribute to society as a part of the whole, whereby responsibility to others is a trait as well as moral character (Durkheim, 1997, p. 77). The foregoing is important in understanding the interactions within society that he termed as the moral density (Durkheim, 1997, p. 201). The preceding, moral density is proportionately linked to the division of labor within a society (Turner, 1993, p. 3). Moral density represents an important factor in understanding what causes increased division of labor.

Durkheim’s (1993, pp. 113) believes in this revolved around two facets that he thought were responsible for the preceding, material density and social volume. The former, Durkheim states is (Turner, 1993, p. 113):

“Social life is based on a substratum whose size and form alike are determined. It is made up of the mass of individuals that constitute society, the manner of their geographical distribution and the nature and configuration of the whole range of phenomena that affect collective relations. The social substratum varies in relation to the size or density of the population, to whether it is concentrated in towns or scattered in rural areas, to the layout of the towns and houses, to whether the space occupied by the society concerned is large or small, to the kind of frontiers by which it is bounded, to the transport links which run the length and breadth of it, etc, On the other hand, the makeup of this substratum directly or indirectly affects all social phenomena, in the same way as all psychic phenomena are in mediate or immediate relation to the state of the brain. So these are all problems that are patently concerned with sociology and which, as they all refer to the same object, must be part of one science. It is this science we propose to call social morphology.”

Social volume, Durkheim states is (Turner, 1993, p. 116):

“…as the various elements constituting the group grow more numerous, yet without at the same time ceasing to be closely connected, individuals can only hold their own if they become differentiated, if each chooses a task and a lifestyle of his own in this enlarged battlefield, where the intensity of the struggle grows in keeping with the number of the combatants. The division of labor thus becomes the primary condition of social equilibrium. And indeed, this simultaneous increase in the volume and density of societies is the major new element distinguishing the nations of today from those of former times; this is probably one of the principal factors dominating history as a whole; at any rate, it is the cause which explains the transformations which social solidarity has undergone.”

Durkheim (Turner, 1993, pp. 98-99) brings together the facets of anomie, organic solidarity and “the abnormal forms of the division of labor” through “distinguished three pathological forms: the anomic, the enforced division of labor, and ‘another abnormal form’, which might be termed lack of internal organizational coordination”. With respect to the foregoing anomie “is expressed in economic crises, the antagonism between capital and labor, and anarchy in science, arises at times of rapid change, during which new organs and functions develop without a corresponding development of rules of cooperation and therefore of social ties” (Turner, 1993, p. 98). Anomie, represents the rapid as well as radical change in social conditions that presents itself as “the lack of regulation or deregulation” Turner, 1993, p. 98). Durkheim (Turner, 1993, p. 98) explains that the foregoing does not represent a “fundamental crisis of the system, but rather a crisis of adaptation, and continuous contact will eventually produce new rules and a new functional equilibrium between the divided functions, thus assuring social integration”.

Whereas “anomie can be eliminated by the gradual development of new rules, in the case of the enforced division of labor it is ‘these very rules themselves which are the cause of the ills” (Turner, 1993, p. 98). The preceding represents when the rules and underpinnings of society are not responsive to the underlying changes in the fabric of society, and thus the established order is retained by force (Turner, 1993, p. 98). This represents the abnormal form of the division of labor that is representative of privileged positions being held by birth and social standing as opposed to abilities and talents Turner, 1993, p. 99). The condition, asserts can be alleviated through the adoption of “formal equality of opportunity …” as well as “… freedom to choose a profession” (Durkheim Turner, 1993, p. 99).

Max Weber

Breiner (1996, p. 26) advises that the critics of Weber’s approach to social science have issues with his reduction of “all socially interpreted activity to instrumental rationality”. Those who interpret him in a sympathetic manner see “his focus on the interpretation of the meaningful conduct of social agents a strong argument in favor of the subservience of explanation to the rules or everyday understandings under which actions are intelligible” (Breiner, 1996, p. 26). Turner (1993, p. 4) advises us to be circumspect with regard to Weber’s approach to modernism and rationalization as “he remained highly ambiguous about the content and consequences” with regard to the foregoing. The preceding, Turner (1993, p. 5) states that the preceding is a result of “Weber’s ambiguities over capitalism were also expressed in his ambivalent attitudes to socialism as a rational planning of the market”. He, Weber, argues that “socialism was another step in the growth of rational management of resources; socialism represented a further development of the second serfdom—to calculation, planning, and instrumental rationalism” (Turner, 1993, p. 5). Turner (1993, p. 5) further informs us that “main issue in Weber’s political sociology is the absence of any analysis of the processes of democratization, about which Weber remained skeptical, if not dismissive”. He (Turner, 1993, p. 5) supports the preceding in stating that “In this respect, Weber was significantly influenced by Robert Michels’s theory of ‘the iron law of oligarchy’, which suggested that all mass-party organization would come to depend on an elite”.

To further understand Weber’s meaning, before we delve into the preceding further, we must understand vocational politics, which represents a vocation, stating that “For everything that is striven for through political action, operating with violent means and following an ethic of responsibility, endangers ‘the salvation of the soul” (Breiner, 1996, p. 6). Weber continues:

“If, however, one chases after the ultimate good in a war of beliefs, following a pure ethic of absolute ends, then the goals may be damaged and discredited for generations, because responsibility for the consequences are lacking and those diabolic forces which enter into play remain unknown to the actor. These [forces] are inexorable and produce consequences for his action and even for his inner self, to which he must helplessly submit, unless he perceives them”.

His “ambiguity over whether he is giving an impartial general account of the logic of methodical action or a subjective situation-bound account of the multiple logics that constitute the different terrains of action” along with vocational politics have bearing on his concept of rationalization as it tends to skew his view against democracy “by appealing to objective standards of feasibility while maintaining that commitment to either form is a matter of personal choice” (Breiner, 1996, p. 10). The foregoing has direct bearing upon Weber’s concept of rationalization (Breiner, 1996, p. 10).

The preceding thus permits us to explore Weber’s approach and concepts of modernisation within what Turner (1993, p. 12) calls “a Weberian conceptualization of modern social change”. Within modernity the social as well as cultural facets of life do not point us towards an orderly life, but instead “a number of life spheres whose demands are objective and not influenced by the subject” (Breiner, 1996, p. 59). Each of these spheres is represented by “its own logic of action” (Breiner, 1996, p. 59). Turner (1993, p. 16) advises that “In bureaucracy, rationalization produced a system of reliable, dependable decision-making for the realization of public goals”. Weber argues that “Secularization had liberated human beings from the magical world of the ancients”, and that “the very same processes of rationalization threaten to subordinate imagination and inspiration to the demands of standardized routines and technical procedures” (Turner, 1993, pp. 16-17). Turner (1993, p. 17) continues “they threaten to produce a new characterology of soulless, machine-like robots”. The preceding is contained in context in Weber’s address of September 1919 (Turner, 1993, p. 17).

“The fate of our age, with its characteristic rationalization and intellectualization and above all the disenchantment of the world is that the ultimate, most sublime values have withdrawn from public life, either into the transcendental realm of mystical life or into the brotherhood of immediate personal relationships between individuals. It is no accident that our greatest art is intimate rather than monumental, nor is it fortuitous that today only in the smallest groups, between individuals, something pulsates in pianissmo which corresponds to the prophetic pneuma which formerly swept through great communities like fire and welded them together”

Conclusion

The bureaucratic maze sees “the projects of political actors may collide not only with the maximizing logic of economic actors seeking power over the market but also with the logic or bureaucracy, which undermines this economic logic” (Briener, 1996, pp. 115-116). In order to overcome the preceding, Weber explains that the political actors “may have to mobilize masses of citizens under party machines” (Briener, 1996, p. 116). Turner (1993, p. 92) explains that under “patrimonialism, at each stage of the tax-gathering exercise and at each level of the bureaucracy, the tax-yield was progressively creamed-off by the bureaucracy”. The bureaucratic nature of the new state systems utilized bureaucratic level to administer programs that were overseen by inefficient levels of management and response to the public good, thus creating a tax based support system that stood upon the back of its supporters (Turner, 1993, p. 93). The preceding stifled creativity and innovation within the system as those in power seeking to maintain their power acted out of their own self interests and political interest first, as opposed to a view to the future that would have benefited their nation as a whole. This defensive posture of holding onto the popular and or accepted views in face of better approaches is a hallmark of bureaucracy which dehumises the human element in support of its own well being and safekeeping.

The bureaucracy nature of industrial societies is still in force today, whereby the conforming to the norm represents the belief systems for the majority of its populations thus making Weber’s “soulless, machine-like robots” Turner, 1993, p. 17)a reality for the lower and middle classes. An upper class still does exist as defined by educational attainment and or family heritage, and this can be found throughout the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan and other industrialized nations whereby the founders of major corporations have the heirs and or appointees installed as the operative heads of these machines of capitalisation.

This brings us back to Durkheim’s forced division of labor (Turner, 1993, pp. 98-99)which still exists and is a control factor in modern industrialized societies as indicated by the aforementioned educational and heritage facets. The existence of unions and associations to obtain rights and conditions for workers is proof of the foregoing, for if the machinery of society were in fact skewed to all of its individuals, then the need for these types of organizations would not be necessary. This is brings us to what Durkheim (Turner, 1993, p. 98) stated as a “fundamental crisis of the system, but rather a crisis of adaptation, and continuous contact will eventually produce new rules and a new functional equilibrium between the divided functions, thus assuring social integration”. Privileged positions are to a large degree still a factor of one’s birth, with specialised higher education and contacts representing a path to the upper echelons. Thus Durkheim and Weber were prophetic in their analysis and understandings on some facets.

Bibliography

About Sociology (2007) Emile Durkheim. Retrieved o 27 May 2007 from http://www.aboutsociology.com/sociology/Emile_Durkheim

Briener, P. (1996) Max Weber & Democratic Politics. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y., United States

cepa.newschool.edu (2007) Max Weber, 1864-1920. Retrieved on 27 May 2007 from http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/weber.htm

Durkheim, E. (1997) The Division of Labor in Society. Free Press. New York, United States

emile-durkheim.com (2006) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Retrieved on 27 May 2007 from http://www.emile-durkheim.com/

Marxists Internet Archive (1999) Max Weber: Definition of Sociology. Retrieved on 27 May 2007 from http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/weber.htm

Turner, S. (1993) Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Moralist. Routledge Publishers, New York, United States

Turner, B. (1993) Max Weber: From History to Modernity. Routledge Publications, London, United Kingdom

NAME: LUCKY AMADI

DISCUSS QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS.

INTRODUCTION.

What is Research?

Research is an inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed development. Research helps to acquire knowledge about a particular thing it is done to understand.

It can also be seen as the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

Research methods are often divided into two main types:

Qualitative Research methods
Quantitative Research methods
Qualitative Method of Research.

Qualitative research which is also called Field research is done to gain a deep understanding of a specific organisation or event rather than the surface description.it is aimed at getting a better understanding through first experience, truthful reports and quotation of actual conversations, also aims to know how participants derive meaning from their surroundings and how their meaning influences their behaviour.

Qualitative research makes use of observation as a data collection method; this is the selection and recording of behaviours of people in their environment, observation is useful for generating in-depth descriptions of organisations or events, for obtaining information that is otherwise inaccessible, and for conducting research when other methods are inadequate. The context or background of behaviour is included in observations of both people and their environment.

Stages in Participatory Observation

Selection of a site and definition of problems, concepts and indicators.

The problem or phenomenon of interest is first identified by the researcher; he tries to discern what will yield the greatest understanding of that problem. The researcher then identifies preliminary concepts and what data will be gathered as indicators of those concepts.

The researcher chooses a strategy to move into the researcher.

This involves an overt or a covert role for the researcher, issues may include how to record observations (writing notes, tape recordings, video tape) as well as ethical issues (privacy, confidentiality, etc.)

Strategies include: adopting a passive role at first, learning the ropes; don’t seek data aggressively until later; be a researcher not a therapist, answer questions but don’t become closely identified with any one person until you are sure it will not cost you information in the long run, be non-persistence.

Selecting people and events to observe.

Primary sources also known as “key informants” of information are identified by the researcher. These people may be relied upon in the beginning to help the researcher get acculturated to the situation. The statements of key informants can be taken as evidence, even if their statements are somewhat self-serving. The researcher must also be aware of possible differences between the validity and intention of volunteered statements that are made in response to the researcher’s questions.

Develop relationships with the participants.

Researchers must have the trust and confidence of the informants. Researchers must speak their “language” and understand their “world”. The researcher can note the differences rather than accept one and reject the other. The researcher must determine whether certain things are not being said because of his or her role as “researcher” or whether they can use their position as “neutral outsider” to gain more information.

Analysing observations.

The researcher can check whether none, all or some proportion of behaviours or events occur under distinct circumstances. A preliminary model can be generated to explain the data collected. Further observations are then collected which can strengthen or weaken the researchers preliminary model.

Final analysis and interpretation.

Models are checked against the evidence. Advanced concepts and evidence for their support and refutation are checked. The major problem is how to present the data in a brief but meaningful form.

Advantages of Qualitative research.

It gives the researcher freedom to let the study unfold more naturally.
The researcher gains more detailed and rich data in the form of comprehensive written descriptions or visual evidence such as photographs.
It looks at the context and social meaning and how it affects individuals.

Disadvantages of Qualitative research.

It is time consuming.
It is difficult to code data.
It is not applicable to widely dispersed social settings
It is difficult to control for researcher bias.

Quantitative Research of Method.

Quantitative research can be seen as explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods; this method reduces the data into numbers, the researcher helps to analyse the data with the help of statistics. The researcher knows in advance what he/she is looking for and all aspects of the study are carefully designed before the data is collected. Its objective is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.

Process of Quantitative research method.

Developing models, theories, and hypotheses of what the researcher expects to find.
Developing instruments and methods for measuring the data.
Experimental control and manipulation of variables.
Collecting the data.
Modelling and analysing the data.
Evaluating the results.

Principles of Quantitative Research.

Objectivity is important.
Methods and conclusions are examined by researchers for any possible bias.
Researchers go to great length to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to be measuring.
External factors which might affect the result must also be controlled as it might be the other factor which produces the result.
When looking at results the P value is important, P stands for probability. It measures the likelihood that a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance, P is between 0 and 1, the closer the result is to 0 the less likely it is that the observed difference is due to change, the closer the result is to 1 the greater the likelihood that the finding is due to chance and that there is no difference between the variables.

Advantages of Quantitative method of research.

It allows researchers to measure and analyse data.
It helps to carry out test for hypotheses in experiments because of its ability to measure data using statistics.
The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.

Disadvantages of Quantitative research.

It doesn’t study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things have for different people unlike qualitative method of research.
A large sample of population must be studied; the larger the sample of people researched the more statistically accurate the results will be.

CONCLUSION.

Each of these researches are done for a purpose just like Qualitative is done to gain understanding of a specific organisation or phenomena, Quantitative is done by analysing data with the help of statistics it has to do with numbers. Just like everything they both have their advantages and disadvantages.

REFERENCES

Anderson, ML and Taylor, H.F (2009) sociology.

The essentials Belmont C.A Thomson Wadsworth.