Author: Andre Coleman

In recent times, social model of disability has gained academic attention through the works of acclaimed activists like Vic Finklestein, Paul Hunt and Mike Oliver (Barnes, 2000; Oliver, 1990a). The social model of disability holds a divergent view to that of the medical model. The social model tends to make a clear distinction between “impairment” and ‘disability’. That is to say the impaired person is disabled as a result of social barriers and structures. This social model of disability view is esteemed highly in the ‘developed’ nations as America, Germany, Britain and Austria. In the UK the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) was enacted based on the medical model however service providers adjusting to accommodate the law reasonably follow the social model (Lewis, 2005). Could the social model of disability be translated into the economies of the majority world where lack basic infrastructure to meet the needs of persons with impairment are far reaching?

This essay will attempt to answer that question by firstly defining what ‘social model’ and ‘developing’ nations are. It will, secondly, develop further by giving a brief historical background of the social model of disability. Thirdly it will discuss other modules of disability such as the medical model, the WHO’s International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) and International Classification Functioning (ICF). It will make reference to situations in a few minority countries for broader comparison. Disability in the majority world will be examined in conjunction with social model of disabilities ideology. Then finally critically analyse the social model under the microscope of the majority world perspective.

Definitions and Models of Disability

Llewellyn and Hogan (2000) state that usually a model signifies a kind hypothesis that is specifically structural and which looks to make clear an idea by linking it to a theoretical method and device. A model is basically a structure for assessing information. Models of disability therefore offer structures through which the experience of disability is understood. This enables disabled people to provide for themselves and the society they live in a framework through which laws, regulations and structures can be developed. It also provides knowledge about the attitudes, ideas and prejudice of people and the impact they can have on people with impairments. Furthermore, they highlight ways in which society relates to disabled people in daily life. The models of disability are characterised by two primary viewpoints, medical and social.

Williams (1996), a proponent of the medical model, asserts that impairment is a natural part of disability. Given the position that impairment is a natural part of disability, then the individual becomes responsible for his/her disability. Oliver (1990b) highlights this issue by saying that there are two main problems with the individual or medical model. Firstly, it places the ‘problem’ of disability with the impaired person and secondly the cause of the problem and the practical restrictions involved are imagined to arise from the impairment. The medical model was obviously born before the ‘social model’ and is often held in contrasting opinion with the ‘social model’. Mercer, Shakespeare and Barnes (1999) posit that disabled individuals are considered to be reliant on others to be looked after, and to overcome disability they have to rely on healing medicine. Practically, normality through rehabilitation is then sought if the impairment cannot be healed. Overcoming disability can then be considered to be parallel with prevailing over physiological restrictions of impairment.

Disability rights groups often compare this model to the price of intrusive medical procedures like genetic screening. Often big investment in these procedures and technologies is underpinned by the medical model. Oliver (1990b) asserts that where impairment cannot be treated or cured, a lot of people with disabilities will receive unnecessary medical attention, which is oppressive and unacceptable. This is often thought of as a waste of money as adaptation of the disabled person’s surroundings could be less expensive and achievable than medical intervention. The medical model of disability is also seen by some disability rights groups as a civil rights issue and they often disapprove of benevolent initiatives such as awareness raising campaigns which are used to portray disabled people. It is felt that this often encourages negativity and undermines the image of people with impairments and does nothing to promote disability as a political, social and environmental dilemma.

The International Classification of Disease (ICD) was the first definitional schema developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO). It had been in existence since 1893 and evidenced that the health care systems previously focussed on disease. The theorisation of disease was purely straight forward. If a disease manifests it is able to be cured or it can develop until the organism dies. The progress in medical technology drastically changed the potential outcomes of pathologic conditions beyond weighing morbidity and mortality. Impairments and disabilities figure prominently in these conditions and as the ICD model could not assess health problems that were chronic or disabling a new model that would make assessment significant was required.

The new definitional schema took an individual model approach in the name of International Classification of Impairments, Disability and Handicaps (ICIDH). Bury (2000) confirms this when he comments on ICIDH2. He writes of his excitement as WHO shied away from its constricted medical model view point. ICIDH was developed in the mid 1970s and is part of a family of classifications. It was purposely designed to constrict the gap between what health care will be able to do and what it is expected to do (WHO, 1980b). The International Classification of Impairments, Disability and Handicaps (ICIDH) basically examined the cost of non-fatal disease to an individual and also the interaction between that individual and society. There are three parts of the ICIDH which are related to the state of health. They are namely impairment, disability and handicap which has been defined as follows:

“Impairment – In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function.

Disability – In the context of health experience, a disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.

Handicap – In the context of health experience, a handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal (depending on the age, sex, social and cultural factors) for that individual.” (WHO 1980a:27-9)

This classification was recognised world wide and underpinned many medical assessments but it was not long before it came under criticism. Oliver (1990) for instance disapproves of the ICIDH because for an individual to carry out their role as an ordinary member of society the person would be expected to change instead of his/her environment. He feels the medical viewpoint on disability is propagated through the definitions given and that individuals are expected to be healed through some form of interference. Pope and Talov (1991) also criticised the usage of the term ‘handicap’. The word had negative connotations which inferred limitations in performance. They also assert that ICIDH fails to make a clear distinction between disability and handicap planes.

WHO, in the light of criticisms, brought about the development of the ICIDH-2 which soon after became International Classification of Functioning (ICF) (WHO, 2001). The social and medical models of disability have been integrated in the ICIDH-2 (Finkelstein 1998, Barnes and Mercer, 2004; World Health Organisation, 2002). The aim of the ICF was to create a classification that would be simple enough to be considered by practitioners as a significant description of the consequences of health conditionsAmong other things it was to be functional and enable identification of health care needs, shape intervention programs like prevention or rehabilitation. De Kleijn-De Vrankrijker (2003) affirms that the ICF is a better revision of the ICIDH. The language is impartial and the fundamental values very contrasting.

The social model, however, was developed in the 1970’s by disabled people. It was a response to basically how society treated disabled people plus their experience of the welfare and health systems which drove them to being segregated and oppressed. Scholars like Vic Finkelstein, Colin Barnes and Mike Oliver gave it a backing (Shakespeare and Watson 2002). The social model could be said to have been initiated from an essay entitled “A Critical Condition” written by Paul Hunt in 1966. (Hunt, 1966) In the essay Paul Hunt argued that society held non-disabled people in high esteem making disabled people feel unlucky and good for nothing. Fallow (2007) however, argued that this might not be an exact view of disabled people but one that had been imposed on them.

Almost a decade after Paul Hunt’s essay, the Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS) developed the social model in their definition of impairment and disability. They asserted that disability was:

‘the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes little or no account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the mainstream of social activities’ (UPIAS 1976:14).

Mike Oliver, teaching a group of social work students, later coined the term social model in an attempt to introduce the ideas of the UPIAS Fundamental Principles. He said focusing on the individual model concept against that of the social model he derived the difference made between impairment and disability by UPIAS. (Oliver 1990b)

Making a clear distinction between impairment and the disabling effect of society in relation to impairment is what the social model is about. It implies that when a person cannot walk it is not his/her inability to walk that disables them but the lack of stairs that are not wheelchair accessible that disables them. If a person is visually impaired, it is not their impairment that disables them but the lack of information in Braille or large print that disables them. Disability can be said in other words to be socially constructed. The social model recognises people with physical, mental or learning difficulties may not be able to function and therefore seeks to remove any barriers that limit their functioning. It advocates for disabled people to enjoy equal rights and responsibility. Swain et al (2004) assert that impairment should be considered as a positive benefit not something pitiful. It has been documented from disabled people’s perspective that being impaired can have benefits.

Definitions of ‘Developing’ and ‘Majority’ World

‘Developing’ nations is an economical term used to describe medium income economies for the purpose of this essay. It is a term that has many variations for example third world, and the south (Stone 1999). These terms are sometimes frowned upon because they give an impression that western industrialisation or so called ‘developed’ nations provide the yard stick for judging advancement. Stone (1999) alleges that the idea of the west occupying the highest sit in development and the rest world hanging to the sit is inherent. ‘Developing’ nations also refers to a nation or country that does not have a well developed economy and political structure compared to industrialised nations. World Bank Group (2004) defines developing nations as countries with average levels of GNP per capita plus 5 high-income developing economies like Hong Kong, Israel, Kuwait, Singapore and United Emirates. Pearson Education (2005) states that they are nations that have been defined by the World Bank as having low or middle incomes with low living conditions compared to high income nations. Katsui (2006) uses the South to refer to developing countries and beneficiaries of growth collaboration and North for developed countries.

Majority world refers to non-westernised countries where often policies and structures are lacking to support the nations. These are countries that fall outside of the minority world and are considered to have low income per capita, levels of economic growth and low indices of life expectancy and education. Minority world also stands for developed world, western world, the North and industrialised nations. Countries like America, Australia, Germany France, Britain, Netherlands etc that have high level of economic growth according to their income per capita and high gross domestic product per capita. Industrialisation is another economic criteria used to measure growth in these countries. In recent times more outstanding issues like human development index matched with economic weight, national income, other measures, indicators like life expectancy and education have become part of the criteria for measuring which type of world a country is from.

Disability in the Minority World

Priestley (2005) puts forward that there has been a remarkable change in the way disability is viewed in European social policy. The minority world has over the years seen the application of social model of disabilities in various laws, policies and strategies. The European Commission (EC) (2010b) maintains that disabled people should have dignity, basic rights, and protection against intolerance, equality, justice and social cohesion. It sees disability as a social construct which fronts intolerance and stigmatisation. Consequently, it is the disabled person’s environment that has to change and not the person. The EC has a disability strategy plan (DAP) which guides disabled policies.

The EC wants to see disabled people get involved in disabled affairs and also have more accessibility, job opportunities and self-sufficient living. EC (2010a) further asserts that about 80 million Europeans have a disability and cannot enjoy the everyday comforts like riding on a bus, shopping, using the internet and watching television because of barriers put in place by society. A new strategy to remove these obstacles has been implemented. These EC statements are certainly underpinned by the social model of disability. They all advocate for a disabled person’s environment to be altered to enable them participate fully in society. National Disability Authority (2005) adds its voice to the debate by saying the social model has added to the shift from disability based agendas to a more conventional and inclusive approach.

All of the above makes it relatively easy to live with impairment in the minority world. The provision of the welfare system is a fundamental part of western society and those who benefit from it most are those who are unable to work because of ailment (Overland 2007). If a person lost a limb, for example, they would be registered disabled as they would be limited in what they could do. Their needs would be taken care of by some sort of income benefit. Fit-for-purpose cars are built for people who have difficulty moving about. Special parking spaces for disabled people are provided making life relatively easy for many disabled people. Architecture supports building design and factors in access ramps. The Disability Equality Duty (DED) which was introduced by the new Disability Discrimination Act of 2005 in the UK for instance makes public bodies obligated to take into consideration the needs of disabled people when they are planning services. An affirmative attitude is recommended to be shown towards disabled people. Out-Law (2006) affirm Disability Rights Commission UK’s view that the Disability Discrimination Act 2005 would bring a great change to disabled people and will change how public authorities offer their services.

Walking aids are provided for those with balancing difficulties to help support and maintain their balance. Visually impaired are given guide dogs to move around with. They have various assistance technologies to help them study and participate in full economic and social activities. Most organisations provide accessible information for the hearing and visually impaired. There are electronic resources that support disabled life. Enabled People website is one of them. It gives information about disabled support, rights and systems (Bristow 2005). Developed nations and their respective governments make sure that disabled people live normal lives or reduce restrictions placed by disability. They have organisations and networks and people or organisations with political clout lobbying on disabled people’s behalf. Disability in Britain was transformed by disabled people’s movement in the 1980’s (Hasler,1993).

The European non-governmental organisation, European Disability Forum (EDF) stands for the concerns of 65 million disabled people in Europe. In America effective laws like the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulates disability law and prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in housing, employment and access to public services. The purpose of ADA is to assist disabled people in any way practicable and to ensure that their human rights and civil liberties have not been abused. It ensures that disabled people have all the comforts non disabled people have like disabled parking space and permits, ramp laws to showers and bathroom installations designed for physically disabled people. ADA was also established to improve quality of life by training both disabled and non disabled.

Social model disability ideology

The developing world cannot boast of such a life for its disabled people. The social model of disability has become known and thrived within minority or western society but critics have said it cannot be translated into the majority world (Stone, 1997; Miles 1996). In Britain the social model has become a fundamental indicator of disability politics which is used by disabled activist to differentiate among establishments, strategies, regulations and ideas (Shakespeare 2002). The needs and opportunities for people with impairments in majority world are sometimes entirely divergent from those in minority world and may require various solutions, systems of enquiry and explanations. The inequality is not a stand alone issue, but has roots in the various ideologies that surround disability in the majority world.

The social model of disability has two main schools of thought. Those who believe that capitalism has contributed to the oppression of disabled people and those who believe that disability is as a result of an inherent believe in culture, attitude and prejudice (Sheldon et al., 2007; Barnes and Mercer 2005).The former, materialist, believes that the economic and political structures put in place in society have largely contributed to disabilism. Therefore political effort is desired to effect fundamental changes of an unequal system designed by capitalism. The latter, Idealist believes that disabled people are excluded from society purely because of lack of thought than anything else and in that sense a redress can be sought with education and addressing people’s attitudes without changing legislation that excludes people from everyday activities and inaccessible infrastructure (Priestly, 1998). This line of argument supports the improving of existing social systems.

Capitalism which controls most of the world economy today is believed by the materialist to be the undercurrent of poverty in the majority world. Norberg (2003) raises issue with the fact that per capita GDP is more than 30 times higher in 20 wealthiest nations than in 20 deprived nations. Oliver (1999) asserts that the oppression of disabled people is ingrained in the economic and social formation of capitalism.

Free markets have allowed various international organisations and individuals to set up home in the majority world taking away land and property from original settlers. Eskine (2009) asserts that numerous rich nations are purchasing land from the majority world for future investments. Since 1960 a new global industrialisation has arisen with international corporations operating in offshore outsourcing (Nash J and Fernandez-Kelly 1983). This has caused people who use to rely on agriculture; fishing and petty trading to lose their livelihood pushing them into poverty. Poverty is a major cause of disability in the majority world as simple diseases like diabetes cannot be managed making people blind. Thomas (2005) posits that poverty and disabling impairments are expressly connected and most disabilities can be avoided because they are poverty orientated.

Meanwhile, other social commentators also argue that the free market is a good thing and that developing countries will benefit from this freedom (Urbach, 2004; Murkherjee, 2004) People will be able to travel freely and immigrate to other countries. They would also be able to trade with who ever they wish to trade with. It is further argued that consumers will have a wider choice and businesses will be able to lower their cost by hiring workers from other countries. Organisations setting up home in the majority world will bring more work to the society and people will be able to learn new skills, have social links and mix with other cultures but are these arguments not entrenched in colonialism or neo colonialism?

Nkrumah (1965) asserts that neo-colonialism is the most damaging form of imperialism because those who engage in it have power but not accountability leaving those at the brunt of it exploited with no way of putting things right. Examples are, in the mid 20th century in places like Africa where nations obtained independence from their European masters but found that they were not totally free from their influence. Governments were undermined using destruction tools like propaganda, coup d’etats and the nomination of specific people into positions of influence (Hanlon, 1991). This caused many nations to remain dependant on their colonised masters even though they were free.

Another form of capitalism which has influenced the majority world is Imperialism. It has been described as the ultimate form of capitalism and an extension of the basic parts of capitalism (Lenin 1916). Imperialism creates socio-political systems which make the world an unfair place and this inequality is constantly represented in global relationships where the rich and poor nations fight for the same resources and the improvement of their citizens. That is, if a nation is able to get in the lead by maximising its resources, technology and power then it becomes a super power and rules the others who could not. This gap then becomes a divide which has been termed the North-South gap. This ruler and ruled is an old concept. Wallerstein (n.d) posits that difference is a basic truth about today’s world systems as is of past world systems.

Even though Imperialist rule has long gone, distribution of resources and power is still uneven. Global south is still being exploited and continues to trail behind the super powers with all types of international insecurities like starvation, disease, civil war and the digital divide (Fong 2009; Compaine 2001). This inequality produces continuous discrimination making majority nations more impoverished. The gap means the rich minority world has been able to create powers that in effect control the poor majority world. Organisations like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have over the years designed policies and strategies which are difficult for the majority world to follow (Barnes and Mercer 2005).

Disability in the majority world

According to the World Health Organisation 650 million people are disabled in the world. Of this total, 80% live in developing countries, 20% of them are the poorest in the world. Out of these figures only 2 – 3% of disabled children have access to education (Youthink, 2010). These figures are significant and make uncomfortable reading. Katsui (2006) gives further insight by stating that according to the United Nations (2000) and San (1999) Out of 80% disabled people living in the developing world only 2% receive some type of help. He further asserts that disabled people who live in the south are mainly uncared for by the governments and the global society. Godrej (2005) posits that in the majority world people with impairments are not at the top of the priority list.

Disabled people in the majority world face multiple challenges, the overarching being poverty and social discrimination. WaterAid (2010) indicates that disabled people in the developing world do not only deal with social barriers but poverty and isolation. Yeo (2001); Coleridge (1993) states that suffering high levels of poverty is not the only problem for people, but the likelihood of acquiring an impairment. Furthermore, people with ailments normally have little rights to property, medical care, healthy food, accommodation, education and work.

Lack of thorough diagnosis of ailment and on going medical care is another challenge for the disabled in the developing world. Impairments like Down syndrome can be detected in the womb but the fairly sophisticated equipment for doing this is often lacking. In child birth, routine conditions which are taken for granted in the minority world cause complications which often lead to brain damage and other physical disabilities for babies and their mothers. Baylies (2002) states that, pregnant mothers who for instance, abuse alcohol are often not aware of the harm they are causing their unborn children. A large number of mental impairments are acquired because of Iodine deficiency or poor nutrition.

Disabled people are normally very deprived and frequently reside in places where health care and other facilities are hard to come by or does not exist leaving some impairments undiscovered and others not discovered on time (United Nations Enable, 2006). In the developing world many disabled people are less likely to be employed. Many resort to begging on the streets to support themselves and their families as most of the time there are no structures in place to support them in employment. Income is scant, dwindling and unequally allocated among the disabled. Transportation is another challenge as cars, lorries, buses and trains are not accessible for disabled people. Savill et al (2003) argues it is challenging for disabled people to travel therefore difficult to find a job or socialise.

In many parts of the majority world culture affects the way disability is perceived. Often times, ignorance, superstition and fear cause people to see disability as a curse from God. In some parts of the majority world disabled people are seen as sub-human and unhealthy to join in community activities. Some are ashamed of their disabled relatives and hide them depriving them of any prospects whiles others view them as supreme beings and worship them (Turmusani, 2003; Edgerton, 1970). Disabled people hardly form part of the political process in the majority world often missing in the process of making decisions in communities and governments. Some even don’t have the basic right to vote in elections because of difficulties in getting access and information. Most of the time, they are not consulted on subjects and decisions concerning them.

Relevance of Social Model in majority world

Advocators of the social model emphasizes that discrimination against disabled people is socially constructed and has little to do with their impairments. Meaning that disabled people in the majority world can live more like their non disabled peers if social barriers like inaccessible roads, transport, schools, hospitals and churches were adapted to accommodate them. Barnes (2009) states that disability is a social problem which has been worsened by globalisation and that the answer to the difficulties disabled people face in the developing world will probably remain the same if fundamental changes do not occur at local and global stages. Albert and Hurst (1997) affirms that the social model has given rise to awareness among the disabled people to forge a common front to fight for their basic rights.

However, the relevance of the Social model of disability has been questioned by a number of academicians. Grech (2009) criticises the social model saying it is challenging for cultures because it for a certain period and speaks for certain class of disabled people in the minority world. She further argues that applying the social model in communities where the source of revenue is based on household economies is debatable. Edgerton (1970) describes in his East African research on how different communities across East Africa view people with mental impairments. Some show prejudice, others welcome them whiles others revere them. It has been argued that these cultural differences would make the adaptation of the social model of disability difficult. Albert and Hurst (1997) refute this argument asserting that many local customs like genital mutilations and killing of infants are acceptable in certain cultures but are they acceptable world-wide? This is affirmed by Baird and Hernandez (2005) Tomas Hernandez a disabled activist from Nicaragua highlighted on the changes that took place in Managua after wheel chair users demonstrated, realising they could not go to work without help. This demonstration had a positive effect where the sitting government took measures to lower kerbs and build ramps to accommodate wheel chair users.

The Social model of disability is also accused of not taking into account the impairments of disabled people. Albert and Hurst (1997) asserts that this a major problem for the minority world how much more the majority world but they immediately defuse this statement by arguing that the statement is made by able bodied people who have no idea of what it means to live with impairments. Thomas, Gradwell and Markham (1997), and Oliver (1996) state that the social model of disability does not overlook impairment but refuses to give it attention. Opponents of the social model of disability like Crow (1996) and French (1993) question the reason: the word impairment is being overlooked and calls for it to be brought to the fore as it is a fundamental part of being disabled. Albert and Hurst (1997) further argue that the social model of disability does not overlook the source of disability rather it advocates for the removal of social constructs like poverty and wars that easily beset people.

Another argument is that the social model of disability is a western phenomena and that disabled people in the minority world have basic needs and therefore are able to fight for social rights whereas their compatriots in majority world lack even the basic needs (Werner 1998 cited in Albert and Hurst 1997 p27). Charowa (2005) posits that disabled people in Zimbabwe are frequently not able to acquire personal aids so they make use of makeshift wheel chairs. Albert and Hurst (1997) however, counter argue that the social model of disability is not a western phenomena as a large percentage of its out spoken proponents come from the majority world. Schmidt (2010) indicates that specialist equipment that will require the use of energy will not be helpful to the 1.5 billion people who are poor. International Energy Agency forecast that 1.3 out of the 1.5 poor people will not have access to energy until 20 years time.

Another point raised against the relevance of the social model of disability in the developing world is the matter of difference. Where for example, the physical impaired are treated better than people with mental impa

In this essay I intend to discuss the family as a social construct and institution. I will be critically discussing the different forms of the family, and the role of the family within society from four sociological perspectives.

The family as a social structure is often taken for granted to mean a married couple with children, possibly incorporating grandparents and directly linked blood relatives. This stereotypical view does not take into account a changing society with changing norms and values. It is important when discussing the family in a sociological context to define the family in a wider perspective.

Ferrante (2011) suggests that “the family is often described as a social institution that binds people together through various means, blood, marriage, norms and law.” According to Zelditch (1964) as cited in Ferrante (2011) “there is no concrete group which can be universally identified as the family.”

Several institutions including political parties, the legal system and the media have been blamed for creating the ‘cereal packet’ family but not all sociologists agree with what appears to be typical British family. Gittins (1993) as cited in Marsh and Keating (2006) states “The ideology of the family would have us believe that there is one type of family, one correct way in which individuals should live and interact with each other…An ideology that claims that there is only one type of family can never matched in reality, for it represents an ideal to which only some can approximate, an others not at all.”

During the last century the concept of the family has altered, this is partly due to industrialisation, modernity, changing norms and values and the media. The family can now be seen to have many dimensions, what was considered to be deviant or diverse is often accepted as a norm.

Some sociologists argue that during the nineteenth century, post industrialisation, social order, or kinship, “a network of relatives (kin) who are connected by common decent or marriage.” (Fulcher and Scott 2007) began to alter. Communities that were based on traditional shared values of religion and community changed. Cottage industries began to disappear and families moved from rural areas into towns and cities the nature of the of kinship began to diminish. The economic and social life of this type of family relationship changed, according to Ritzer and Ryan (2011) “Rural people were lured by the novelty of city life and the prospects of greater economic opportunity. The domestic economy of the pre-industrial family disappeared.” The industrial revolution provided factory work for men leaving the females to take a more prominent role as the caregivers, the family dynamics began to alter creating a major change in the division of labour within the family.

“Industrialisation was identified by many as having sounded the death knell for this way of life, destroying extended families and undermining communities.” (Ogburn 1955 as cited in Gillies 2003). The extended family tends to include generations of family extending both horizontally and vertically including connections my marriage and blood. It is argued by some sociologists that industry has destroyed the traditions of the extended family and the social bonding of kinship, leading to the nuclear family. Talcott Parsons (1949) as cited in Fulcher and Scott (2007) stressed that in the absence of the extended family and kinship, the nuclear family met the needs of a changed society. However Laslett and Wall (1972) as cited in Fulcher and Scott (2007) suggest that the nuclear family has always been the more dominant family type throughout the history of family life.

The functionalist approach to the family suggests that the family itself is responsible for ensuring that vital tasks are achieved. Functionalists believe that social institutions such as schools, churches, political systems and the family are all essential to the structure of an effective functioning society and all of these institutions inter relate with each other for the benefit of the whole of society, if one aspect of the structure does not function adequately then society will inevitably experience some form of failure and conflict. Functionalists suggest that the family is one of the most important institutions responsible for the successful raising of a child and parents play a key role in ensuring that children become well integrated within society.

Murdock (1949) conducted a study based on two hundred and fifty societies with the aim of discovering if the family was universal. His conclusion was that the nuclear family was a universal social institution that comprised of four basic functions. These he called, sexual relationships, economic cooperation among members, reproduction and the socialisation of infants and children. (Stark, 2010)

Murdock’s theory has been criticised by many non functionalist sociologists suggesting that his study focussed on the nuclear family and did not take into account other family forms. Gough (1959) argued that Murdock’s theory did not take into account societies such as the Nayar, where one woman could have up to twelve potential fathers to a child and a man could have an unlimited amount of wives. Support came from brothers, sisters and children not from potential fathers. This system was based purely on kinship groups. Gough suggests that the existence of the Nayar was not based on economic cooperation between husbands and wives, the socialisation of infants was provided by the women and their kinship groups, and any affectionate relationship between men and women was prohibited. Gough’s criticism can be closely compared to family groups in British society today looking at family units that do not meet Murdock’s nuclear family theory these families could be single parent families or families consisting of same sex couples. (Bell 1968)

Parsons (1959) as cited in Macionis (2012) argued that the family retains two primary functions, these functions are found in all forms of family thought out the world. He suggests that the primary socialisation of children is the first and most important setting for child rearing and parents are in the position to ensure children are able to become well integrated into society and the structuring of the personality in the early years leads to contributing members of society. He acknowledges that family socialisation continues throughout the life cycle but secondary socialisation becomes more dominant as the child develops due to the family being less involved, and agencies such as schools and peer groups become involved.

Parsons as cited in Harolambos and Holborn (2008) argued that families “are factories which produce human personalities”. Parsons second observation of the family was the stabilisation of the adult personality arguing that men and women who have deep personal relationships will lead content and fulfilling lives which in turn will improve family life removing some of the tensions that the family may face such as work and relationships. Marxist sociologists may argue that although family life can be fulfilling and happy the fact that contemporary British society is based on capitalism, which results in exploitation, family members will inevitably be placed under financial strain and tension which can cause problems of discontent and the breakdown of the family unit. Criticisms were that his theory was outdated and based on the ideology of the nuclear family alone.

Marxist writers in the 1970’s put forward a different perspective of the family they argued that “the capitalist system exploits the free domestic labour of the housewife through the domestic division of labour.” (Fulcher and Scott 2007). They argue that the concept of the nuclear family promotes the role of the man to be the breadwinner and the woman to be the housewife which has led women, if wanting to work, becoming the reserve army therefore being called upon when required, for example during times of war, according to Marxist theorists the nuclear family provides employers with cheap disposable labour that tends to be less valued than their male counterparts. (Fulcher and Scott 2007)

“On what foundation of the present family, the bourgeois family based? On capital, on private gain. In its completely developed form this family exists only among the bourgeoisie …The bourgeois claptrap about the family and education, about the hallowed correlation of parent and child, becomes all the more disgusting, the more, by the action of modern industry, all family ties among the proletarians are torn asunder, and their children transformed into simple articles of commerce and instruments of labour.” (Marx and Engels, 1848 as cited in Ferrante 2011)

Although Marx and Engels seem to be criticising the family and suggesting that the family may be considered as a tool for capitalism they were in fact suggesting that the family should be improved and it was the traditional family types that approved of the exploitation of women and children. According to Marsh and Keating (2006), Engels believed that the family exploited women and children and the end of the exploitation within the family could only be achieved in a communist society.

The development of the Marist perspective continued throughout the century and the views of Engles and Marx were applied to a modern capitalist society. Modern Marxists would argue against the functionalists who stress that the purpose of the family is to raise children. Marxists agree that the family has a job but that job is to reproduce the labour power that maintains a capitalist society. It is also suggested that the family is a control mechanism that exerts social control on parents. Living in a highly consumer orientated society, children are often in competition with their peers and parents are in competition with other parents to ensure that their children have the best technology and prospects, the pressure to remain in a competing capitalist society gives the parents little choice but to compete in the workplace and accept capitalism as a norm. “The family is thus an integral part of what Marxists call ‘commodity fetishism’; it helps to fuel the creation of false needs, which in order to be satisfied, require people to work hard. Mobile phones, laptops, X-boxes; all these frivolous things need to be bought by someone and in western capitalist societies it is now increasingly young people who are an important market. And young people come from, of course, families.” (Abbot 2010)

Historical changes in society have led to changes in feminist perspectives creating several waves of feminism. Although there are several types of feminist views including Liberal, Socialist, Radical and Marxist they do all share a common belief that women experience a range of social, economic, political and personal difficulties in their lives but they don’t all agree on the cause of these difficulties.

In general feminists have discarded the Functionalist theories of the nuclear family and suggested that many parents have socialised their children to behave in a manner that is considered to be appropriate to their gender roles. Feminists argue that when children see their parents behaving in their appropriate gender role then the children naturally assume that they should behave in the same way. Females have been shown what is considered to be feminine or female, dependence, obedience, conformity and domesticity and males have been encouraged by parents to be dominant, competitive and independent. (Holburn and Steel 2012)

The radical feminist perspective of the family agrees basic concept of the Marxist view suggesting that exploitation is a key aspect of the family, however where Marxists suggest that capitalism plays a key role for the exploitation of women the feminist approach suggests that the division of labour is due to genetic predispositions that women are seen as the carers and are more suitable to child rearing that their male counterparts who are seen as the providers. Feminists argue that in the division of labour is unequal and that the domestic role is unrewarded and undervalued. According to Sheeran (1993) as cited in Marsh and Keating (2007) “Marxist and radical feminists argue that the family is both an ‘ideological construct’ and a repressive, socially produced reality, which helps to perpetuate capitalism and / or patriarchy. Such criticisms are overtly anti family, and argue that women have been forced into taking responsibility for child care by that ‘agent’ of the state, the patriarchal family.”

Morgan (1975) as cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) suggests that “both functionalist and Marxist approaches, both presuppose a traditional model of the nuclear family where there is a married couple with children, where the husband is the breadwinner and where the wife stays at home to deal with the housework.”

The Interactionist approach is seen to be quite different and works at a micro level rather than the macro level like the previous perspectives. Symbolic interactionism has been an important theoretical perspective in family studies since its early development in the 1920s and 1930s. Symbolic interaction theory describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities. LaRossa and Reitzes (1993) as cited in International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family (2003). Interactionists suggest that families reinforce and rejuvenate their bonds through the use of rituals. Some social scientists believe that rituals like gathering together for a family meal or the ritual of marriage using symbols to reinforce the bonds this can be seen as a source of family strength and if families preserve rituals then children will become more emotionally equipped to face problems in the future. (Hughes and Kroehler 2011). Critics stress that symbolic interactionism only looks at the micro level and that this perspective does not take into account larger issues of society.

The New Right perspective of the family was born from functionalist ideology and supports the theory that the nuclear family is the only type of family that works effectively within British society. Between the 1950’s and the 1990’s the nuclear family began to alter, families were no longer perceived to be seen in the traditional stereotypical sense, families were becoming more diverse partly due to changes in the law, abortions were legalised, homosexuality decriminalised and the introduction of legislation such as the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act was introduced. New types of families were emerging. Single parent families, reconstituted families, individuals that cohabitated and the formation of same sex relationships that may or may not have had children from previous relationships. The New Right believe that the lack of traditional family and values and diversity has corrupted society. Lone parents were blamed for wayward children suggesting that without a male and female parent residing within the family unit then children would not be able to function as contributing members of society. Critics of the New Right suggest that by suggesting that the nuclear family is the only family that works for the benefit of society it ignores the dark side of the family issues such as domestic abuse and by trying to impress that the nuclear family is the superior and morally correct route it creates a them and us situation which can lead to discrimination, persecution and ultimately suggests that other family types are not families at all.(Yorkshire 2011)

According to the Office for National Statistics (2011) between 2001 and 2010 families by type have altered slightly to show that there has been a slight increase in the alternative family and a slight decrease in what is considered to be the nuclear family. As the Office of National Statistics now take into account Civil Partnerships as legitimate families the figures reflect a more accurate account of the makeup of the ever changing British family however the categories in which families are assigned do not represent a true picture of the family as it fails to differentiate between reconstituted and nuclear families, while the minority groups such as civil partnership couples and lone parents have been allocated a category of their own.

According to Morgan (1994) as cited in Marsh and Keating (2006) “We cannot speak of the family as if it were a static and changing thing. Rather it is better to use the word as signifying the character of a complex series of processes over time…we should speak of family processes, family living or family life courses. In this way we will come to recognise that family life is always subject to change and variation that change is at the very heart of family living”

As society changes with time it can be argued that the family will alter and perceptions of the family from influences such as the media and politics will change the ideology. Although the school of thought may differ depending on what perspective is applied it appears that the family plays an important role within British society, it is important to recognise that without understanding the family it makes it difficult to understand problems that may arise such as domestic violence and child abuse and how they are interpreted as private troubles or public issues.

Nothing worth having in life is ever attained without taking risk’ (Nansen, 1927 p36). Nansen; a great Arctic Explorer and Nobel peace prize winner said this in his speech about the human need for excitement. Not only this man, but up to 50% of Norwegian people are willing to take risks in life (Norwegian national survey, 2003). The number of people participating in extreme sports seems to be growing (sportbusiness.com, xtremesport4u.com), as is the number of championships in these sports. It seems there is more news about extreme sports and there are more advertisements. An example of a recent risk taking event that made the news in the Netherlands is a thirteen year old girl who wishes to sail around the world on her own. The news of this girl became prime news and many different institutions interfered with the girls’ plan. The Dutch child protection tried to stop her. Eventually they succeeded; the girl was not allowed to execute her plan by court order.

The example in the last paragraph shows a paradox; the contrast in risk-seeking behavior and the risk avoidance or risk minimization in national policies. Modern policies are aimed on risk avoidance, all risks should be minimized (Beck YEAR, Giddens YEAR, Breivik YEAR). Modern societies do this very obviously. Clear examples; bridges, car, airplanes, nuclear reactors, elevators, toys and electrical devices, all should be safe. People all need to behave according to guidelines (i.e. laws) if you do not you will end up in jail. Different kind of examples but good examples nevertheless are an organizer of a raft event was sued for being negligent when in 2007 two young women died when their raft slipped of a dam, insurance companies giving a discount on their insurance if enough smoke detectors and other safety equipment is present in a house, or the building of gas stations outside of urban areas and dozen more examples could be given. What these different exemplifies is a seemed tension between the deeply rooted need for excitement on one hand and the risk avoidance policies by societies nowadays.

Where could this seemed tension come from? Elias and dunning (YEAR) write in their book -Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process- that modern society constitutes of routines and relative lack of risk. The comparison is made between Greek wrestlers and Roman boxers to modern ones in order to exemplify the extraordinary violence permissible in antiquity and the soft and rule controlled society of present time. There are also empirical data which raise questions about the theory that the quest for the excitement of sports is an escape from the routines of modern life. This data shows a difference between the ‘richer’ and the ‘poorer’ side of society. Poorer, more often the most routinized people (i.e. factory workers), seem less prone to look for excitement in sports than the less routinized richer people of society. On the contrary of this empirical data that thrill seeking, risk taking, sensation seeking and all other synonyms of people looking for excitement has been found to be a personality trait and therefore has genetic roots. The genes involved in this trait are closely related to major personality dimensions like extraversion and psychoticism (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1977). A paper by Fulker, Eysenck, Zuckermann (1980) discards sensation seeking almost as a disease. ‘Sensation seeking was found to relate to both extraversion and psychoticism but not to neuroticism. The general pattern of relationships to other trait tests suggests that sensation seekers are impulsive extraverts, but not necessarily neurotic or anxious’ (Fulker et al., 1980 p262).

There does not seem to be an at hand answer to the question: Does a safety-orientated society make people want to look for excitement in for example extreme sports? This is the research question for this paper. We hypothesize that a safety orientated society makes people want to look for excitement in for example extreme sports.

This paper is a review of articles present about the raised topic and will try to get an insight in if, why and how people are looking for excitement nowadays. In the first chapter we described what we mean by a safety orientated society. In the second a definition is given of excitement and in the thirth excitement is related to risk. The fourth chapter explores whether extreme sports are truly sports. In paragraph one this is done from the perspective of autonomy, and in paragraph two from institutional embeddedness as proposed bij Tamboer & Steenbergen (2007). Chapter five gives an answer to the question why people participate in extreme sport. The last chapter mentions in what way extreme sports are influenced bij our safety orientated society. In the conclusion we give answer to our main question.

We do this literature study as an assignment of the Sport and Society course as a part of the Master Human Movement Sciences but the outcome of this paper could be meaningful to others interested in the human need for excitement.

1. A safety-orientated society

As mentioned in the introduction the safety-orientated society does play a major part this research. Many examples have been given of this supposed risk avoidance society. But what is it and is the society that different than we world we lived in, in the past? Ulrich Beck, a respected sociologist, wrote about the risk society in 1998 (Beck, 1998; Kelman, 2003). Beck describes a risk society as risk avoiding because everything in daily live seem to be focused on risk. Society wants to know everything about risk and want to avoid every risk. All risks should be controllable, calculable and predictable. In other words each task, each product or each activity is at least statistical analyzed for hazards. Although this definition is useful to understand the term ‘risk society’ Beck and Giddens decided in a collaboration paper to extend the term risk society into six parameters of risk society. Every parameter is interconnected. The parameters are: the omnipresence of risk, risk is everywhere. At the very core reflexive modernity is characterized by an awareness of living in a society of increasing vulnerability to the unpredictable, unfamiliar and unprecedented risks manufactured by modern science and technology. Different understandings of risk, the proliferation of the risk definitions, the reflexive orientation to risk and risk and trust. These six parameters make the definition is more comprehensive, because …… Besides this cooperation between Giddens and Beck they did not agree completely. Giddens didn’t settle with the first short definition. He insisted that ‘risk is not the same as hazard or danger. Risks refer to hazards that are actively assessed in relation to future possibilities’ (Giddens, 1999). Further contributions of the definition of risk have been made by Wells, Douglas, Luhmann, Joffe and Fox. They represent different disciplinary approaches to risk. To mention all these different approaches would be beyond the purpose of this paper. But the scope of the different authors may be clear. Modern society is a risk society because societies are focused on risk.

Although we completely understand the point of view of the different authors we strongly believe that society is, for the same reasons as proposed by the authors, focused on creating a safe society. The reason why we chose for this contrast is based on our point of view. We have a propensity to look at this society as a safety-orientated society, because we feel that societies aim on safety. From this save society we look into the risks of extreme sports. This contributes to the contrast between these factors. Hereby we presume that a person who starts doing extreme sports started his live in this safety-orientated society (i.e. a predictable and therefore maybe boring society). The people who step out of the safety-orientated society to participate in an extreme sport; what are they looking for?

2. Excitement

Zuckermann (1983 and 1994) wrote that some sports activities might provide a method by which sensation seekers satisfy their appetite for excitement. Potgieter and Bisschof took it a little further and proposed that sensation seekers are not interested in low risk and low excitement activities such as marathon running (Potgieter, Bisschof 1990). But what is this need for excitement? This chapter will provide a definition for the need of excitement and explain the sub factors that come forward from this definition.

In his paper Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal Zuckerman provides a definition which fits seamless in this paper. He states the need for excitement as: ‘’Look for excitement is a trait defined by the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience”(Zuckerman 1979, p.10). Between 1979 and the present there has been done much research on this topic. Other researchers added some dimensions and that is why (Zuckerman 1994, p.26) came with a new definition for looking for excitement: ‘sensation seeking is a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal and financial risks for the sake of such experience”. Although this better defined definition there was still the need to define it into four sub factors which are:

Thrill and Adventure seeking represents the desire to engage in sports or other physically risky activities that provide unusual sensations of speed or defiance of gravity, such as scuba diving or skiing.

Experience seeking involves seeking of novel sensations and experience through the mind and senses, as arousing music, even psychedelic drugs, art and travel.

Disinhibition describes the seeking sensations through drinking, partying, gambling and sexual variety. Items of this scale indicate seeking of stimulation through other persons.

Boredom susceptibility items indicate intolerance for repetitive experience of any kind including routine work and boring people.

3. Excitement related to risk

Can we relate look for excitement to risk? Is it a relation? Or can you have excitement without taking risks? If you relate excitement to extreme sport you can answer this question with yes. Besides this perspective, (Highhouse 1996) showed a view from the perspective of society. He uppers that risk could also be taken by threats and opportunities. Threats are related to loss and opportunities are related to gain. (Highhouse 1996) Present an interesting empirical study. This study concludes that people want to take risks but there is a clear leverage beneficial to threats. This basically means that i.e. Program A 400 people will die. Program B 1/3 probability that nobody will die 2/3 probability that 600 people will die. According to Highhouse people will chose for program A. The results typically reveal a framing effect with choices involving gains revealing more risk aversion. The example shows that not always excitement can be related to risk. This test clearly showed that people are risk avoidance. They don’t grap the excitement to win 400 lives in fact they chose for not loosing another 200 people.

According to (Zuckerman) sensation seeking is always related to risk he wrote’ biosocial trait of sensation seeking as a predictor of risk-taking behavior. There are good reasons for this as the sensation-seeking motive can illuminate why some people take risks and others do not, and several studies have shown the validity of the concept in this field’. Zuckerman related to this concept , behavioral expressions of sensation seeking have not only been found in various kinds of risk-taking behaviors such as driving habits, gambling, health, financial activities, alcohol and drug use, sexual behavior and sports but the trait was found to be also involved in vocational preferences and choices, jobs satisfaction, social; premarital and marital relationships, eating habits and food preferences, creativity, humor, fantasy, media and art preferences and social attitudes. This list of Zuckerman covers all the four sub factors of the definition ‘look for excitement’.

4. Extreme sports

Many philosophers have askes themselves the questions: ‘what makes sport sport?’ and ‘what makes sports populair?’ Like ‘normal’ or ‘mainstream’ (Rinehart, 2005) sports, ‘alternative’ or ‘extreme’ sports are described by the use of these words while they are never clearly defined. In literature there has not yet been a comprehensive definition, although some have tried. Tamboer & Steenbergen (2004) have proposed that sports can be seen from two different perspectives: from its autonomy and from its institutional embeddedness. For the use of this paper the difference between sports and extreme sports is explored by using these perspectives.

Extreme sport and its autonomy

Bernard Suits describes sport as similar to game and play, and he came up with the following definition (Meier, 1988): ‘to play a game is to engage in an activity directed towards bringing about a specific state of affairs (1), using only means permitted by rules (2), where the rules prohibit more efficient in favor of less efficient means (3), and where such rules are accepted just because they make possible such activity’ (4). This somewhat philosophic definition can be clarified by an extreme sport example. In downhill mountainbiking a competitor has to follow a specified set out course (1), he is only allowed to use a mountainbike which is approved by the competition organization (2), the course set out by the organization is more difficult than the easiest way down (3) but all competitors apply to these rules because this is the game/sport they are playing

Meier (1988) wanted to distinguish sport from game and added a fifth element to the definitions. This fifth element is the demonstration of physical skill. Extreme sports can even better be described by this definition (i.e. think of all the extreme sports with a jury like halfpipe snowboarding, skateboarding, BMX, freestyle windsurfing), but there remain some characteristics which could make extreme sports different from other sports.

Most sports that people call extreme are associated with taking (physical) risk. Extreme sports are about the mastering of a skill (Willig, 2008) to overcome the risks mostly caused or provided by the environment. Mastering a skill is highly individual and this makes extreme sports very indivually aimed sports. There is not even a need for an opponent in most cases because it is about the person mastering a skill or overcoming the dangers of the environment, the environment can be seen as the opponent. In extreme sport there are less rules then in many other sport. The natural surroundings make obstacles. This makes the second element in Suits definition of sports less appropriate for extreme sports (i.e. offpiste skiing or snowboarding this is often the most efficient way down). The risk that is associated with extreme sports could be a factor that makes these sports more exciting or more sensational than other sports (or other activities). Also the environment in which these sports take place can account for the feeling of excitement and therefore be a reason to do an extreme sport.

Extreme sports and its institutional embeddedness

The national and international championships that are organized for many kinds of extreme sports show that there is an institutional embeddedness. Mountainbiking and windsurfing are even at the Olympic sports and are regularly seen on TV. According to Rinehart (2003) extreme sport is mostly developed by young people who are looking for excitement. After this first phase entrepreneurs starting to get in the sport by two ways: firstly businesses develop gear and products, which reduce the risk of an extreme sport. And secondly the sport becomes popular by magazines and TV programs. The results of entrepreneurs who enter the extreme sport is that it becomes popular in general and possible to do for the safe society. A second distinction between extreme sport and a mainstream sport is that the persons who are doing extreme sports aligning themselves with sport in addition to a lifestyle. Which again opens a new market for business ventures and entrepreneurs i.e. clothes and drinks such as Red bull. These institutions want something to say about the sport. They all profit when extreme sports becomes bigger. There will be more media attention, more sponsors, and more people to buy their products. Extreme sport is highly dependent on expensive material, so as for instance in cycling good material is a never ending business. Could this be the reason for the problem Elias and Dunning proposed? As mentioned in the introduction extreme sports are often done by the ‘richer’ members of society. This is easily explained by the highly dependence of expensive materials. The members that can afford to escape the routinized boring society. Extreme sport is surrounded by the concept of lifestyle. Extreme sport is not just participating in the sport activity but also in de kind of life that is a part of this sport. In many of these sports, but for instance bicycle motorcross (BMX) and surfing, ‘chilling’ is a part of the lifestyle. This lifestyle can be seen in de clothes that people wear, the drinks, the shoes, sunglasses and caps or scarfs.

5. Participation in extreme sports

Because it seems extreme sport has become very populair but is also associated with risk (for physical harm or even death) there is the question: ‘Why do people want to participate in extreme sport?’

Extreme sport seems to distinquish themselves from other sport because of the risk involved. Could it be possible that participators do so because of the risk? And do they need this in order to escape our (boring) safety-orientated society?

Taking risk is associated with thrill- and sensation-seeking behavior. This would mean that people are taking risk because of the excitement that comes with it. As mentioned before, in Zuckerman’s definition of sensation risk-taking behavior is not an essential part, people are only willing to take the risk to experience the sensation. It is possible to experience excitement without risk.

Whether people want to experience excitement with or without risk is dependent from the situation. Highhouse (1996) showed risk is perceived as an opportunity when in a loss position, but as a threat when in a gain position. Perceptions of threat or opportunity could have effects on risk taking (Highhouse, 1996). Catar (2006) proposes there is a difference between real risk and perceived risk. Real risk a numerical estimation of the likelihood of an event and perceived risk is influenced by cultural factors. In adventure tourism (activities like bungeejumping, raften, paragliding, etc.) 94% of the participants found there was a very low or non-existent possibility for los, which ment that almost everybody thought the activity was without risk (Catar, 2006). Besides this, the participants evaluate the activities in relation tot the risk of everyday experiences, like driving a car at high speed (Catar, 2006).

There can be concluded that de perceivement of risk is dependent on situational factors, and that people do not seek risk but the experience of sensation.

Catar (2006) states: ‘Although participants are safe in this knowledge of an outcome, there is no knowlegde as to what the experience might feel like, which is where the attraction really lies’. This experience might be so different from everyday experiences, and in combination with an outstanding environmental view the reason for people to participate in extreme sport.

At this point rises the question wheter extreme sport is still extreme without the risks involved. And do the experience and environment make extreme sport different from other sports?

There are also empirical data which raise questions about the theory that the quest for the excitement of sports is an escape from the routines of modern life. If this is the case, and it certainly seems plausible, how can we explain the well-attested fact that the advantaged rather than the disadvantaged members of society are more likely to do and to watch sports? In other words, those whose lives are least routinized, e.g., professionals, are more likely to seek excitement in sports than those whose lives are most routinized, e.g., factory workers. Perhaps the answer lies in the kinds of sports that are popular with different groups of people.

Before people participate in new activities there are two very important elements that must be met. First, people have to be aware of the existence of the activity and the possibility to participate. And, secondly, people have to be in the circumstances that it is possible for them to participate in terms of time, skill, and money. Most extreme sports are quite new and many people are probably unaware of the existence of these activities. By television, advertisments, and stories from friends they become acquinted with the new sports. But before people decide to take part in these sports they have to be in de right circumstances to do so. Most material is very expensive, and there are many sports that cannot be done anywhere. For mountainbiking their have to be tracks or a natural environment, for skiing snowy mountains are needed, for surfing their have to be big waves etc.

People who are looking for these circumstances can probably be called sensation-seekers. Donnelly (2006) point out that the way in which research has been done on extreme sports often only includes the core participants. Their mode of participation has come to be called ‘authentic’ in contrast to the participation of so-called wannabes, posers and nonparticipants. Their relationship with extreme sport is a commercial one. The identification with extreme sport relies for a big part on the adoption of the related lifestyle (Donnelly, 2006). This points out what big influence media, advertisements and groups have on people. And it shows that there are very different kinds of people who participate in extreme sport. Of course this is also the reason why there isn’t a simple answer to the question why people do extreme sport. Extreme sport may be so popular in contrast to other sport because most participants are attracted to the lifestyle, the products and may not even be practising the sport itself.

6. Are extreme sports under influence of the safety-orientated society?

It could be concluded from chapter 5 that there is a safety-orientated society because people are looking for safety. It is not only our society, but people aren’t looking for the risk of death of great physical harm. When there are many people who want to take part in extreme sports, safety has to be guaranteed. But when extreme sport becomes safer, there will be more people who want to take part.

It seems extreme sport has a very succesfull image which has been made by media and companies. Advertisements and the way the media shows extreme sport make it sound very exciting. But these sports also have a lifestyle that is known as chilling and relaxing. Not only the sport itself but also the special places to go for participating in that sport make it also special and exciting.

In this way extreme sport mirrors our safety orientated society. Because the risks have decreased, and physical safety is assured, people can seek their needed thrills and sensation in extreme sport.

Conclusion

Does a safety-orientated society make people want to look for excitement in for example extreme sports?

Our safety-orientated society makes it possible for all kinds of people to seek excitement in extreme sports.

Implications??

Government: If you want excitement then please do an extreme sport instead of experimenting drugs and alcohol because being physically active keeps you healthy and that’s safe!

References

Donnelly, M. (2006). Studying extreme sports: beyond the core participants. Journal of sport and social issues, 30, 219

Elias, N. & Dunning, E. (1986). Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process. Oxford, Basil Blackwell

Fulker, Eysenck & Zuckerman, M. (1980). A Genetic and Environmental Analysis JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 14, 261-281

Highhouse, S. & Yuce, P. (1996). Perspectives, perceptions, and risk-taking behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 65, 159-167

http://www.xtremesport4u.com/extreme-sport/extreme-sport-growing-in-popularity/

http://www.sportbusiness.com/news/143916/surge-in-popularity-of-extreme-sports

Meier, K.V. (1988). Triad Trickery: Playing With Sport and Games. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, XV, 11-30.

Nansen (1927) ‘Adventure’, in G. Breivik, THE QUEST FOR EXCITEMENT AND THE SAFE SOCIETY, journ. Safety science

Potgieter, J., Bisschoff, F., 1990. Sensation seeking among medium and low risk sports. Perceptual and Motor Skills 71, 1203_/1206.

Stranger, M. (1999). The aesthetics of risk. A study of surfing. International review for the sociology of sport, 34 (3), 265-276

Tamboer, J. & Steenbergen, J. (2004). Sportfilosofie. Nederland, Budel: Uitgeverij DAMON.

Willig, C. (2008). A phenomenological investigation of the experience of taking part in extreme sports. Journal of health psychology, 13, 690

Zuckerman, M., 1983. Sensation seeking and sports. Personality and Individual Differences 4, 285_/292.

Zuckerman, M., 1994. Behavioral Expression and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Zuckerman, M. (1979): Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ruch, W. & Zuckerman M. ( ). Sensation seeking in adolescence. Hoofdstuk 1

Student Name: Michelle Trenwith

In no more than two sentences, summarise the abstract which provides an overview of the article’s content.

This journal article engages the findings from interviews of past and present University of Queensland Indigenous students to explore the experiences that either inhibit or enhance their higher education study outcomes. It discusses how this knowledge can be used to enrich their tertiary education experience and increase the participation and completion rates in higher education for these Indigenous students.

In the introduction, describe in your own words the problem which has led to the author’s interest in this area? What is the rationale for the study at the University of Queensland? The problem leading to the author’s interest in this area is the underrepresentation of Indigenous students in higher education enrolments. The author notes that this inequitable underrepresentation can contribute to an exacerbation and continuation of the problems associated with low socio economic status often encountered by Indigenous students. The University of Queensland provides support services to Indigenous students through its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit. The rationale of the study was to investigate the level of success of this unit in supporting Indigenous students and improving their experiences as students of the University of Queensland.

Describe in your own words, the methods for this particular study which can be located under the subheading The Processes. The methods for this study included face to face or phone interviews with current, graduate and non-completed Indigenous students of the University of Queensland. The audio of the interviews was recorded and transcribed before being analysed by computer software to identify the appearance of common themes in the interviews.

A number of themes were identified as part of the findings from this study. The first group of themes refer to inhibiting factors for the transition into and through university. The second group of themes refer to success factors. In your own words, please write one paragraph to summarise the inhibiting factors, and one paragraph to summarise the success factors. The inhibiting factors identified in the study include education, language barriers, socio economic status, and the goals, family and work commitments of the students. The findings indicate that although students are challenged by literacy levels, and balancing academic demands with other responsibilities in their first year of higher education, they received more support during that time. The transition from second to third year of study was shown as an inhibiting factor as the students had greater levels of personal challenges, including health and finances, but received less support.

The success factors identified in the study include family and community support, university support and intrinsic motivation factors. Some individuals interviewed stated their desire to prove to themselves, or others that a successful higher education outcome was possible, both personally, and as Indigenous students. A desire to improve the future for their communities through education was another success factor. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit was successful according to some students as it provided them with a place to go to relax, socialise, receive academic support and the ability to connect with the Indigenous community.

In your own words, describe the main points found within the concluding paragraph ‘Outcomes and beyond’.

The ‘Outcomes and beyond’ section highlights some information gathered from the study and how it is being used to improve the representation levels of Indigenous students in higher education. Some issues were being faced equally by Indigenous and non-Indigenous students, such as motivation and the need for family, community and academic institution support. Indigenous students identified an increased level of obligation to family and community. Many Indigenous students indicated the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies unit played an important role in providing support and cultural connection, but not all students accessed the unit. It is indicated that a greater level of support is required throughout the academic journey, not just in the first year. Two of the outcomes from the project are: a website providing information, direction and resources for Indigenous students, and the introduction of Indigenous Student Relations Officers, collecting data, providing information and support to empower Indigenous students.

Now create an overall summary: summarise the abstract, introduction, methods, inhibiting and success factors, and concluding points from the outcomes and beyond section, in one brief paragraph. This may draw on some of what you have written above.

This journal article engages the findings from interviews of University of Queensland Indigenous students to explore their experiences, either positive or negative, of higher education. These include issues such as language, socio economic status, commitments, family and community support and intrinsic motivation factors. The University of Queensland provides support services to Indigenous students through its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit. The unit plays an important role in providing support and cultural connection, but not all students access the unit. Indigenous students identified an increased level of obligation to family and community and a greater need for increased support throughout the academic journey, not just in the first year. In the future, the unit will provide more information and support both online and in person to meet the academic and cultural needs of Indigenous students.

1.Paragraph for Summarising:

Please summarise this extract from page 158 of the ‘Some Things Never Change: Gender Segregation in Higher Education across Eight Nations and Three Decades’ article

(https://login.ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?qurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.jstor.org%2fopenurl%3fvolume%3d84%26date%3d2011%26spage%3d157%26issn%3d00380407%26issue%3d2) in as few lines as possible, with correct citation:

First, gender differences in higher education are patterned along a humanistic-scientific divide. Indeed, the sociological debate has focused to a considerable extent on female underrepresentation in scientific fields. However, it is not clear whether this divide tells the whole story about gender segregation in higher education…Another well-established finding of empirical research is that gender segregation is a universal feature of higher education institutions…At the same time, previous studies have documented that significant differences between nations exist in the degree of female under- or overrepresentation in specific academic specialities. The balance between cross-national similarities and differences in gender segregation across fields remains an open question.

Answer 1: Now, type your summary below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style).

2.Sections for Paraphrasing:

Paraphrase, with correct citation, the following section from the ‘Some Things Never Change: Gender Segregation in Higher Education across Eight Nations and Three Decades’ article

(https://login.ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?qurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.jstor.org%2fopenurl%3fvolume%3d84%26date%3d2011%26spage%3d157%26issn%3d00380407%26issue%3d2)

to explain what the author/s think/s about gender segregation. Taken from p. 171 of the article:

The analyses presented in this work indicate that gender segregation in higher education has declined surprisingly little in recent decades and that it displays a largely similar level and qualitative pattern in several countries. This basic invariance closely matches the invariance of gender segregation in the labour market. In both respects, there are significant cross-national and historical variations, but they are best described as variations on the same underlying theme.

Answer 2: Now, type your paraphrase below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style).

3. Paraphrase, with correct citation, the following section from page 321 of the ‘Speaking about Cultural Difference and School Disadvantage’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01425690120067953

to explain what the author found from their interview:

Fofoa Safotu suggested that teachers’ ‘lack of understanding about Samoan students’ may have produced strongly insulated boundaries between the category, ‘Samoan student’, and other categories of students. In addition, she stated that discourses on aptitude might have been invoked in the construction of these boundaries, with Samoan students being positioned as ‘below average’.

Answer 3: Now, type your paraphrase below, and include the appropriate in-text citation (Swinburne Harvard Style).

4.Line for Quoting:

Please demonstrate how you would use this line from page 332 of the ‘Speaking about Cultural Difference and School Disadvantage’ article (http://ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/login?url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01425690120067953) as a quotation in a sentence, with correct citation:

Peone Avao and Deso Vailoa indicated that the arbitrary organisation of school knowledge (sequencing and pacing rules) was not designed to meet the needs of students who did not speak English at home, and spoke a form of ‘broken’ English in the school, namely the Samoan learner.

I will outline the strengths and weaknesses of unauthorised sharing of music on the internet, using evidence which I will discuss and summarise.As music has begun to circulate in various material forms, it has become more of a commodity, as it has become more transportable. A large part of this is the use of the internet to share and download music in the form of files.

The ‘information market regime’, a theory evolved by Weick (1995), suggests that a market information regime conveys the impression that the information gathered by the music industry is valid and very important, and that its availability creates demand for its use in interpreting the market. I will touch on this point further in this report.
I will also touch on several resources, both textbook and internet based, which outline theories, practices and articles in relation to the evolution, distribution and contestation of sharing music online.

Advantages of Sharing Music

Although there are few advantages of sharing music online, Caves (2001, p.6) suggests that due to the ‘infinite variety’ of the nature of the creative industries, the multidimensional quality of cultural products makes it hard to predict what audiences will like. It’s ‘multidimensional nature’ means that it is valued in a variety of ways by listeners across different places and is modified by musicians in new ways. This means that although unauthorised music sharing can make it difficult to log and track patterns in the market and predict what audiences will like, it does not hinder this process as it is already difficult to measure the market and its demands.

Although there are difficulties in predicting cultural taste, ‘pre-testing’ may be used. In terms of the music market, pre-testing is ‘a form of research carried out before production is complete and major resources have been committed’ (Banks, Barnett and Mahendran, 2012). With music pre-testing, a single song from an album may be shared with a select audience to review and give feedback. This means that the song may be shared across a wider audience by unauthorised means, however, as no major resources have been committed, the musicians do not lose profit and their reputation may grow because of the song being shared. By having a wide range, the chances are that the albums produced will become ‘hits’, meaning that these will more than cover the costs lost by unauthorised music sharing.

Despite internet based forms of distribution meaning that music becomes shared illegally, it also means that the information regime is transformed as music companies can gain more direct knowledge of the market through their own download websites and websites that allow music audiences to post information about music tastes, such as what they like and dislike (Walsh and Mitchell, 2010).

The article written by Miller (2012) says that ‘lots of people seemingly don’t have any problem with downloading pirated music. In fact, 70% of online users say they find nothing wrong with online piracy, and 63% of users admit to doing some illegal downloading. So, while music piracy may be illegal, it’s ‘socially accepted’. This suggests that although piracy is illegal, it has become more socially acceptable, despite the risks of websites being closed and frequent users facing bans.

Disadvantages of Sharing Music

There are many disadvantages of the unauthorised sharing of music on the internet. As music has begun to circulate in various material forms, it has become more of a commodity, thus has become more portable. A large part of this is the use of the internet to share and download music in the form of files. However, music is being shared by unauthorised internet users and websites which can have detrimental consequences.

For example, it is difficult to measure market trends in the creative industry, which means that recorded music turns over quickly and must be measured by trends in existing sales – by logging both physical and virtual sales. These markets are characterised by uncertainty, meaning that commercial activity is shaped by the need to predict and manage this uncertain demand. This can be tricky if music is being shared in an unauthorised way as it means that the music trends recorded will not be accurate so may hinder actual music sales. Baharat and Peterson (2000) suggest that the information generated by this market research reflects existing tastes and helps to construct the market.

The ‘information market regime’, a theory evolved by Weick (1995), suggests that a market information regime conveys the impression that the information is valid and very important, and that its accessibility creates demand for its use in understanding the market. However, this suggests that information regimes typically take the form of sales reports, and ‘hot selling’ items, which makes this ‘predict and provide’ method invalid due to music being shared in an unauthorised way online, as it means all sales are not recorded, thus meaning the figures are inaccurate.

As we can see in the article written by BBC Blogs, Waters (2009) suggests that sharing music illegally online causes significant damage and means that artists from different backgrounds are not being paid for their professional work, saying that up to ‘800,000 jobs in the creative industry may be threatened – almost half of the entire industry’. However, the government is being advised to force internet providers to place a ban on frequent file sharers, meaning more of a consequence may be put in place.

The article written by Ernestro (2015) agrees with Waters (2009) as it suggests that a strategy has been put in place to ‘curb’ online piracy by sending warnings to frequent file sharers and ‘alleged pirates’. This warning programme is part of the Creative Content UK (CCUK) initiative which is hosting a series of educational campaigns, called “Get it right from a Genuine Site”, encouraging people, especially young people and students, to steer clear of ‘pirate’ sites and to use authorised, approved services instead, thus meaning that copyright holders and industry employees are not facing the detrimental effects that illegal file sharing causes. The initiative intends to measure the consumption of legal and illegal consumption of content in order to create and use statistics as a way of deterring piracy.
The article written by PRS for music (2015) provides more depth into the aims and views of the “Get it Right from a Genuine Site” campaign, especially as it suggests that the ‘1.7 million employees of the creative industries’ may be at risk of job loss due to unauthorised file sharing. It is vital that they are protected from both transgression and copyright so that more can be invested into creating new content for fans to appreciate. Whilst the article largely outlines the disadvantages of piracy, it could be advantageous as it’s encouraging people to ‘make the right choice’ rather than issuing sanctions.

Conclusion

To conclude, the disadvantages of unauthorised file sharing massively outweigh the advantages. Whilst it is advantageous in terms of testing the market for trends and demand, unauthorised file sharing can have some detrimental effects on the creative industries.

The educational campaign, “Get it right from a Genuine Site”, is clearly seeking to reduce piracy and creative industry employees losing both money and their jobs, by aiming to educate the public about unauthorised file sharing to encourage them to use licensed services to share and download music. The campaign has been using a promotional ‘hashtag’ on social media sites to attempt to spread their message. It may be worth further considering the CCUK campaign and their resources when organising your week of debate and raising awareness around internet use.

The article written by PRS for music (2015) mostly outlines the disadvantages of unauthorised sharing of music on the internet. Neville-Rolfe, the Minister for Intellectual Property, suggests that the campaign is helping to improve the UK’s economy and culture, simply by encouraging people to download from genuine sites. This can then help to ensure that by protecting and promoting the future of entertainment that it can help the industry to grow and expand as opposed to shrinking and losing money because of job losses and infringement.

Overall, it is clear to see that there are many disadvantages of unauthorised music sharing, which heavily outweigh any positives there may be. I hope you have found this report useful in outlining the advantages and disadvantages of sharing music online, and that it will be beneficial in creating a week of debate on this topic around good practice and safe internet use.

References

Adorno, T. (1945) ‘A social critique of radio music’, Kenyon Review, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 208-17.

Anand, B.N. and Peterson, R. (2000) ‘When market information constitutes fields: sensemaking of markets in the commercial music industry’, Organization Science, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 270-84.

Banks, M., Barnett, C. and Mahendran, K. (2012). The Uses of Social Science. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p.19.

Baulch, E. (2003) ‘Gesturing elsewhere: the identity politics of the Balinese death/thrash metal scene’, Popular Music, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 195-215.

Baulch, E. (2008) Making Scenes: Reggae, Punk, and Death Metal in 1990s Bali, Durham, NC, Duke University Press.

Caves, R. (2001) Creative Industries: Contracts between Art and Commerce, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.

Clifford, J. (1986) ‘Introduction: partial truths’ in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G. (eds) Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, Berkeley, CA, University of California Press.

Clifford, J. (1992) ‘Travelling cultures’ in Grossberg, L., Nelson, C. and Treichler, P. (eds) Cultural Studies, New York/London, Routledge.

Douk Saga – Sagacite (16 May 2007) YouTube video, added by missyolga [online], www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGQlXbe2pq4 (Accessed 23 November 2012)

Ernesto (2015) ‘UK anti-piracy “education” campaign launched, quietly’, TorrentFreak, 1 December

Eternal Madness -Gila Sepanjang Masa (11 February 2011) YouTube video, added by PRASASTY666 [online], www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxOH3DXRHas (Accessed 15 August 2012).

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures, New York, Basic Books.

Gronow, P. and Saunio, I. (1998) An International History of the Recording Industry, London, Cassell.

Gupta, A. and Ferguson, J. (eds) (1997) Culture, Power, Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology, Durham, NC, Duke University Press.

Informa Telecoms & Media (2010) ‘Pop is still king of the world’s music genres’, Music & Copyright’s Blog, 11 August [online], http://musicandcopyright.wordpress.com/2010/08/11/pop-is-still-king-of-the-world%E2%80%99s-music-genres/ (Accessed 15 August 2012).

Katz, E. and Lazarsfeld, P. (1955) Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication, Glencoe, IL, Free Press.

Miller, M. (2012). Downloading Pirated Music: Pros and Cons | | Que. [online] Quepublishing.com.
Available at: http://www.quepublishing.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1946755 [Accessed 7 Feb. 2017].

Ortner, S. (1995) ‘Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 173-93.

PRS for Music (2015) ‘Get it right – safeguarding the UK’s creative industries’, PRS for Music, 23 October

Scannell, P. (2007) Media and Communication, London, Sage.

Steil, L. (2011) ‘”Realness”: authenticity, innovation and prestige among young danseurs afros in Paris’, in Toynbee, J. and Dueck, B. (eds) Migrating Music, London, Routledge.

Walsh, G. and Mitchell, V-W. (2010) ‘The effect of consumer confusion proneness on word of mouth, trust, and customer satisfaction’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 838-59.

Waters, Darren. “How Damaging Is Illegal File Sharing?”. BBC. N.p., 2009. Web. 28 Jan. 2017.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was the greatest French philosopher and sociologist and is recognized today as the father of the Sociology. Durkheim did various investigations in different fields such as labor, suicide, religion, etc. Four of his major books: “De la Division du Travail Social (The Division of Labor in Society), “Les Formes Elementaires de la vie Religieuse” (The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life), “Les Regles de la Method Sociologie” (The Rules of Sociological Method) and “Le Suicide: Etude de Sociologie” (Suicide: A Study in Sociology) are regarded as a the foundation of further sociological studies. Randall (1975) suggested that Durkheim was the first one who used empirical method correctly in scientific field (Randall, 1975).

Durkheim’s third major work, the book of “Suicide” was first published in 1897, which aimed to explain suicide rates. Taylor (1982) suggested that prior to Durkheim’s study , suicide act was regarded as individualistic, which rose of individual psychological tendencies (Taylor, 1982) Durkheim’s “Suicide” challenged the popular academic views and claimed that suicide is a social phenomena, which depended on social causes and it is collective in nature. In his book Durkheim (1951) also rejected statistical data as a source of suicidal rates explanation and argued that official statistics only represented the notion of officials opinions of phenomena’s motives and concluded that suicide occurred due to imbalance of social integration and moral regulation, either being too high or too low (Durkheim,1951 ). According to Durkheim (1951) suicide” in all death cases results directly or indirectly from negative or positive act of the victim, knowing that the suicide act will produce this result” (Durkheim, 1951:44).

In his book “Suicide” Book One Durkheim first analyzed extra social factors: psychopathic states, normal psychological states, cosmic factors and imitation. Durkheim (1951) examined suicides of the insane suggested by Jousset and Moreau de Tours such as maniac suicide, caused by delirium and hallucinations, where an individual killed himself to escape from imaginary danger; melancholic suicide, caused by extreme depression and sadness, where a person committed suicide due to loss of reality of relationship to others and environment; obsessive suicide, caused by obsessive desire to kill himself, where an individual’s suicide occurred without any real cause; impulsive or automatic suicide, caused impulsive death wish and statistical evidence and concluded that there was no link between suicide and mental illness. To back up his findings he proposed, for example, that women were more likely to be mentally ill compare to men, 54-55 and 46-45 respectively, while suicide data showed that men were among the first to commit a suicide; mental illness among Jews was highest compare to other religions such as Protestantism and Catholicism, however suicide rates showed the opposite in relation to Jews (Durkheim, 1951). According to Hassard (1995), Durkheim eliminated insanity as a cause of suicide because French philosopher claimed that insane individuals had no motive for such acts (Hassard, 1995). Durkheim (1951) also rejected alcohol consumption from suicides and stated that substance abuse had no correlation to suicide rates. He further placed an example of alcohol consumption and suggested that in France substance consumption was low, however suicide rates were high and therefore substance abuse had no link to suicidal tendencies. Philosopher postulated that heritage also, had no connection in vital role for suicide and questioned the fact if it was, it should then affected both sexes, while his research findings suggested that suicide rate was rare among children compare to parents (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) stated that there was no correlation between suicide and geographical area or time of year. In his findings he highlighted that suicide rates, for example: varied- in the beginning of 19 century rates were highest in the north of Italy, while by the end in the south of Italy.; during the warm periods were higher compare to the cold months; more suicides were committed during the day compare to the night time, however, claimed that day length had no correlation to suicide rates. Finally, he eliminated imitation and pointed out that the term of imitation associated unexplained repetitions of the actions which occurred in individual’s presence and stated that if suicide could become epidemic, it should have been then reflect statistical data of suicide on geographical basis (Durkheim, 1951).

Having rejected the above ideas Durkheim turned, in the following chapter of the book, to explain social causes and social types of suicide. The father of sociology proposed four main types of suicide.

Egoistic suicides, he claimed ,occurred as a result of low social integration, which resulted due to excessive individualization and suggested that individuals with weak social bonds had little social support and guidance, and therefore suicide continued on increased basis. Durkheim (1951) compared suicide rates among Protestants, Jews and Catholics and founded that protestant suicide rates were higher compare to other religion representatives. As an explanation, he suggested that the cause of suicide rates could be founded within the nature of religious confession itself. For example, Jews lower suicide rates accounted to the response of the hostility towards them and therefore their minority status forced them to achieve greater unity and social integration, which eliminated individual differences. While Protestants suicide rates were related to its spirit of free inquiry, in other words, Protestants were allowed a greater freedom of thought and had fewer commonly accepted traditional values and practices. Durkheim (1951) argued that once these commonly accepted beliefs and practices were declined, they could not be re-established. Durkheim (1951) concluded that religion protected individuals from self destruction, because it was considered as society itself; the existence of common practices resulted into stronger integration, which eliminated suicide tendencies. Family and political societies had the same effect, as philosopher claimed. Data examined by Durkheim showed that married couples had lower suicide rates compare to unmarried ones, because the role of the family integrated individuals in collectivity, which especially was true to those who also had children, because larger families provided immunity to suicide. Similarly, during social disturbances such as war or revolutions, suicide rates declined due to increased of collective sentiments such as patriotism, national faith, which encouraged stronger social integration for the single cause. According to Durkheim (1951), suicide rates varied inversely with the degree of integration, where suicide act was seen as a result of egoistic detachment from society itself, where individual recognized no common rules, just private interests (Durkheim, 1951).

Altruistic suicides occurred in societies with high integration, where individuals needs compare to communities was less important. Durkheim (1951) claimed that here collective consciousness was too strong which forced individuals into suicide. Author further acknowledged that such suicides mainly occurred in primitive societies such as native Americans, Indians and grouped such suicides in following subcategories: obligatory suicide, occurred due to feeling of duty, mainly by men who were old or ill, women after husband’s death, servants and followers after masters death; optional suicide, which occurred out of sense of honor or prestige, where even minor offence or jealousy leaded someone to suicide; and acute suicide, which was based upon spiritual and mystical beliefs (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) placed an example that altruistic suicides occurred in civilized societies. He insisted that suicide rates in army reached an epidemic level when solders killed themselves due to unjust punishment, honor, jealousy, refusal to leave, or just because of other suicides which they have witnessed in their presence. However, researcher also acknowledged us that suicide rates depended on the rang: non commissioned officers and officers suicide rates were much higher compare to private ones cause, the mentioned above, had to give up much more of their individuality in order to adapt to requirements of military life and therefore made them more vulnerable to such acts (Durkheim, 1951).

Anomic suicides, author claimed, were related to low degree of regulation by society. Such suicides occurred during the periods of economic depression or economic expansion because of disturbances of the collective order. During such events, individuals were mis leaded with their role and place in society, and such state of dysfunction, as Durkheim (1951) highlighted, resulted into acts of destruction, including suicidal killings. Dysfunctions in regulative powers of society resulted in individuals’ disappointments because they had little control over their own passions and desires. However, poverty on other hand, as Durkheim claimed, protected individuals in a way, because such state was a restrain in itself because human’s desires depended on the resources, while wealth made individuals suggest that they could depend more on themselves (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) also argued that anomie also rose from a disruption of marriage. Philosopher saw marriage as a social regulation both of physical and moral instinct. Divorce, on other hand, was seen as a source of weakening of matrimonial regulations. As an example, he illustrated men suicide rates of widowhood and divorce and suggested that the rates were higher due to individuals’ inability to adapt to sudden changes of a loved one loss or a lack of regulation which marriage provided. However, he claimed that this was not true in a women’s case and highlighted that any regulation for them was a constrain, and therefore divorce only freed them (Durkheim, 1951).

The fourth type of suicide, fatalistic, was only briefly mentioned by Durkheim, because he considered it as rare. He proposed that such type of suicide resulted in case of excessive regulation, which related to oppressive discipline. The examples of fatalistic suicide were included slavery and childless wives (Durkheim, 1951).

In his study Durkheim (1951) claimed that different social conditions could affect individual at the same time producing combined suicidal effects. For example, egoistic and anomic suicide may have some resemblance because both victims of suicide were unregulated by society. Similarly, anomie may also be related to altruism (internal despair), and egoism and altruism could combine their influence (Durkheim, 1951).

Suicide phenomena, as Durkheim (1951) noted in his last chapter of the book, is socially constructed, which independent of individual. He claimed that collective tendencies, which determine suicide, have their own social and moral mind, so therefore they were external to the individual. Author argued that for example, murder and suicide, which might seemed to be alike were therefore not related, because murder felt into different type compare to suicide, because it rose from different causes. He argued that social regulation and integration were vital in society, and suggested that if society over regulates or under regulates individuals; suicides would result from such states. French sociologist claimed that the true solution to this problem was to create greater moral closeness within individuals (Durkheim, 1951).

However, Durkheim’s book of Suicide was a subject of criticism. Douglas (1970) claimed that Durkheim’s explanations of suicide were very confusing, unsystematic, and difficult in interpretation and included contradictory theoretical arguments. He further suggested that many of Durkheim’s vital statements have different meanings to many sociologists today. He highlighted that the greatest weakness in Durkheim’s work was his fundamental ideas, which he had before hand and argued that he, used these ideas to adjust within statistical facts and to demonstrate their validity. Firstly, researcher claimed that his ideas of egoistic and anomic suicide could be seen in works of the romantics and statisticians at that time, with which French philosopher was associated. Secondly, postulated that Durkheim purposely rejected the current approach of testing data theories in order to establish his morphology of data and causes. Thirdly, it was argued that Durkheim’s observations of suicide were insufficiently objective and inconclusive in nature (Douglas, 1970). Harris (2003) argued that Durkheim’s analysis missed the influence of alcohol abuse among suicidal individuals. Researcher suggested that substance abuse was an is a vital problem of the society in relation to suicide rates because such suicides mainly occur and occurred due to loss of close relationships and because of the addiction itself (Harris, 2003). Van Tubergen et al (2005) argued that today community norms are not the primary source of suicide prevention between believers and non-believers and highlighted the tendency that Durkheim analysis of religion impact on suicide decreased and suggested that risk of suicide should not be based on differences between Protestants and Catholics ( Van Tubergen et al, 2005). Researchers further questioned Durkheim’s thesis how religious societies control individual’s behavior in relation to suicide and argued that every individual is unique with his/her feelings, motives and intentions and therefore human’s behavior cannot be totally predictable (Van Tubergen et al, 2005 ). Taylor (1982) also expressed concern about the accuracy of suicide rates and suggested that for example, due to lack of evidence, the statistical data of suicide rates is unreliable and therefore cannot be accurate and valid (Taylor, 1982). Douglas (1970) highlighted the fact that Durkheim positivistic approach, in relation to suicide rates, changed to idealistic one during his research mainly because, as researcher proposed, to reaction of his methodical incompetence to accurately examine empirical evidence (Douglas, 1970).

Durkheim’s study of suicide rates also made an impact on criminology discipline. Bryant (2003) highlighted that Durkheim’s method of collection and comparison of suicide rates laid a foundation for future analysis of crime statistics. Author further argued that sociologist developed concept of anomie, which occurred due to lack of sense of social regulation, laid foundation of Merton’s anomie theory. Researcher suggested that Durkheim’s study of suicide questioned a lot of historical misconceptions which involved suicide. He further stressed the fact that historically suicides were considered as criminal acts and the dead bodies were subject to “tortures” in order to stop anyone from copying the act (Bryant, 2003). Bryant (2003) argued that Durkheim showed that suicides were not all in criminal nature, as well as not individual phenomena but insisted that instead it was a problem concerned the whole society (Bryant, 2003). According to researcher, Durkheim’s findings not only simplified the people’s understanding towards suicide but also advanced the study of sociology to a greater level of acceptability.

After more that hundred years, “Suicide: A Study in Sociology”, still remains the most well received book in sociology. Durkheim’s pioneering work, on statistical calculation and comparison of suicide rates and realization of effects on some variables which had to be controlled, contributed to emerging new body in sociology. A point of interest to note is that the causes of suicides still remain more or less the same in the modern times. People continue to commit suicide for a similar reasons such as: wars are still fought in the modern days and the solders march ahead to the war fields to commit altruistic suicides; terrorists willingly commit altruistic suicides for their community and religion; similarly, modern depression sees a number of people committing anomic suicides; the 21st century is seeing also an increase in divorce rates leading to suicides as people feel troubled after the breakup; the race to beat everyone in the game of materialistic affluence also results in disconnection of relationships with the close ones leading to an increase of anomic suicides. As Bryant (2003) pointed out that ” thus, for those individuals committed to reason, suicide may indeed be a matter of pragmatic thinking rather than a moral issue, in some instances, suicide may be a reasonable alternative to living” (Bryant, 2003 :317).

For decades it has been debated that humans’ intelligence, behavior, and socioeconomic status are determined by the surrounding environment a human grows up in rather than the genealogical history they are born with. While humans may inherit physical traits from their biological parents, there is no reason genes should affect intelligence or behavior. It can be argued that human intelligence and behavior is passed down generations through genes, but there is evidence countering such theories. I firmly believe that humans come into this world as a blank slate and that behavior is formed as well as influenced by the surrounding environment in which they are raised. I will present both sides of this argument and provide both scientific and personal evidence. While both sides hold valid claims and possess good supporting evidence, the nurture simply more logical. This commonly known argument is known as the debate between nature and nurture.

In this debate, nature argues that behavior and intelligence are affected genetically and that a person is able to maintain their mind’s ability solely through what they are born with. Those backing this belief in this case are known as nativists. Nativists in one way or another assume that human characteristics as a whole are a product of evolution. This debate only began over a century ago when Charles Darwin brought up this theory between the environmentalists and nativists. Darwin’s cousin, famous English scientist Francis Galton (1822 -1911), believed that intelligent families brought up intelligent children. Galton was the most famous explorer of human intelligence and made important contributions to criminology, physical anthropology, and meteorology. He made the most significant contributions to both psychology and genetics. Galton was convinced that intelligent humans came from families which possessed other intelligent family members. Professions of art, science, and politics often ran in those families that he observed. Galton theorized that people had the potential to produce a highly gifted race of men by “judicious marriages during several consecutive generations” (Neill, “Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence”). He called this eugenics. He also argued that intelligence was bred and not trained, siding with nature. Though arguably, Galton was raised through means of great wealth as his father Samuel Tertius Galton was a prominent banker. His family contained rich bankers and gunsmiths. There is no doubt that his family had easy access to high education. In his time, good education and the idea of attending a great college usually happened to wealthier folks. So it could instead be said that intelligent humans actually came from families who possessed great wealth and were actually able to afford a quality education.

After World War I, several psychologists started to reconsider their nativist views and sought intelligence to be influenced through environment rather than through genealogical history. At the time African Americans were given IQ tests to compare with that of whites for a mass study. The end results showed that African Americans from Illinois scored higher on IQ tests than whites from nine other southern states. Through this analysis some scientists found it difficult to make peace with the basic idea that whites were intellectually superior to blacks. Evidence soon seemed to support a closer link between intelligence and social class, rather than race and intelligence.

Following in the 1960s, the focus of an individual pertaining to hereditary studies began to shift towards social determinants. The idea started to move away from the nature and genetic outlet to the environmental and nurture end. In this case, nurture refers to the surrounding environment. Environment plays a huge factor as it may be the air we breathe, water we drink, food we eat, people we speak to, people we see, etc. Parents aren’t the only aspect of environment. There is also the surrounding culture. After this general idea began to be widespread, America reformed its public education and improved poor living conditions with welfare in order to better the environment. Talk of nature playing a role in contributing to any individual differences, especially intelligence, became minimalized through the present political stance. However, evidence of the differences in intelligence between racial and socioeconomic groups did not dissipate.

In 1994, the Bell Curve controversy began. Richard J. Herrnstein’s and Charles Murray’s “The Bell Curve” swung the idea of nature back into the minds of the general public. This 800+ page book re-ignited the nature vs. nurture debate and generated massive controversy in sociology, education, psychology, and politics. It implied that an individual’s intelligence, which was partially inherited from both biological parents, would determine that individual’s socioeconomic background and future life experiences. So it claimed that your IQ could determine your job, annual income, education, criminality, relationships, and socioeconomic status. Now this is where the debate gets really heated. Readers from the left viewed the authors as racist scientists, un-American, and the book as a complete joke. Then you have the readers on the right seeing the authors at brave, powerful and respectable scholars.

The nurture end of this debate claims that the behavioral differences and psychological characteristics that emerge from infancy to childhood are the simple result of learning. It leans towards the idea of how a human raised and nurtured affects solely the psychological aspect of childhood development. The only thing that biology here has to do with this is with the physical maturation of the human. Those with strong views on nurture in this debate are known as environmentalists. Environmentalists believe that the human mind at birth arrives into this world as a blank slate and that future actions along with personality and intelligence are gradually nurtured as a result from experience. Intelligence is very important to this debate. Nativists say that differences in intelligence are determined through means of certain “smart genes” that are being passed down generations -wealthy ones at that, if anything.

Some environmentalists believe that differences in intellectual ability are a result of certain social inequalities relating in access to opportunities and material resources. For example, if a child is raised in a ghetto neighborhood, the likelihood that they will earn a good score on an IQ test is rather low because they were denied the exact same life chances that other more privileged members of society had. This is why the nature vs. nurture debate gets heated, and it’s understandable too, because what starts as an attempt to understand how the neighborhood that a child is raised in or the public school that they attend is able to determine the causes of behavioral differences can sometimes get into a politically motivated dispute about distributive power and justice in society. Thankfully I was raised in a nice neighborhood that consisted of friendly neighbors and calm locals. I had a good friend who lived two houses down and we would go to the same school together almost every day. His parents had college degrees and earned a good average living. I always thought he would turn out to be something big since he was very bright. Later I guess he moved in with his aunt in some other town because his mom and dad were fighting and arguing a lot. They ended up getting a divorce I figured, as the home he used to live in began to welcome moving trucks at the garage door. Last I saw him, we were both 12. The next time I saw him was when I turned 17 and it was on the local county news. He had assaulted a liquor store clerk and attempted to rob the place for a gang initiation. I wasn’t so sure it was the same person because of the generic name until it was later confirmed through Facebook that evening. I looked through at his location, friends, and education and not surprisingly, he had moved to a very low income neighborhood that held a bad reputation that was located nearby downtown. So how could it have been that such an environmental shift affected his lifestyle so drastically? He befriended gangsters and he lost interest at the public school that he attended nearby. When we were younger we went to the exact same school and lived in the exact same neighborhood. I surely did not turn out that way. I can’t think of any one of my neighbors who had such a tragic change like that happen to them and affect them harshly. I always said that it was merely his environment.

If parents talk, read, and listen to their kids, then they tend to do well academically and are very bright. If parents provide firm and flexible rules, then their children tend be to be well behaved. If parents treat their kids harshly then they tend to be anxious, aggressive and stressed out. A child can also acquire bad habits from their surrounding environment. Today in society, our environment isn’t just about our families and friends. We have cellphones, television, music, and social networking which influence us in different ways. Today’s youth is just a button away from sending a text message, searching the internet, or turning on the television.

To conclude, the debate between nature and nurture consists of two ideas, both with much supportive evidence and criticism. The belief that nature is responsible for human intelligence, behavior and socioeconomic status is interesting, but does not convince me that those characteristics can be inherited. All I can see inherited are merely physical traits that appear through maturity. Nurture seems more plausible as it brings up the idea that a human’s surrounding environment affects not only its intelligence and behavior, but its social life as well. This debate is still very current today as scientists battle over how much human intelligence and other behavior are determined by genes and how much by the environment.

The aim of this research proposal is to put forward a review of sexual harassment at workplace. Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination that violates Human Rights to equality in workplace. It is indeed very unfortunate to know that such an issue is still happening in an unrestrained manner today.

In this section, sexual harassment will be first defined. Moreover, emphasis will be laid on the main issue of this research, that is, sexual harassment at work. Finally, we will examine how and why harassment occurs and the possible solutions to combat this issue at the workplace. We are targeting better understanding on how to provide a holistic perspective to sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is a wrongful conduct. It should not be tolerated in the workplace. Sexual harassment refers to unwelcoming sexual behaviour. It includes physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature, unwanted sexual advances, sexist remarks, demands or requests for sexual favours and showing pornography. It is true that every individual has the right to life, liberty and equality. This is guaranteed by the country’s Constitution, which is considered to be the supreme law of that country. In the Mauritian Constitution for example, sections 3-19 highlight the protection of human fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual. Section 16 precisely protects individuals against discrimination. It is extremely important for employers as well as other responsible persons or institutions to observe certain guidelines to ensure the prevention of sexual harassment at work. Indeed, to live with dignity is a human right guaranteed by our Constitution.It is the duty of the employer in work places to prevent or deter the Commission of acts of sexual harassment and to provide the procedure for the resolution, settlement or prosecution of acts of sexual harassment by taking all steps required.

Studies show that mostly women are victims of sexual harassment and unfortunately very few seek redress and little has received encouraging actions (Chaudhuri P. 2006). For instance, there has been a case in India. In 1985 where a woman, named Shehnaz Sani had been dismissed from her job because of wilful negligence. In fact she had complained of sexual harassment from her employers. She was surely granted legal protection and she was also given her previous job. On the other side, however, her harassers which in this case revealed to be her employers, appealed to the Bombay High Court. Consequently, they were granted a stay as well (Chaudhuri P. 2006 adapted from Staff reporter, Tribune, 7 December, 1998; Namita Devidayal,Times of India, 29 November 1998).

Moreover, there is another case where a female employee in a company in Hyderabad. She complained that she was being repeatedly sexually harassed by her supervisor. Her case was being followed by a woman representative from the Head Office of the company (based in the US). Indeed, the harassment was proved but unfortunately, the female employee was seen as a trouble maker. Consequently, she was compelled to resigned and she didi not even benefit from any monetary compensation. In fact, the harasser had great power, authority and influence and hence he was immune to all types of disciplinary committees. He continued to work in the same organisation (Chaudhuri P., 2006 adapted from Kumar, 2003). Moreover, it has been seen that complaints of harassment are very often dismissed as a “trivial matter” and not officially recorded (Chaudhuri P., 2006 Adapted from Sanhita, 2006).

As we can see, these cases prove the fact that among the few cases that women report, there is very less chance of obtaining positive support against sexual harassment. Moreover, the already existing committees have not been able to prove their efficiency- relevant actions are, most of time, not taken against the harasser, especially if he is influential.

In this context, it is not wrong to say that laws should be designed against sexual harassment to protect the employee from the boss, from co-workers or even customers at work. In 2001, Mauritius had taken a step to combat sexual harassment. Indeed, on the 21 March, the Mauritian Minister, who was at the head of the Ministry of women’s affairs and child development and family welfare had publicly promulgated a legislation to impose limitation against female sexual harassment. The aim was to break the silence on subjects which prevented the woman from enjoying her rights. The women were encouraged to denounce such acts. It is true that sex discrimination laws are very effective and efficient in curbing sexual harassment at the workplace.

Sexual harassment can either be Qui Pro Quo or Hostile environment (Hunt C.M et al, 2008). Qui Pro Quo highlights the fact that the harasser explicitly or implicitly make sexual request in exchange for some desired results. However, on the other side, hostile environment explains that sexual harassment occurs when the victim is faced with unwelcome conduct based on his or her sex. Such behaviour can be verbal, non-verbal, visual, or physical. This creates an uncomfortable, intimidating, hostile, or offensive work or learning environment.

Prevention is the most effective way to deal with sexual harassment (Sung, 2008). Preventive measures include adopting sexual harassment policies; provide training and establishing complaints processes. All these together help to curb the occurrence of sexual harassment at workplace. A company can also prevent sexual harassment by sponsoring trainings (Sung, 2008 adapted from Bordeaux 2002; Raphan &Heeman, 1997). These training may help employees in dealing with sexual harassment and its consequences. Furthermore, the channel for complaints encourages victims to complain and report and consequently, this will discourage harassers from continuing with their unwanted behaviours.

Problem statement

It is true that no occupation or profession is safe from sexual harassment (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). Sexual harassment continues to be a prevalent issue in workplaces. The frequency shows the seriousness of the problem and also the urgent need to eliminate it.

Studies have shown that women are more prone to sexual harassment (Mathis et al., 1981). There might be several explanations in relation to this statement. Long ago, women were seen as second class citizens. They were victims of gender disparities and female subordination at all levels. They were seen as poor, burdened and loaded with difficulties in the male dominated societies. They were uneducated; hence they were not eligible for white collar jobs. They were able to occupy positions like market women or tea sellers ( Abdel Hamid et al, 2009). Furthermore they were unaware of their rights to equality. Consequently, they were sexually harassed in ways like dirty language and jokes imposed on them while doing work. They had to face sexual harassment mostly every day from noisy customers. The lack of education compels the women to bear these harassments without being able to do anything. They did not know about their rights and the relevant laws.

Another factor which triggers sexual harassment is the values and customs which arise from cultural beliefs. Some cultures support the fact that men occupy superior position than women. The latter, hence, find it normal and accept that men hold condescending entitlements. This highlights gender disparity which in turn, encourages sexual harassment of women. In such situations, female victims choose to remain silent because they know that they will never get justice.

However, even today, despite the fact that there has been emancipation of women, where the latter have become educated, self expressive and aware of laws, there is still sexual exploitation of women. . However we cannot turn a blind eye also to the fact that although less frequent, men can also be victims of sexual harassment. Several studies have revealed that women are also sexually harassing men. Furthermore, nowadays we also find the same sex harassing each other, men harassing men and women harassing women respectively. The majority of cases on sexual harassment which have been reported and brought before the Courts in different countries still show that sexual harassment happens when a person who is in a very powerful position uses his particular position to harass others who are in a vulnerable position. In other words, this would imply that someone who is at the top of the ladder uses his power to continuously trouble another person who is at the bottom of the hierarchical ladder of the organisation. Various international organizations, trade unions, women’s associations and other pressure groups have revealed that sexual harassment is becoming an alarming situation, especially in the field of employment (Crucet et al, 2010).

On the whole sexual harassment affects an individual’s employment, interferes and disturbs the performance. Consequently, an intimidated, offensive and hostile environment come into play. There is a negative impact on productivity as there will be more absenteeism and loss of valuable staff as a result of dissatisfaction at work, low self esteem, frustration and loss of trust. Studies show that apart from causing economic harm, sexual harassment can also have a negative effect on the human psychology. Victims may suffer from various complications like insomnia, depression and loss of interest in the family (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). Whether public or private sector, sexual harassment can be very humiliating and this may lead to health and safety problem. (Chaudhuri P., 2006)

Aims and objectives

The research proposal seeks to investigate the actual situation of sexual harassment at workplace. There are myths relating that sexual harassment occurs mostly to older people because of their economic vulnerability (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). It is also true that sexual harassment is not necessarily limited to sexual desire and physical attractiveness because sexual harassment is used to bully and intimidate the victims. Hence, we can see that no one is safe from this issue. Consequently, the aim of the research is to make people, whether young or old, experienced or inexperienced, new or old to have a better understanding of this issue so that they will be able to combat it effectively if ever they are found in a difficult situation.

We are also aiming to show the reasons, how and why sexual harassment occurs. We are also investigating in the possible consequences and solutions available to combat this issue. It is true that sexual harassment will not halt by simply ignoring it. On the contrary, this ignorance will encourage harassers to continue and even excel in their wrongdoing. We will even try to highlight the fact that when sexual harassment occurs, it is the duty of the employer to protect and support the victims. Studies and journals show that more women are prone to sexual harassment than men. Our study is also aiming to know whether this finding is correct or not.

Moreover, through this study we are trying to know about the company’s policy against sexual harassment and to know whether laws are strict enough to curb sexual harassment. Organisations should reinforce laws for the prohibition of sexual harassment. The latter should be regarded as an offence in workplaces and raise awareness of appropriate disciplinary measures that will be taken against the offender. Indeed, many public and private organisations have not even set up complaints committees. Impartiality in these committees is highly recommended to halt sexual harassment. For example, a third party representative from anti sexual harassment organisations can sit in the committee.

Furthermore, the purpose of our study is to highlight the fact that companies need to have disciplinary measures which will help in reducing sexual harassment and avoid future incidents of this nature in the work place. Discipline should act as a catalyst in the prevention and gradual elimination of sexual harassment. It should be clear to workers that this type of unethical behaviour will not be tolerated at work. There should be different rules to deal with different situations. For example, where minor cases of sexual harassment are concerned, the harasser can be reprimanded and warned. However, in extreme cases, severe disciplinary actions like termination, demotion, reduction of wages, suspension, transfer or reassignment should be taken without any hesitation (The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1999).

Methods

Everyone uses information to make decisions about the future. If the information is accurate, there is a high probability of making a good decision. However, if the information is inaccurate, our ability to make a correct decision is diminished. It is true that better information leads to better decision.

Information can be either primary or secondary. Primary data refers to information collected for the specific purpose at hand. On the other hand, secondary data refers to information that already exists to be used for another purpose. In the course of our research, we have made use of both primary and secondary data. Secondary data has been in the form of books, journals and articles from the internet. Our measuring instrument to assess primary data is a written questionnaire.

There are different ways to get primary information. Some of them are: personal questionnaires, talking with people, telephone surveys, E-mail and internet surveys, experiments, focus groups, observation among others.

Research approach- Questionnaire

For the purpose of our research we have opted for personal questionnaires. Indeed the questionnaire is the most efficient way for getting comprehensive information for the study. This method involves interviewing other persons for personal or detailed information. Typically respondents will be required to voluntarily participate by answering questions on the written questionnaire which is simply a list of topics that the research wants to discuss on a certain specific issue. Here, the working people will be asked to determine the factors that influence sexual harassment at the workplace, its nature, how and why it occurs and the possible solutions to this problem.

It is true that internet surveys are the fastest method to carry out surveys. However they might be biased because the results might not be representative of the whole population. Moreover, talking with people is also another way of collecting information but it is more appropriate for business purposes where customers and clients interact with each other for business transactions. Telephone surveys are a bit like questionnaires but the only difference is that it occurs orally. However, we did not consider this option as we know, the working population are very busy with their work loads and they will not bother to give importance to surveys carried out on the telephone. A written questionnaire has a greater impact than the telephone surveys and people will be able to express themselves better.

At the end of the questionnaire, there was another part which was included to gather demographic information of each respondent. It is good to note that their confidentiality and anonymity will be assured. However, if they will refuse to participate, they will be free to do so.

Research Approach- Interview

Apart from gathering quantitative data from the questionnaire, we are also looking forward to collecting qualitative data by interviewing some Human Resource Professionals within both the public and private sectors to know about the actual state of sexual harassment in the workplace. Interview has been chosen as a research method because it is very reliable as we as researchers will be physically in front of the respondents and we will be able to guide them about how to better fill in the questionnaires. However, the disadvantage of this approach is that it might be quite time consuming.

Sampling

In order to draw conclusions about large groups of individuals, researchers normally study a small sample of the total population. A sample is a limited number of units that closely represents the characteristics of a total population. The purpose of the study is to select representatives of that population.

Samples may be chosen by two different methods:

Probability- including simple random, stratified, cluster and systematic sampling.

Non probability- including convenience, judgmental, quota and snowball.

For the purpose of our study, we have opted for probability sampling. we find that stratified sampling best suits the needs of our research. We will first of all, divide the working population into 2 stratum, that is, private and public sectors. From a total of 22 public ministries and 10 public companies, we will then use simple random sampling to choose 6 ministries and 6 public companies. We are expecting responses from 60 employers and employees, 30 being from the public and 30 from the private. Our survey is targeting workers at all levels and all departments (management, administration, operational, IT). Such a sample is very convenient to satisfy the mission of the research.

Moreover, we will also use convenience sampling for the sake of conducting our interviews. We will select a total of 12 people to interview, 6 being from the public sector and 6 from the private.

Benefits of the research

Indeed, this research is going to be beneficial for a large segment of people. First of all, it will be highly relevant to the working population, both from the public and private sectors. As we have seen earlier, we are targeting employees from both public and private companies. They will be given a broader view of what sexual harassment actually is, how and why it occurs and also how to combat it effectively.

Furthermore, it is also going to be very relevant to future working populations, that is, to university students who will soon be graduating and eventually having their first steps in employment. Indeed, being new and inexperienced, these fresh graduates normally take some time to adapt to the working environment. Additionally, if they have problems relating to sexual harassment, the first option that they will consider is to resign from their jobs. But this is surely not the best solution. Instead, if they should be taught to better understand the issue and how to curb it within the working environment.

Budget Analysis
List of expenditures
Equivalent Cost (Rs)

Stationery- Paper, paper clips, pens, cover page

100.00

Travel expenses

180.00

Questionnaires (61)

244.00

Black printing

20.00

Coloured printing for cover page

20.00

Binding

35.00

Electricity and Internet costs

155.00

In the social sciences, a detailed analysis (or case study report) is a distinct, exploratory or illustrative dissection of an individual, assembly or occasion. An informative research endeavor is utilized to investigate causation so as to discover underlying standards. Careful investigations may be probable (in which criteria are created and cases appropriate the principles are incorporated as one get accessible) or review (in which criteria are made for selecting cases from chronicled records for consideration in the study).the research endeavor methodology displayed is an observational analysis that explores a contemporary issue inside its genuine connection. Comprehending the issue and its answer obliges incorporating a heap of commonly subordinate variables or bits of proof that are liable to be assembled in any event incompletely by particular perception. In spite of the fact that a normal meaning of careful investigations exists, one may experience different sorts of detailed analyses. Keeping in mind the end goal to make clear to which sort of careful investigation the presented strategies for learning reconciliation ought to be connected, we will quickly portray distinctive sorts of research endeavors. A definite survey of research endeavors is given by Yin (1989). A critical refinement must be made between all-encompassing and implanted detailed analyses (Yin, 1994:291). A comprehensive careful investigation is formed by a completely qualitative approach that depends on account, phenomenological depictions. Subjects and speculations may be imperative however ought to remain subordinate. This paper focuses on the instrumental case research methodinvolving ADHD and management of the obesity. The instrumental case research method looks at a particular situation with the aim of understanding the situation.

As a research method, instrumental research focuses on providing insight into issues or help to redefine a theory. According to Yin(1994: 285), it offers secondary interest that plays a supportive role

The case is of auxiliary investment; it assumes a steady part, encouraging our comprehension of something else. The case is frequently taken a gander at in profundity; its connections examined, its normal exercises definite, what’s more on the grounds that it helps the analyst seek after the outer investment(Bennett and Elman, 2006: 250). The case might be seen as commonplace of different cases. The capacity to take a gander at sub-units that are arranged inside a bigger case is effective when you consider that information might be investigated inside the subunits independently (inside case dissection), between the distinctive subunits (between case investigation), alternately over the sum of the subunits (cross-case investigation) (Chetty, 1996:73). The capacity to participate in such rich investigation just serves to better enlighten the case. The entanglement that learner analysts fall into is that one break down at the singular subunit level and neglect to come back to the worldwide issue that one at first set out to address (Yin, 2003).

As a review of the instrumental case study method, the paper focuses on the Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder and the Clinical Management of obesity (Pagoto& Curtin et al 2012: 83)

The study adopted the following abstract:

‘Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been associated with increased risk for obesity and obesity treatment failure. The present paper discusses how features of ADHD, including inattention, reward sensitivity and impulsivity, may impact obesity risk and have implications for the management of obesity. In addition, we review emerging research on how obesity may contribute to brain changes that are associated with ADHD-like symptoms. Finally, suggestions for improving the clinical management of obesity in patients with ADHD are discussed, including pharmacological treatment, exercise and cognitive behavior therapy. ADHD is a barrier to the clinical management of obesity and more research is needed to further understand the link between ADHD and obesity. Effective treatment approaches are needed given the significant difficulty patients with ADHD encounter in their attempts to regulate their weight in the contestof obesogenic environments.’(Pagoto& Curtin et al 2012: 83)

The research offers a summary of the effects of ADHD on the management of obesity. The research seeks to identify the management of the weight and food habits of the patients. The barrier of the management of the obesity is a fertile ground for further studies. The research question of the study is:

Do Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder raise the risks on the management of obesity thus increasing the risk of obesity?

The research methods embraced in the study incorporate the utilization of medicinal records which incorporate a dissection. The agenda of mediation typologies which distinguishes the later rules with respect to administration of corpulence in ADHD children. A rundown of essential intercession is recognized in the careful investigation zone that accommodated the concurred foundation. The information on the distinguished intercession is gathered through work area based research and meetings of the stakeholders in the industry. The intercession dada from both meetings and work area based data and a snowballing procedure are utilized to populate the mediation system that backings the dissection and guaranteed the consistency of data gathered in the careful investigation.

The findings of the study incorporate the danger variable of ADHD for both heftiness and stoutness medication disappointment. The study found that obliviousness, reward affectability and impulsivity are characteristics of ADHD that help of indulging consuming pathology, poor adherence to structures endeavors to get more fit and expanded powerlessness to obesogenic situations. Clinical intercessions are offered where the clinician is relied upon to note that the experience above normal trouble in association, observing toward oneself, arranging, and individuals with ADHD is higher. This makes the individuals endure poor observing in the safety of sustenance allurements and consistency.

The normal, or common, case (above) is regularly not the wealthiest in data. In illuminating lines of account and connection it is more functional to select issues that offer an intriguing, uncommon or especially uncovering set of circumstances(Johansson, 2003). A case determination that is dependent upon representativeness will sometimes have the ability to transform these sorts of experiences. The point when selecting a subject for a research endeavor, specialists will subsequently utilize data arranged testing, instead of arbitrary examining. Outlier cases,which are amazing, degenerate or atypical, uncover more data than the conceivably illustrative case(Gruber and Wallace, 1999:115). Then again, a case may be chosen as a key case, picked due to the characteristic investment of the case or the circumstances encompassing it. Then again it may be picked as a result of scientists’ in-profundity nearby information; where analysts have this neighborhood learning one are in a position to “douse and jab”, and along these lines to offer contemplated lines of demonstration dependent upon this rich information of setting and circumstances (Stake, 1978:8).

Whatever the casing of reference for the decision of the subject of the careful investigation (key, outlier, nearby learning), there is a qualification to be made between the subjestorical solidarity through which the hypothetical center of the study is continuously seen. The item is that hypothetical center – the logical casing (Stake, 1978:8). Past choices about case choice and the subject and object of the study, choices requirement areto be made about reason, approach and process in the detailed analysis(Young, 1939). It is therefore proposes a typology for the careful investigation wherein reasons for existing are initially recognized (evaluative or exploratory), then methodologies are outlined (hypothesis testing, hypothesis building or illustrative), then methods are settled on, with a vital decision being between if the study is to be single or numerous, and decisions additionally about if the study is to be review, depiction or diachronic, and if it is settled, parallel or consecutive. It is consequently conceivable to take numerous courses through this typology, with, for instance, an exploratory, hypothesis building, different, settled study, or an evaluative, hypothesis testing, single, review study. The typology hence offers numerous stages for research endeavor structure(Yin, 1994:290). A nearly related study in drug is the situation report, which distinguishes a particular case as treated or inspected by the creators as exhibited in a novel structure. These are, to a differentiable degree, like the careful investigation in that numerous hold audits of the important written works of the subject talked about in the intensive examination of a cluster of cases distributed to fit the rule of the report being exhibited(Yin, 1989). These case reports could be considered satchel studies with a central exchange of the new, introduced case within reach that introduces a novel investment.

Bibliography

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. 2006. Complex causal relations and case study methods: the example of path dependence.Political Analysis, 14 (3), pp. 250–267.

Chetty, S. 1996. The case study method for research in small-and medium-sized firms.International small business journal, 15 (1), pp. 73–85.

Gruber, H. E. and Wallace, D. B. 1999. The case study method and evolving systems approach for understanding unique creative people at work.Handbook of creativity, 93 p. 115.

Johansson, R. 2003. Case study methodology.

Pagoto, S., Curtin, C., Appelhans, B. M. and Alonso-Alonso, M. 2012. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Clinical Management of Obesity.Current Obesity Reports, 1 (2), pp. 80–86.

Stake, R. E. 1978.The case study method in social inquiry.Educational researcher, pp. 5–8.

Yin, R. K. 1992.The case study method as a tool for doing evaluation.Current Sociology, 40 (1), pp. 121–137.

Yin, R. K. 1994.Discovering the future of the case study method in evaluation research.Evaluation Practice, 15 (3), pp. 283–290.

Yin, R. K. 1989. Case Study Research: Design And Methods (Applied Social Research Methods) Author: Robert K. Yin, Publisher: Sage Publicat.Sage Publications, Inc.

Young, P. V. 1939. The Case-Study Method.Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Racism and Ethnicity are two well known subjects in the academic world. Although not a popular choice of study Racism and Ethnicity can be found in Multicultural education, Sociology, Economics, to name just a few. Although used in the same way, Racism and Ethnicity are very different. The purpose of this essay is to define and provide examples of racism, institutional racism, and individual racism. I will also focus on the impacts that these forms of racism have on those who are on the receiving end of racism.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines racism in two meanings: One, “the belief that there are characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to each race” and two, “discrimination against or antagonism towards other races”. Ethnicity on the other hand has three meanings: One, “relating to a group of people having a common national or cultural tradition” two, “referring to origin by birth than by present nationality: ethnic Albanians 3. “relating to a non-Western cultural tradition: ethnic music. (Oxford Dictionary: rev 2009). The word “race” has been around for several hundreds of years. At first it was used to describe an extended family through the generations, then as times passed it referred to large groups of people that were not family yet shared the same cultural practices and traditions, values and demographic location. When the Europeans made contact with people outside their homeland (America, Asia and Oceania) they would put people into categories that would show differences between their culture and those who were “new” to them. These categories according to Pearson were what Banton (a writer on Evolution) called “Selectionist theories of evolution”. (Pearson:1990). Banton argued that a person’s “physical appearance (phenotype) and/or inbuilt genetic makeup (genotype) explained human thought and action’ (Pearson: 1990) and it was then acceptable for people to define people on a “scale of attributes, from inferior to superior, from primitive to superior” (Pearson: 1990) all of which has made many a scientist question the world and how it is breaking up people into different races.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries a hierarchy was formed where those who were black (dark skinned) would be at the bottom and those who were white (fair skinned) wee at the top. Those who had dark skin were considered less educated or uneducated, simple people who were best suited to jobs that involved physical and manual labour. A white person, notably a white male middle class male, had intelligence, held down a job in managerial role and was financially far better of than those of dark skin. This was known as “racial essence, to determine the abilities of a person or a group” (Study Guide: Unit 6). By the mid twentieth century, the study of genetics was becoming a turning point in humanity. Rather than focussing on a person’s skin colour, it became more acceptable that having good access to food, education, clean water, and healthcare contributed to the development in human beings. Pearson (1990), argued ethnicity is “what people do” (Study Guide: Unit 6) and demonstrated this by quoting a set of definitions by Anthony Smith with reference to ethnic communities.

Ethnic communities have:

– a “collective name

– a “common myth of decent”

– a “distinctive shared culture”

– “an association with a specific territory”

– and a “sense of solidarity”

This is defined in Pearson’s article as an ethnic community “as a named human population with shared ancestry, myths, histories, and cultures having an association with a specific terroritory and a sense of solidarity” (Pearson: 1990).

Institutional racism focuses on a group of people who are often more “dominant” than other groups and choose to criticise another group for being like second class citizens in particular “radically inferior” (Pearson:1990) that allow a more dominant group to dictate to the less off group “where they live, what language they speak, what school they attend, what job they acquire, how they are treated by the police and the courts, how they are portrayed by the media, and what form of political and legal representation they have to recourse to” (Pearson: 1990). Thus, those who are part of the more dominant group can dictate how the less dominant group can be used and have the racist beliefs and actions placed upon them. An example of instutional racism is prominent where there are often two or more different ethnicities. In South Africa for example, “judicial rules and regulations discriminating against black persons are a clear case point (Pearson: 1990). In New Zealand however, there is no such thing as discriminatory legislation and policies and practices are usually unintentional than discriminating towards one another.

Individual racism on the other hand is more personal and is targeted at individuals rather than a group of people. Also known as personal racism, Brislin identifies four types of individual racism:

1. Intense racism – “the belief that certain people are inferior, and hence are perceived as being of low worth.

2. Symbolic racism- Dominant groups “feel the the out group is interfering with important aspects of the culture- creating problems”.

3. Tokenism- Dominant groups prove that they have engaged in “token activities to prove that they have even handed the treatment of other races”.

4. Arm’s length- People engaging “in friendly positive behaviours towards out group members in some social settings but treat them the same out group members with noticeably less warmth and friendliness in other settings”.

Brislin(2000).

Kenan Malik argued that individual racism “imprisons those who are subjected to it while strengthening Western cultures”. Orientalism, which Malik quotes is a “dualism between the east and the west and the Orient and has helped to define ‘other’ “which people can see is different and excluded in race relationships.

In summary I have defined and provide some examples of racism and ethnicity and outlined the concepts of institutional racism and individual racism. By focussing on these examples we can be sure that racism affects people either as a nation or are subjects of individual attacks. By being aware of these prejudices, it is important to understand that we should not feel more superior to one another just because of the colour of someone else’s skin. Racism is in many parts of the world and although it appears for many reasons, it should be addressed so not to damage a particular culture or a person’s identity.