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Introduction

This study examines the complex strategic dilemma faced by Portsmouth City Council, in its popular bid to save its two landmark Grade II listed theatres. This complex journey continues to involve a diverse range of stakeholders, the majority of which are highly attached to Portsmouth’s theatre heritage. The ‘Two Theatres for Portsmouth Project’ was clearly hugely challenging from the outset and was hampered by lack of effective strategic planning, limited funding, changing consumer trends and its ever developing, successful competitors. The project has taken the council into conflict with stakeholders as well as into significant debt and the future of Portsmouth’s beloved theatres is arguably no more certain than when the dilemma began in 1999.

Strategy Overview

In 1999, due to changing consumer behaviour trends and increased competition for Portsmouth’s live theatre industry, Portsmouth Council developed its ‘Two Theatres in Portsmouth Strategy’. The project budget was to be stretched across two different theatres, offering quite different entertainment products and targeted at different audiences. Originally this strategy aimed to fill an ambitious 2,000 seats per week, all year round.

Strategy elements:

Kings Theatre – 1,500 seating capacity
Focus on major popular entertainment products including for example musicals and major UK touring productions.
Set up as a non-profit theatre trust in 2001, this theatre was managed by the company ‘Kings Theatre Southsea Limited’ until its bankruptcy in 2003

The New Theatre Royal – 500 seat capacity
Focus on smaller commercial productions such as experimental drama.
Theatre also managed by ‘Kings Theatre Southsea Limited’

Funding for the project was a seriously contentious issue from the outset. It focused on possible grants from The Heritage Lottery Fund and The Arts Council of England. Although worth millions, these grants would not cover the further estimated ?4 million required for essentials such as putting disabled access in place and installing new lighting systems. These significant costs would need to be met by Portsmouth City Council. It is important to note that although The Arts Council did agree to provide grants amounting to several million pounds for this stage of the project, no money was actually released.

From the case study evidence, it seems unlikely that Portsmouth Council would ever have been able to meet its financial commitments to the two theatres project. For example, its leisure budget was already under heavy pressure from existing approved projects including a new swimming pool and the City museum. These initiatives represented an expenditure of ?13 million over five years. Ultimately such financial pressures would put the two theatres project in danger.

Little consideration seems to have been given to how the two ailing theatres were going to attract sufficient audiences in order to secure viability. For example, no specific market audiences were targeted; instead hopes were pinned on Portsmouth’s existing core group of loyal theatre goers. From the outset, key players in the project recognised this group was insufficient to fulfil commercial needs or to enable the two theatre strategy to become sustainable and profitable. Nevertheless, the problem was not tackled.

The initial two theatres strategy positioned The King’s Theatre as Portsmouth’s main commercial theatre, which would attract major touring companies and bring in the most revenue possible. This aim was unrealistic as the theatre was unable to cater for such touring companies as its facilities were so out of date and insufficient – it was therefore unable to fulfil its basic purpose. Furthermore, two of The King’s Theatre’s nearby competitors (Mayflower in Southampton, Festival Theatre in Chichester) were already able to attract such artists with vastly superior facilities, which did not need heavy investment. It can therefore be argued that even a renovated, updated King’s Theatre would be unable to compete with key local rivals.

It was doubtful that the Portsmouth strategic plan was ever going to break even with the city subsidy of only ?135,000 per year. It is important to note that a quarter of this annual subsidy could be risked in one week alone, through the practice of offering guaranteed revenues to attract large scale productions to The King’s Theatre. Although officially no direct explication was given, the offering of such risky guarantees was one of the most likely factors behind the bankruptcy suffered by the limited operating company in March 2003. Other additional factors included the consistent inability to reach the audience capacity target of 70% as well as management’s lack of financial control of the project.

Eventually the Council was forced to consider making a complete U-turn and pull away from its original two theatres strategy altogether, with its new plan to sell off The King’s Theatre and direct its limited funds towards The New Theatre Royal. This plan would commit the Council to a more manageable annual subsidy of ?130,000 per year to be backed up with ‘other’ significant funding which remained to be confirmed. However, ultimately this plan was rejected and the Council voted to keep both theatres going under subsidy, for a further three years.

2008 Situation

After major interior restoration work, funded by the Council and a separate restoration appeal, The King’s Theatre reopened and enjoyed a well-supported programme of live theatre. The New Theatre Royal is also doing relatively well although it has suffered staffing issues.

The Portsmouth Theatre Dilemma in detail
Pestle Analysis
Political factors

Portsmouth’s theatres are run by the local city Council but are operated within limits and guidelines as defined by national government

The Council is run by Councillors, who are elected local politicians. The Council has some element of choice in managing its arts provision including how it allocates its limited budget for such activities

The threat of closure for The King’s theatre became a major political pressure for the city Council

The Council was hung and there was little enthusiasm from councillors, to take locally unpopular decisions to, for example, close the King’s Theatre

Economic factors

Portsmouth City Council has an annual budget of ?200 million from which to draw funds for supporting its arts activities such as the theatres

Insufficient restrictive funding for the modernisation of the two theatres was provided by for example, The Heritage Lottery Fund. Portsmouth Council and its citizens were also required to raise a further ?4 million, in order to top up grants

Portsmouth is a major tourist venue supported by major employers including IBM and its European HQ

In the past, arts activities including live theatre, have been underfunded in Portsmouth

Sociological factors

The total population of Portsmouth is over 170,000

In line with general UK trends, the public are consistently turning away from live theatre in favour of more ‘fun’ entertainment options including nightclubbing

The spread of mass car ownership opened up the competition to include other theatres and rival venues from outside Portsmouth

Technological factors

To become competitive, significant investment in updated operational technology is needed by both theatres

The New Theatre Royal was partly destroyed by fire and so has extremely limited operational facilities. For example, the theatre is unable to accommodate even basic large scale scenery.

Legal factors

Both theatres remain at least partly un-modernised and out of date and could therefore arguably fall short of legal requirements such as current health and safety measures etc.

Bankruptcy of the theatres management company in 2001, threw doubt on the entire viability of the two theatres project

Environmental factors

The King’s Theatre is particularly poorly situated in Portsmouth

Porter’s Five Forces
Degree of rivalry

According to The Arts Council for England, Portsmouth’s two major theatres did not appeal to the specialist niche markets which it needed to reach, in order to become viable. Key rival theatres and other venues within reach of the city were far better positioned to fulfil the needs of these markets.

Portsmouth city itself provides fierce competition for its theatres, these rivals include numerous comedy and night clubs, sporting venues and The Guildhall Concert Hall

Supplier power

The Arts Council for England, a major funder of the arts provision in Portsmouth, did not agree with the ‘Two theatres for Portsmouth’ strategy from the outset. Funding and support for the project was therefore difficult to obtain

Threat of substitutes

The Arts Council for England warned Portsmouth Council that there was insufficient consumer demand for two major theatres in the city. This would suggest that there was a significant flaw in this strategy from the beginning.

Buyer power

With the advent of mass car ownership and the trend towards more accessible ‘fun’ pastimes, live theatre still finds it challenging to compete and attract audiences. Customers now have far more choice as to how, where and when to spend their money on live entertainment.

Barriers to entry

Funding for the two theatres project was stretched from the outset and so it can be argued that the project was always going to be financially fragile

On top of initial investments on acquisition of the theatres, Portsmouth Council also initially needed to raise around ?4 million to top up possible funding grants for its project

Experts in the field of arts development such as The Arts Council for England predicted that the theatre market would be particularly tough for Portsmouth and that niche target marketing would be needed for strategic success. This advice seems to have been ignored by the theatre management in Portsmouth.

SWOT Analysis
Strengths

Although much diminished since its heyday n the 1950’s, Portsmouth still has a devoted live theatre audience

Both theatres are historically much loved, Grade II listed arts venues

Weaknesses

The King’s Theatre was re-launched in 2001 but its subsidiary commercial operating company was unsuccessful and became bankrupt only 2 years later

Portsmouth’s loyal live theatre audience still exists but is much diminished and is not sufficient to fill the 2,000 seats needed each week, for the ‘Two Theatres for Portsmouth’ strategy to be financially viable and sustainable

The flagship King’s Theatre, although an impressive Grade II listed building is poorly located, away from the city centre, with inadequate parking facilities

Portsmouth’s two theatres were unable to compete on ticket price with key rival theatres. For example, King’s tickets sold for up to ?10 each with Southampton and Chichester theatres averaging a ticket price of up to ?14.

The Portsmouth population’s interest in live theatre has clearly dwindled over time. For example in 1950, the city boasted four live theatres which were so popular that they were full every performance night. By the end of 1990’s only two major theatres remained plus a smaller arts theatre which was relocated in 2003 due to lack of funding.

Opportunities

Portsmouth’s ‘ two theatres strategy’ has the public’s backing

Leading decision makers such as former Council leader Frank Worley, publicly recognised that Portsmouth is a city with cultural ambitions and thus a desire to support cultural activities (such as live theatre)

Threats

Both theatres require substantial investment in order to modernise them and to enable them to compete with successful rivals such as The Mayflower Theatre in nearby Southampton. For example, The King’s Theatre initially required an investment of up to ?13 million and The New Theatre Royal required ?5 million.

Key competitors include the large, modern and well located city centre theatres based in nearby Southampton and Chichester as well as popular local town venues and numerous Portsmouth based rival live entertainment venues

The development of mass car ownership has enabled once faithful Portsmouth theatre goers, to travel to competing theatres

Other forms of entertainment have become more fashionable than live theatre – these include television as well as nightclubbing. The trend for more ‘serious’ entertainment as offered by live theatre, including opera, drama and ballet, are on a continual downward spiral.

Following bankruptcy in 2003, The King’s Theatre still carried over ?200,000 of debt

Councillors are elected politicians which can arguably be swayed by vote winning policies rather than by purely altruistic objectives, such as keeping theatre alive in Portsmouth

An Arts Council for England study argued against the two theatre policy from the outset, claiming that there was simply not enough customer demand to support two theatres in the town. The Arts Council wanted Portsmouth to focus its resources on the smaller New Theatre Royal which was in a stronger city centre location.

Ultimately lack of funds could force the sale of the well-loved King’s Theatre, to a brewery chain

Conclusion

Portsmouth Council’s two theatre strategy seems to have been doomed from the start. It is clear from the case study evidence that the strategy was financially unsound with wholly insufficient funding. Expert advice was ignored by the theatre’s management and obvious strategic measures, such as targeting niche audience markets and putting together a strategy to compete effectively with stiff growing competition, were left un-tackled. The strategic mismanagement of the project forced Portsmouth City Council to make two entire strategic U-turns in the space of only four years. Although both theatres are currently operating, it is clear that they still face an uncertain future.

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Introduction

The aim of this report is to analyse the current situation of McDonalds as an organisation in the UK market and to evaluate their current sales decline. The primary focus is to provide a detailed analysis of the organisation and its position in the UK market, developing a link between declining sales and the overall shift in consumer behaviour. The report initially provides an overview of McDonalds as an organisation. This is followed by a detailed evaluation of the firm’s current position in the market which links back to why sales are declining for the firm and what are the root causes for this in the business. This is followed by a recommendations section which develops a ground up strategy for the organisation to improve its performance in the UK market.

McDonald’s Overview

McDonald’s UK is part of the larger group called McDonald’s, which operates in over 100 countries. The organisation reported a revenue of $33 billion in 2014 and has over 400,000 employees worldwide (McDonald’s Annual Report, 2014). As an organisation the firm operates over 36,000 outlets which is more than any other retailer across the globe. Before moving on, it needs to be highlighted that while McDonald’s operates with a global ‘menu’, the organisation also develops bespoke products for some of the markets based on demand in the region (BBC, 2014).

McDonald’s in the UK

McDonald’s is a well-known fast-food brand in the UK. It operates at over 3000 locations and has seen growth over the past 10 year (McDonald’s Annual Report, 2014). However, recently, McDonald’s across the globe and in the UK highlighted a consistent decline in sales. Millington (2014) states that McDonald’s has reported a drop in sales by 4% in the UK, which highlight that the firm is not on the same growth path as it used to be. Similar article was published by Bold (2015) where the author highlighted that the growth pattern of McDonald’s has stopped and the firm, for the first time in 45 years, is re-structuring due to a rapid decline in sales. This is critical for a firm that operates at a global scale, a 4% drop is effectively billions of dollars that the firm is unable to convert. Neilan (2014) states that from an earnings point of view the overall decline is GBP 3.8billion which is a significant number.

The Cause of this Decline

While the previous section clearly highlights a downward trend in McDonald’s market share in the UK, it is important to examine the overall cause of why this is happening. Doyle and Stern (2006) state that the UK market is one of the most rapidly declining fast food industries in Europe. This indicates that there is a change in trend within the market that is impacting the fast food business the market.

Research conducted by Long et al (2014) states that one of the major reasons as to why there is a sharp decline in fast food consumption is obesity. The core notion here is that over the past 8 years more cases of obesity have been reported by the NHS than that in over 50 years (Pieterman, 2015). This is critical as health services often term ‘junk’ food as a cause of the obese society in the UK. McDonald’s being one of the main suppliers of fast food is directly impacted by this change and stance by the NHS. The UK government has highlighted obesity as a high risk to individual’s health this was backed by the NHS (Nutrition and Food Science, 2012). This is one of the major factors that has impacted the McDonald’s market share and declining sales.

Another important aspect linked with the loss in revenue and sales is associated with the fact that there is a shift in consumer behaviour towards fast food. Bernhardt et al (2012) state that an average UK individual is now 4 times more conscious of what they are eating from a health point of view. This clearly highlights that users now tend to look for healthy food options, which has a direct impact on the sales and revenue of McDonald’s. Hence consumer behaviour plays a vitally important role in the current position of McDonald’s in the market. There is also a consumer shift that is focused away to healthier fast food chains. Bloomberg (2015) highlights that 4 out of 10 individuals that skip McDonald’s move on to buy a Subway meal as they consider it a healthy alternate to McDonald’s.

Another important aspect that is linked with the lack of sales is the inability of the firm to innovate and diversify. McDonald UK’s menu has not changed over the past 50 years, and this has a direct impact on the buyers and how they perceive a firm from an innovation as well as a development point of view. While McDonald’s strategy has worked over a period of time, it is clearly showing signs of its limitations with rapid decline in overall business revenue.

Finally, another important aspect linked with the decline of McDonald’s is negative promotions through social media. Kotler and Keller (2012) highlight that the advent of social media means free information flow across the market. Regardless of the authenticity of the data, information on social media has a direct impact on business sales. McDonald’s is often termed as the fast food chain that only cares about revenue and not about consumer health, and social media has spread this aspect on a large scale. (Neilan, 2014) This therefore impacts the consumer buying behaviour and negatively impacts the sales of McDonald’s in the UK market.

All in all it is clear that the decline of the organisation in the UK is linked to the change in market conditions, consumer behaviour and a shift towards healthy living. It is also evident that McDonald’s is highlighted as an organisation that is only working for its own good and hence its inability to innovate is clearly visible in the process.

Recommendations, McDonald’s

The previous section of the report clearly highlighted multiple elements that need to be considered by McDonald’s in order to improve its current situation in the UK market. Keeping the discussion in context, it is critical that viable recommendations for the business are developed in order to improve the sales performance of the organisation. In order to develop a new model and to improve the overall position of the organisation in the market, it is recommended that McDonald’s launches a new product line called ‘McDonald’s Health!’ as discussed below.

McDonalds Health: healthy Fast Food for the Masses!

One of the primary reasons linked with the rapid decline in sales for the business is the perception and the overall type of food served by the business. This food is classified as ‘unhealthy’ by various individuals and organisations. Keeping this in context, it is recommended that McDonald’s starts a new product which is under the umbrella of the current organisation. The idea here would be to develop a unique product line focused on the healthy aspect of the market. Keeping this new product line a focused segmentation, targeting and positioning strategy is discussed in the table below.

SegmentationMcDonald’s health will be segmented through the current geographical positions of McDonald fast food chains. The idea would be to start with the areas where sales have declined the most and launch the product line focused on geography as well as behavioural segmentation in order to target the most ‘health conscious’ areas of the country.
TargetingThe target market for this new product line will be individuals that are health centric. The main driving force here would be behavioural targeting which impact the consumer buying behaviour significantly. The idea would be to develop a viable path to brand awareness through a focused target market consisting of individuals that look for healthy food.
PositioningAs it stands McDonald’s is positioned at the affordable end of the market. This is often highlighted as one of the major USPs of the firm. However, McDonalds Health will be targeted at the mid-tier end of the market, which would effectively mean that the brand will be considered a ‘premium’ option as opposed to McDonald’s current offering.

The STP analysis highlights that McDonald’s health will effectively be a premium, health version of the current brand, with a menu that is based around the concept of having healthy fast food.

After highlighting the STP strategy it is now important to define the overall promotional strategy of the new product line. Hooley et al (2012) state that promotion forms one of the most important components of developing a viable business footprint in the market. Two key aspects will be used to promote the new brand:

Traditional awareness market campaigns will be launched to enhance the overall visibility of the brand in the market. The idea would be to move into different malls in the form of kiosks, which would offer free tasters and highlight key features. This, along with a collaboration with various health agencies to certify the product as healthy will be used to promote the product line across the country.
The second core aspect that needs to be highlighted here is linked with the development of a social media marketing approach which builds around healthy living. The idea here would not be to promote the product line or the sub-brand, but to link with real world scenarios and push it on social media as a story. The call out for this campaign will be #mchealth which is linked directly with the newly launched product line.

This approach would allow the organisation to develop a viable path to promote the firm offering and therefore enhance the overall standing of the organisation in the market. Keeping this in context, it is now important to develop the marketing mix for the business (product line) as shown in the table below:

ProductPlace
The new product line will include a menu consisting of heath centric options. The idea would be to have a product line that is not only effective but also has a positive impact on the brand itself.The pricing structure of the product line will be different from the current approach. This product line will be placed at the mid-tier end of the market, hence falling in the semi-premium range.
PlacePromotion
The product line will be sold through normal McDonald locations. The idea would be to start off with a few locations and build a hype around this, before moving towards a wider audience.Promotionally the core aspects are promotions through both traditional and non-traditional means. This would mean the focus would be on social media as well as creating awareness through traditional means.

The end goal of this re-launch, or upgrade to the brand, is to effectively provide consumers with an option. The first step towards the development of a sales enhancement model is about making sure that the consumer perception and the buying process is enabled for the new product lined. With a health centric approach the idea is to provide a viable path for the development of a shift in the consumer thought process towards McDonald’s.

Conclusion

Overall the report provides and in-depth analysis of why McDonald’s as a firm is witnessing a decline in its current market share. This highlights that the organisation due to its inability to cope with the changes in the market is unable to react to the changing consumer behaviour towards fast food chains. It is also clear from the analysis that the organisation needs to re-vamp its current position in the market in order to develop a viable footprint. To do this it is recommended that a health centric product line is launched which would allow the organisation to focus on the shifting trends in the market. Coupled with effective marketing, McDonald’s UK should be able to steer its sales back to the required position.

References

BBC (2015) McDonald’s global sales continue to decline, Available from:

Bernhardt,M. Mays,D. and Hall,A (2012) “Social marketing at the right place and right time with new media”, Journal of Social Marketing, Vol. 2 Iss: 2, pp.130 – 137

Bloomberg (2015) McDonald’s US to shrink for the first time in 45 years, Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/11797531/McDonalds-US-to-shrink-for-the-first-time-in-45-years.html

Bold, V. (2015) McDonald’s reports falling global sales, with performance partly buoyed by UK, Available from: http://www.marketingmagazine.co.uk/article/1330795/mcdonalds-reports-falling-global-sales-performance-partly-buoyed-uk

Clive Long , Arleen Rowell , Anita Gayton , Elizabeth Hodgson , Olga Dolley , (2014) “Tackling obesity and its complications in secure settings”, Mental Health Review Journal, Vol. 19 Iss: 1, pp.37 – 46

Doyle,P. & Stern,P. (2006), Marketing Management and Strategy, Harlow: Prentice Hall,

Hooley,G. Piercy,N.F. & Nicoulaud,B. (2012) Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning, Harlow: FT Prentice-Hall

Kotler,P. & Keller K. L. (2012), Marketing Management,14th Edn London: Prentice Hall

McDonald’s Annualreport (2014) Available from: http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/content/dam/AboutMcDonalds/Investors/McDonald’s%202014%20Annual%20Report.PDF

Millington, A. (2014) McDonald’s looks to pared-back UK menu to arrest global sales decline, Available from: https://www.marketingweek.com/2014/12/11/mcdonalds-looks-to-pared-back-uk-menu-to-arrest-global-sales-decline/

Neilan, C. (2014) McDonald’s to restructure after “significant decline” in sales, Available from: http://www.cityam.com/1413895152/mcdonalds-review-and-restructure-after-significant-decline-sales

Nurtrition and Food Science (2012) “Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention”, Nutrition & Food Science, Vol. 42 Iss: 6, pp.458 – 458

Roel Pieterman (2015), Obesity as Disease and Deviance: Risk and Morality in Early 21st Century, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Vol.44 Iss:1, pp.117 – 138

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Does the Company Educate its Consumers or Does it Serve a Unique Market Segment?
ABSTRACT

In the current retailing market, Hennes and Mauritz AB (H&M) remains a unique phenomenon in part due to the observable difference in the behavior of the company’s customers. This study evaluates two theories attempting to explain the deviation in H&M customers’ behaviour-patterns. The first theory suggests that the customers’ behaviour is attitude-bound and learned-taught through the customer-company interaction. The second theory argues that H&M customers belong to a genuinely unique market segment. The researcher surveyed 160 shoppers at H&M and one of the department stores and used a grounded-theory approach to analyse the data. The results substantiated the first theory claiming that shopping behaviours were taught and learned. The study had an important practical value. However, its results were subject to l reliability and validity threats; thus, further research would be required to confirm the findings.

I. INTRODUCTION

The issues of consumer relationships have been the focus of marketing research inquiries for at least a century. In the last decade, with the discovery of organizational core competences, relationship knowledge experienced a new wave of research interest and was named among the leading “strategic powers” of an organization (Hamel & Prahalad 1994, pp. 3-5; Bergenhenegouwen et al. 1986, p. 29). Hennes and Mauritz AB (H&M) stands out in its respective market largely because of the company’s unique and innovative approach to serving its customers. Moreover, the company is frequently cited for its ability to create customer needs rather than address the existing market requests (Kumar 1997, p. 834).

As an intangible attribute of the company’s market activities, the company’s relationship knowledge is invisible to the observer; therefore, H&M customer relations cannot be analysed directly (Petts 1997, p. 551). However, it is possible to explore this attribute indirectly through its effect on H&M consumers. Thus, the goal of this study was to investigate H&M consumers’ shopping-behaviour patterns and to compare them to the behaviour of department-store shoppers. The outcomes of the comparison were expected to explain the foundation of H&M’s consumer-relationship strategy as aimed at changing their consumers’ behaviour or at serving a pre-defined market segment.

To introduce the reader to the topic, the second chapter of this paper offers an overview of the company as well as a summary of the relevant theories. The third chapter describes the methodology utilized in the study. Chapters IV and V present and discuss the findings while the conclusion overviews the process to evaluate the practical and theoretical utility of the presented research.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Company overview

H&M is a clothing retailer with its operations primarily set in Europe, North America, and Asia (Datamonitor 2006, p. 4). The company is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden and employs 68,000 workers in more than 1,500 outlets worldwide (Datamonitor 2006, p. 4). H&M’s strategic approach is to offer designer clothes to general population at affordable prices; the company works with such brand names as Stella McCartney, Karl Lagerfeld, and Roberto Cavalli (Capell & Beucke 2005, p. 16; Kroll 2004, p. 71; Zimmerman 2009, p. D1).

H&M builds its strengths by operating through complementary retail channels – stores, Internet, and catalogues – in several geographic locations and by offering a balanced product mix, which appeals to a number of customer audiences (Datamonitor 2006, p. 5). However, currently, the company faces the threat of decreasing retail sales in Eurozone amplified by strong competition from Target and Wal-Mart (Datamonitor 2006, pp. 6-7).

H&M Consumer Relations

According to Kumar, the new age of retailing is characterized by the changing relationships between retailers and their customers (1997, pp. 834-835). More specifically, H&M belongs to a group of retailers, which learned how to drive the market by driving the consumers’ behaviours instead of being driven by them (Kumar 1997, p. 834). Kumar argues that by adopting EDLP (everyday low pricing) strategy, H&M teaches fashion buyers to not wait for department-store sales but rather buy H&M low-price brand-name products (1997, p. 834).

Raugust expands the discussion to claim that, in addition to the prices, H&M changes customers’ behaviour by creating a thrilling shopping experience (2004, p. S10). The company renews its store inventory daily; therefore, even the customers who come to the store every day can expect to discover new deals on each shopping trip (Raugust 2004, p. S10). Thus, H&M manages to keep their stores intriguing for its customers and to make them return more often than they would otherwise.

Both media and empirical research observe behaviourist differences in H&M consumers. However, potentially, there are two explanations for the mentioned deviation. First, as suggested by Kumar, H&M strategy might persuade the consumers to adopt new behaviours. Second, H&M customers might belong to a different consumer segment characterized by unique behaviours; they choose H&M because it is a better fit for their needs. Currently, there is no research that reliably supports one or the other hypothesis.

Shopping-Behaviour Theories

According to Smith and Lux, “current knowledge of how consumers behave in the market place predominantly consists of unrelated still photos depicting consumers at isolated times and places” (1993, p. 607). Bass and Talarzyk argue that there are strong causal relationships between attitudes, brand preference, and purchasing behaviour (1972, p. 93). Therefore, the attitudinal trends might serve as the link between the consumers’ past, present, and forecasted behaviours and be the key to explaining these behaviours. Moreover, if attitude modification is proven to affect the behaviour then H&M is, in fact, able to transform its consumers’ behaviours by altering their attitudes toward shopping.

In contrast with Bass and Talarzyk, Bower and Christensen claim that by offering new “disruptive” approach to shopping, companies like H&M create value proposition for a different and less-demanding group of consumers (1995, p. 43). These consumers feel over-served by the traditional department store; they cannot adopt mainstream shopping behaviours and, thus, prefer not to shop at all (Christensen & Raynor 2003, pp. 10-12). By creating the environment in which shopping is simpler but more exciting, H&M bring these unique group of consumers back to the market (Christensen & Raynor 2003, pp. 10-12).

There is one key difference between the attitude-bounded behaviour theory and the disruptive-technology theory. The former claims that consumers change their behaviour as related to one area of their activities – e.g. apparel shopping – while adhering to mainstream behaviours in other areas: e.g. grocery or house-ware shopping (Kumar 1997, p. 834). Contrary to that, the disruptive-technology theory argues that consumers attracted by H&M belong to a genially different segment and display the same behaviourist patterns regardless of the product/service, for which they shop (Christensen & Raynor 2003, pp. 10-12). The empirical support of one or the other claim will establish the validity of the respective theory.

Study Problem Statement

The problem addressed in this study is the lack of theoretical consensus on the deviations in the behaviour of H&M customers. The researcher believes that this study has significant implications in the field of management as it investigates the validity of Kumar’s argument (1997, p. 834). The study explores whether H&M teaches its customers to adopt new attitudes and behaviours or whether Kumar’s observation is a market illusion and H&M is attracting consumers characterized by existing shopping-behaviour patterns. If proven right, either of the hypotheses would influence both the theory and practice of strategic marketing in the retail sector.

III. METHOD
Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study was to explore if the shopping behaviour of H&M customers is different from the behaviour of department store customers when shopping for goods other than clothes.

Research Questions

1. Does the shopping behaviour of H&M customers differ from the behaviour of department-store consumers when shopping for beauty products?

2. Does the shopping behaviour of H&M customers differ from the behaviour of department-store consumers when shopping for home decor and house-wear?

3. Does the shopping behaviour of H&M customers differ from the behaviour of department-store consumers when shopping for clothes?

4. Does the shopping behaviour of H&M customers differ from the behaviour of department-store consumers when shopping for grocery and food?

Study Design, Procedures, and Timelines

The data collection for this study was performed with a help of a paper-based survey. The researcher approached potential respondents while they were shopping at H&M and a selected department store and invited them to participate in the survey. Those who agreed were given the survey, a pen, and the necessary instructions. While attempting to increase the likelihood of the respondents taking the survey, the researcher used an attractive design for the questionnaire (Robson 1993, pp. 5-15). The data collection stage of the study lasted for one week: March 9-15, 2009. It was followed by two weeks of data coding and four more weeks of data analysis.

The choice in favour of a paper-based face-to-face survey was dictated by two factors. First, the populations were physically available for a face-to-face survey while the access to the populations’ contact information would be restricted (Alreck & Settle 2004, pp. 15-22). Second, this method was highly effective in terms of the outcome for the monetary and time inputs (Miles & Huberman 1994, p. 28).

Population and Sample

The population under study was all the consumers, who shopped at H&M regardless of the frequency of their shopping trips or the amount spent on purchases. The population was inclusive of both genders and all age groups. The shoppers at one selected department store served as a control population for the purposes of comparative analysis of the studied population’s behaviour patterns.

This study was categorized as marketing rather than empirical; therefore, the size of the sample was estimated at 160 participants. This number allowed the researcher to expect a liberal degree of confidence at 80% and a relatively large sampling error of 10% (Birchall, http://www.marketresearchworld.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=23&Itemid=1).

The researcher chose a convenience sampling technique: the participants of the study were recruited among the volunteers, who shopped at H&M and the department store during the week of March 9-15 and who agreed to take the survey (Miles & Huberman 1994, p. 28). By selecting the research sites – H&M and the department store – the researcher attempted to ensure that the participants had the experience relevant to the study: they had shopped at both stores at least once (Creswell 2007, p. 128).

Data Collection Instrument

All the participants of the study were offered to take the same questionnaire regardless of their shopping destination. The questionnaire consisted of two parts: theme questions and demographic questions. There were four themes: shopping for cloth, beauty products, grocery, and housekeeping products. The instrument had two identical questions for each theme: 1) how often do you shop for a theme product during an average month and 2) on average, what amount do you spend on a shopping trip. The answers to the first question were measured on a four-point Likert-type scale: 1 (once or twice a month), 2 (once a week), 3 (two-three times a week), 4 (every day). The second question was open-ended.

The group of demographic questions inquired on the respondents’ gender, age, employment status, and combined household income. The respondents’ gender was defined as male or female. The questions about age and household income were open-ended. The employment-status question had six possible answers: employed part-time, employed full-time, unemployed, retired, student, and housekeeper.

Study Limitations

Despite of the researcher’s desire to conduct an extensive investigation, the study had to remain within a realistic framework established by its purposes as well as external forces. The problem of access to the population affected the study’s data collection activities by limiting the variability of research sites (Homan 2001, p. 329). The data was collected at one H&M outlet and one department store, which permitted the surveying of their customers (Wanat 2008, p. 195).

In addition, the research was limited by internal boundaries set by the researcher (Counelis 2000, p. 58). Considering the resources assigned to this study, the researcher limited the geographic location of the research populations to one specific city and the period of data collection to one week.

Ethical Concerns

Several ethical concerns had to be addressed as the study progressed. First, the author had to ensure the anonymity of the participants (American Psychologist 1992, p. 1598). Any unfavourable remarks might have resulted in the disruption of the customer’s relationships with H&M or the participating department store. Therefore, the researcher restrained from collecting any identifiable information and reported the data in aggregate (American Psychologist 1992, p. 1598).

Next, the author had to preserve the confidentiality of the participating department store to prevent the negative effect of the consumers’ statements and the findings of the study on the store’s business reputation (American Psychologist 1992, pp. 1599-1600). The author omitted the name of the store throughout the study report

The next ethical area was the voluntary participation in the study (American Psychologist 1992, pp. 1599-1600). To ensure the participants’ voluntarism, prior to giving the respondents the questionnaire, the researcher explained to them their right to refuse to answer any question or to exit the study at any point (American Psychologist 1992, pp. 1599-1600).

Finally, the study was based on the assumption that H&M was a successful retailer and the goal of the researcher was to confirm that assumption. Nevertheless, the researcher strived to provide unbiased data, which could be reliably applied in the field of marketing and management (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.21).

IV. FINDINGS

The goal of the study was to contribute to reducing the theoretical gap in understanding consumer behaviour. The aims and expected outcomes of the study justified the researcher’s choice to analyse the data from the grounded theory perspective (Creswell 2007, p. 10). This approach is used to explore large groups of people and to develop an abstract framework, which can be expanded into a theory (Creswell 2007, p. 10).

The data analysis was performed as a series of t-tests comparing H&M and department store shoppers in each theme question separately (Field 2005, p. 125). The relationships between the respondents’ demographics and their shopping behaviour were analysed through three types of correlations: for both respondents groups together, H&M consumers separately, and department store consumers separately (Field 2005, p. 107).

There were no statistically significant difference between H&M and department store consumers on their behaviour related to shopping for grocery/food and home decor. However, the behaviour of these two groups was statistically significantly different when they shopped for clothes and beauty products (p<0.5). H&M consumers were shopping almost twice more often than the department store customers; moreover, the former spend more per each shopping trip than the latter.

There were no statistically significant correlation between the respondents’ demographics and their shopping behaviour for any of the groups. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the difference in shopping behaviour was not due to demographic differences within the groups of respondents.

Overall, H&M customers had proven to deviate from the mainstream shopping behaviours when they shop for clothes and beauty products but they continue to adhere to the traditional behaviours when shopping for other types of goods. Considering similar roles of beauty products and clothes in peoples’ life, the findings support Kumar’s theory that shopping behaviour can be taught to the consumers by their retailers.

V. DISCUSSION

This research is subject to several threats to reliability and validity. First, by choosing to study a convenience sample and by limiting the number/location of sites, the researcher introduced a selection bias (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.17). This threat is induced by convenience and volunteer samples, which members might not be representative of the overall populations (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.17).

Related to the selection bias, the convenience sample causes low generalizability of the findings (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.30). This threat is common to most of the studies and is often a trade-off for the freedom from researcher bias (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.30).

Next, the results might be affected by the matching bias (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.22). The researcher chose the study and control populations based on the assumption of existing similarities between the two. However, this assumption might be wrong; and the populations could be genuinely different.

Finally, the study could be a subject to temporal validity in a case if the consumers’ preference of H&M was due to the effect of economic downturn (Onwuegbuzie 2000, p.31). To evaluate this threat, the researcher would need to replicate the study after the current recession is over.

Despite the threats listed above, this study has a practical utility because it contributes to bridging the theoretical gap in understanding the deviations of H&M consumers’ behaviour (Kumar 1997, p. 834). However, to “result in an actual addition to the field of knowledge”, the study has to be replicated on a different (random) sample and in a more favourable economic context (Gordon & Brown 2004, p. 3).

VI. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, effective relationships with the customers are a strong competitive advantage of a retailer because they allow a company to obtain first-hand information about the changes in the consumers’ needs. They help the company modify its offer in a timely manner and more successfully than its uninformed competitors. The outcomes of this study confirm the theory suggesting that the company could be an active agent in its relationships with the customers. Moreover, it can educate its customers and induce their behaviour-change instead of passively reacting to the change that happens naturally. This is a revolutionary thought, which can transform the balance of powers in retailing and lead to dramatic changes in the field of strategic marketing. However, even though this study confirms the hypothesis, suggested by the theory, the research findings are subject to several threats challenging their validity. Therefore, there is a need to conduct a longitudinal study and replicate the survey several times with several different populations. If this series of surveys produces positive outcomes, the theory can be transformed into practical models applicable to strategic marketing.

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Analyse the business model of supermarket chain Aldi
Introduction

Aldi, a German supermarket chain, entered the UK market in 1990 and now operates a network of over 500 stores (Aldi, 2014). The competitive landscape for UK supermarkets is fierce (Sandberg, 2013) with many different strategies being adopted, each aligned to a different segment of the market. Aldi focuses on delivering a basic, value for money shopping experience (Naslund, 2013). Such a cost leadership strategy and lower cost structure enables discount companies to enter and take a larger percentage share of the market (Harvard Business Review, 2005).

As consumers focus on saving money in times of recession, the business model used by Aldi presents an opportunity to save money on weekly food shopping whilst still buying healthy food. Supermarkets following a low cost leadership strategy often stock the same product as their rivals but deliver it under a different service model (Harvard Business Review, 2005). Smaller companies, such as Aldi, do not spend as much time publicising their plans or marketing their products, this can create competitive advantage as they are less exposed to public opinion. This leads to an information gap, however it also allows them to develop and grow quickly whilst adapting to the changing trends (Skordili, 2013). The increased demand for cheaper food is better served by discount retailers. It also removes a significant cost associated with in store branding, technology and functionality, enabling the same or similar products to be offered cheaper.

The external business environment is made up of two elements; the general macro environment which takes a wide lens view of the environment in which the business operates and the micro view which focuses on the specific industry or sector in which the business operates (McLean, 2005). The external environment refers to events or trends, which are relevant to the business, as well as being uncontrollable by the business. The external environment directly contributes to the success or failure of the business, for example in 2010 Aldi left the marketplace in Greece citing unfavourable external factors as the reason (Skordili, 2013). By understanding the external environment leaders make better decisions (Kefalas, 1981); knowing the likely impact of that decision and knowing what might affect the organisation in the future. The external business environment is changing faster than ever (Mason, 2007) and therefore being able to understand, anticipate and adapt to changing trends is a key leadership skill (Kotter, 1996).

This essay presents an analysis of the external business environment in which Aldi UK operates. Analysis of the general macro environment using PEST before a more focused analysis of the retail supermarket sector is conducted using Porter’s Five Forces Model in order to draw conclusions.

The External Business Environment

Stacey (2011) explains that the dynamic of this macro external market place can be categorised into a number of headings for the purpose of analysis. PEST allows a business to periodically scan the environment to anticipate future trends as well as identify current challenges. PEST scanning splits the environment into 4 key factors: Political, Economic, Social and Technology. This is a commonly used, simple model which allows the general market to be scanned.

The micro external environment was described by Porter as being concerned with getting raw materials to consumers, suppliers to buyers and how the connection are made in a competitive way (Linstead, Fulop and Lilley, 2004). In this model the specific sector or market in which the organisation operates is analysed, this allows the specific market challenges within that sector to be understood for that organisation. To undertake this micro level analysis Porter created a model called the Five Forces which looks at the interaction between the forces. At the heart of the model is ‘competitive rivalry’ which is impacted by 4 other forces:

Power of suppliers
Threat of new entrants
Power of customers
Threat of substitutes

Porter argued success was created by the organisations ability to negotiate with suppliers to get the right prices which enable a low cost leadership model or enable larger margins. By putting itself in this position the organisation remains in the driving seat.

PEST Analysis

There are a number of factors which Aldi need to consider as part of their PEST analysis of the UK marketplace.

The Political Environment
The UK elections in May 2015 may result in a change of government. A new government may impose new legislation, tax implications and market conditions. Furthermore, with some of the parties pledging a European referendum as part of their campaign, such a move could lead to the UK leaving the European Union which, as a German company, may present a further risk which will need to be addressed.
Employment legislation continues to change on a regular basis, 2015 has already seen significant changes with the introduction of shared parental leave (ACAS, 2015). There are continued discussions around the extension of paternity leave. Such changes have an economic impact on the business but also create risk that staff may take a case to tribunal.
It is proposed that zero-hour contracts will be abolished in 2015 (ACAS, 2015), as a supermarket it is likely that seasonal staffing is used in busy periods such as Christmas. Without zero hour contracts this could become harder to staff and more expensive.
As a European company, EU legislation is also a factor to consider as any change at a EU level will also have a direct impact on the organisation.
The Economic Environment
As the UK economy moves out of recession, there could be a change of buying behaviour from low-cost stores back to mainstream supermarkets. This shift could have a detrimental effect on market share. Aldi may need to consider how to compete in such conditions, if at all.
During times of financial pressure consumers turn to cheaper food suppliers (Skordili, 2013), which has created an ideal market for Aldi in the UK and has contributed to its growth.
This may in turn change demand, supply and fundamentally affect pricing creating instability in the company as customers go back to higher priced competitors.
A change in government may also create a different in tax requirements, which could become more costly.
Success is created through a finely tuned supply chain, with distribution and logistical capability becoming one of the key competitive weapons available (Sandberg, 2013). Aldi operates a model which has created success in Germany where the main point of competition is price, with consumers preferring lower levels of service and a narrower choice to enable a lower price (Fernie and Arnold, 2002).
The Social Environment
Discount chains could be met with a degree of social stigma, as the economy rises individuals may want to shop at more expensive leading names such as Tesco, Sainsbury’s or even Waitrose.
The UK has an aging population (Cracknell, 2010), an older workforce may be more costly in terms of sickness and present further problems for employers. With the introduction of auto-enrolment for pension schemes this adds a further cost to the business as employers will have to contribute to employees pensions.
As competitors such as Asda, Tesco and Sainsbury’s introduce a more diverse range of products including clothing, non food items, opticians, chemists, travel agencies and more which could see a change of buying behaviour.
Competitors also offer a 24 hour opening service, as the way people work becomes more diverse over time will this see a change in buying habits. Aldi may need to consider this strategy as a way to maintain market share. This will carry increased costs both in terms of overheads and staffing costs.
There have been a number of international companies highlighted in the press due to their accounting practice and what this means in terms of where they pay their tax (Barford and Holt, 2013) This could lead to a change in favour by UK consumers who may feel increased loyalty to UK established firms.
By operating a narrower product range, Aldi has moved away from abundance of choice and created a streamlined shopping experience. Busy family life may benefit from this approach of making the shopping process quicker and more focused.
The Technological Environment
Online and mobile shopping is becoming increasingly popular (Butler, 2013), currently not offered by Aldi this may be a strategy that needs to be considered. This may also need to be enhanced with other technology led initiatives such as in-store media, self-checkout and access to Wifi.
Technological infrastructures are a key component of the supply chain of the modern business, intelligent stock management and supply is key to success.
Point of sale systems and checkout facilities are significantly different in larger stores, Aldi operates a traditional conveyor belt approach with no options for self service. Enhanced service from competitors such as offering to pack up bags for consumers creates a different in store experience however the average time per person will increase.
Five Forces Analysis

Within the grocery sector in the UK there is fierce competitive rivalry. A micro analysis is presented below:

Threat of New Entrants – Low

The threat of new entrants is relatively low due to the cost of entry and the competitive environments.

The cost requirement for a new brand to establish itself in the market is high. Building a large retail estate network coupled with stock levels will take significant investment.

As Tesco enters a period of decline, due to what is widely considered unethical practice, bad financial management and abuse of power (Proud, 2015). This may lead to a decline in consumer favour leading to opportunities for merger and acquisition of the brand.

Threat of Substitute Products – Medium / HighBy offering a narrow product range, Aldi remains agile to changing trends. Products can be changed quickly in the event of changing market trends.
Aldi operates relatively small stores therefore limiting the number of products that can be offered. Substituted could therefore be offered by larger stores, with more space to offer an increased product range.
The Bargaining Power of Suppliers – Low
Supermarkets have greater bargaining power than suppliers, often pushing for discounts and favourable terms due to the scale of buying power (Proud, 2015).
Suppliers may favour larger orders from the bigger competitors, therefore are less willing to offer discounts and offers to the Aldi chain. However Aldi still operates a chain of 500 stores so has a degree of buying power in its own right. It also has the additional power to buy across multiple countries in order to get favourable terms.
The Bargaining Power of Buyers – High
Buyers can make choices about which supermarket to use very easily based on offers, availability of items and ease of access.
Aldi does not offer a loyalty scheme so there is no additional incentive to return week on week.
Rivalry among Existing Firms – High
The sector is subject to intense rivalry with a focus on cost. Many brands offer to match prices of their competitors and undertake price comparison activities. This fierce rivalry leads to aggressive marketing campaigns with each player trying to win market share from the other. This increase competitive activity creates additional costs through advertising and marketing as well as leading to reduced prices (Linstead, Fulop and Lilley, 2004.
Aldi operates on a low level of fixed costs in order to deliver lower priced products, with competitors also targeting this lower price point this presents a risk to Aldi if they are not able or willing to invest in advertising to address such activity.
Conclusions

Aldi operates in a highly competitive market place, both the macro and micro perspectives show challenging market conditions. Whilst new entrants are unlikely there is a clear need to explore changing customer buying trends and how interactive routes to market contribute to customer loyalty. With buying patterns moving towards 24 hour shopping, online marketing and self-service, consideration needs to be made around whether this needs to be included in Aldi’s long term strategy.

The UK election in May 2015 presents the most immediate challenge, particularly if that results in a change of government and possible European referendum. Should the UK leave the EU this is likely to present Aldi with a financial challenge as well as imposing possible import restrictions for products. Equally, such a move could also see buying trends move towards British companies.

Aldi continues to thrive in the market, however a change in the disposable income of its customers may also change buying habits. Focus on retention of market share needs to be integrated into the strategic sustainability plans, particularly in the absence of any loyalty schemes. Continual development and alignment to its target market is critically important to maintain market share and ultimately survive.

Consideration needs to be made around what consumers want from their experience. By undertaking market research and focus groups Aldi will be able to understand what is working and what may be useful to start to consider. In a world where change is the norm it should be expected that all businesses will have to adapt and become more agile to some degree.

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On a global scale, several important firms are determined to attain “Agile management” as this enhances a company’s capability to swiftly manage” internal and external” transformation and gain competitive advantage (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831). An “agile” company is adept in its ability to “detect changing markets, rapidly learn to take advantage of these market changes, detect new techniques, adapt these techniques to organisational culture” in order to incorporate them into the company “while maintaining their spirit”, efficiently exploiting them to meet changing “standards in diverse markets” and adapting “products to individual preferences” (Desouza, 2006, p123). To be able to react rapidly to transformation by making “quick decisions” on methods to counter the transformation and consequently execute the methods, it is crucial for organisations to effectively utilise Information Technology (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831).

A Management information System (MIS) is useful by way of its procedure and as such it must be effortlessly up to standard for a firm (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831). The usefulness of MIS is measured by how much the system is utilised, whether end-users are content with the system, “favourable attitudes about MIS functions, achievement of objectives” and whether it increases business profitability (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831).

MIS Risk

As an MIS system is made up of “hardware and software”, consequently transformations in the system make it susceptible to a “penalty of change” such as “system failure” or other costly time consuming risks (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831). As such technology must be effectively applied to the MIS “infrastructure (hardware, software and data)” in order to eliminate or minimise system risk (Khosrow-Pour, 2001, p 831).

MIS issue

A “field research” at a UK bank to analyse a “multidisciplinary” move towards “empirical investigation” on handling Information Technology concluded that the dialogue between those “who request development of a management information system (MIS), the client or sponsor and the technologists” who build the systems usually creates a “confused picture” (Currie, 1995, p7). The clients are usually not clear about their systems requirements and consequently this leaves room for interpretation on the part of the “technologists” (Currie, 1995, p7). In addition, an “ad hoc approach” originates from problems experienced by “project managers” in detecting suitable “financial and non-financial performance” measures for continuous observing and managing of Information Technology projects (Currie, 1995, p7).

How to address the MIS issue

The issue is a result of miscommunication between the business and Information Technology. Management has to ensure that the dialogue between the two teams is effective and also that organisation goals such as high productivity and cost reduction are included in the planning of an MIS systems implementation or change.

Design/UCD Failures

Strategic Information Systems can sustain and “shape” business strategy to impact “organisational performance” in a relationship that forms a “trilogy” (Croteau et al, 2001, p78) however; the design and development” of Information Systems plays a major factor in the use of Information Technology (Das et al 1991, cited in Croteau et al 2001, page 80). User centred design places the end user’s requirements and ability at the “forefront”, conversely current technology focuses on the quest for technology answers with no consideration for the end user’s requirements in terms of “functionality” and ease of use (Kent et al, 2003, p87).

UCD Failures

An eminent online book retailer’s first online ordering system had a major costly flaw (Hambling et al, 2008, p10). System developers had included an electronic refund facility that allowed users to receive credit on their debit or credit cards if they purchased a negative number of books (Hambling et al, 2008, p10). During testing the systems developers did not anticipate that online shoppers would try to order a negative number (Hambling et al, 2008, p10). The program was amended to allow only the retailer’s administrative staff to carry out refunds (Hambling et al, 2008, p10).
Another UCD failure resulting from inadequate software design and testing was when the “European Space Agency Ariane 5” was initially launched in June 1996 and failed after 37.5 seconds (Hambling et al, 2008, p10). A software glitch resulted in the rocket deviating from its “vertical ascent” and had to be put into “self-destruct” mode to prevent the disastrous consequences of an active horizontal rocket (Hambling et al, 2008, p10).
Furthermore, when the UK government launched “online filing tax returns”, a weak security design allowed access to other users’ confidential earnings data regardless of log in location (Hambling et al, 2008, p10).

How to prevent UCD failures

A manager must ensure that the end users of the system are the main focus of any system design with particular reference to a user’s computer skills, security and the main objective of building the system, to improve business process. Consequently if the design is user focused; it is bound to function as intended. In addition, User Acceptance Testing (UAT) is the process whereby end users test a system to ensure that it “meets their business needs” (Hambling et al, 2008, p45). Although this process is seen as the responsibility of the end users of a system, it should be managed by managers to prevent errors (Hambling et al, 2008, p45).

Project Failures

A failed project is one that exceeds its set budget, over runs, does not incorporate organisational goals or just one that is cancelled (Standish Group International 1994, cited in Linberg 1999, page178). The proportion of IT systems failure is still high when compared to other technologically advanced projects (Yeo, 2002) and although there have been some “success stories” in systems “development” projects these have been overshadowed by “broadly publicised failures” (Linberg, 1999, p177). When Information Systems projects fail, the trustworthiness of technical staff is negatively impacted (Remenyi, 1999, p5) and it is believed that the lack of risk management has greatly contributed to these project failures (Remenyi, 1999, p9). With particular reference to Information Systems projects, failure can range from little technical hardware problems to total “system failure” that harms a firm’s business activity by creating huge costs (Remenyi, 1999, p19). Consequently, ineffective risk management is synonymous with leaving the results of a project to chance and “unfounded optimism” (Fairley 1990, cited in Remenyi 1999, page9).

Project Failure Issues

When there are unrealistic expectations and people “try to do the impossible”, projects are likely to fail (Linberg, 1999, p177). A good example is a company bending over backwards in an attempt not to lose a significant client (Linberg, 1999). An unrealistic software development project deadline was set and when programmers protested profusely that is was just impossible, more programmers were added on to the project that was already operating around the clock (Linberg, 1999). Needless to say the project failed and the client was not retained (Linberg, 1999).
Another example of a failed project was a large one that over run by at least eighteen months, had eight absconding “team leaders” out of a total nine, lacked clarity in the project definition and involved excessive working hours of more than sixty a week. However because the project was eventually finished, the project programmers did not have see the project as a failure even though it was due to the very late completion and inadequate project planning (Linberg, 1999).

How to address the project failure issues

The approach to the first project should have been honest and realistic in order to meet the client’s needs and also increase the likelihood of repeat business with the client. This is due to the fact that “a consulting engagement is successful if the consultant has met client expectations” (McLachlin, 2000) and if this is the situation then” the consultant has enhanced his or her reputation, with expectations of future revenue streams – whether or not any immediate income has been received” (McLachlin, 2000). Consequently business managers should first ensure that they can deliver before taking on the task.
With reference to the second project failure, a carefully structured project plan with a clear project definition needs to be in place before management embarks on a project. A well structure project plan with carefully allocated resources, effective risk management and well monitored project stages will introduce and enforce project and budget controls.

E-Commerce and its Issues

E-commerce is a compressed name for a broad range of unified business ideas, “technologies and cultural phenomena” (May, p2). E-commerce is about online retail commerce for certain individuals and for others, it concerns the sale of advertising space amongst other things (May, p2). Nevertheless, irrespective of its definition, E-commerce has warranted a lot of interest and in fact it is a vital transformation in “the way business is conducted” (May, p2). E-commerce has resulted in creating new prospects for several businesses in various industries to contend in the “global marketplace” (Chaffey, 2006, p4). As a result of readily available information on businesses, goods and services, companies are rapidly expanding the customer base and retaining customers due to the resulting improved client-customer relationships (Chaffey, 2006, p5).
However, E-commerce software programs need more technical support than a good number of conventional “business systems” (May, 2000, p222). Business to business and “business-consumer” online programs demand twenty four operations around the clock, seven days a week right through the year (May, 2000, p222). Even though mirror sites are run to ensure “scalability”, web systems failure still occurs with several pages experiencing downtime (May, 2000, p222).

E-commerce Issue

A website experienced an overload and needed to be taken offline in November 2005 due it being incapable of handling a lot of simultaneous logins resulting from publicity on some information on the website (Hambling et al, 2008, p10). Although this is a frequent occurrence in today’s online activity, the main issue in E-commerce is security risk and as the confidence of shoppers determines the frequency and amount of purchases made online, this is indeed a very significant point.
An online consumer’s perception of security is affected by absence or presence of “third party certification” software on their websites (Pingjun et al, 2008). A review of a representation of the link between “third-party identifying logos, trust transfer and trust build-up” based on information acquired from an “online survey” confirms that when online consumers see a “third-party seal” on a shopping website, they tend to transfer their trust in the security “logo” to “online e-marketers” (Pingjun et al, 2008).
These issues should be handled by anticipate overload from a technical perspective and also by ensure the consumer confidence is gained and retained in E-commerce.

New Technology

Today’s world is an age of unique transformations within technology in the midst of technology transforming communication, work, how business is conducted and how people socialise (Boreham, 2006, p1). When new technology is implemented, it is expected that management will impact how it is adapted by the workforce, despite this, an empirical study states otherwise (Leonard-Barton et al, 1988). When new technology is implemented, staff with existing technical abilities adapt automatically whereas staff low on computer literacy skills wait to be directed by management (Leonard-Barton et al, 1988).
However, as an increasing amount of time and “investment capital” is absorbed by Information Technology and its consequences, business managers have a developing “awareness” that technology cannot be the “exclusive territory” of specialised IT companies or the Information Systems department (Porter 2008, p73). Businesses notice their competitors employ Information Technology to gain competitive advantage and acknowledge the necessity to become “directly involved in the management of new technology” although “in the face of rapid change, they don’t know how” (Porter 2008, p73).

New Technology Issues

New Technology is usually opposed as it usually involves change and people assess the size of the change required. New technology also usually results in a “large-scale organisational change” and consequently extra caution is applied as individual feelings must be influenced to get people to participate in new technology (Kotter et al, 2002, p1). In theory the opposition to new technology also known as the “crisis of progress” is as unconnected as it is connected in that community response to new technology impacts new technology “in a circular process” (Bauer, 1997, p2).
Management should address resistance to new technology by first ensuring a “readiness for change” through training and guidance.

References

Bauer M, 1997.Resistance to New Technology: Nuclear Power, Information Technology and Biotechnology; Cambridge University Press

Boreham P., Parker R., Thompson P., Hall R., 2006. New Technology Work; Routledge

Currie W. 1995.’The IT strategy audit: formulation and performance measurement at a UK Bank’. Managerial Auditing Journal.10 (1). pp 7-16.DOI:10.1108/02686909510077343. www.emeraldinsight.com. (Accessed: 15th February 2010)

Chaffey D., 2006. E-Business and E-Commerce Management; Prentice Hall

Desouza K. C., 2006.Agile Information Systems: Conceptualization, Construction, and Management; A Butterworth Heinemann Title

Hambling B., Morgan P., Samaroo A., 2008. Software Testing: An ISEB Foundation; British Computer Society

Kent S. T., Millet L. I., 2003. Who Goes There?: Authentication Through the Lens of Privacy; National Academics Press

Khosrow-Pour M., 2001.Managing Information Technology in a Global Economy: 2001 IRMA Proceedings; IGI Publishing

Kotter J P and Cohen D S(2002), The Heart of Change; Real-Life Stories of How People Change Their Organizations, Harvard Business School Press

Leonard-Barton D., Deschamps I., 1988.’Managerial Influence on the Implementation of New Technology’. Management Science. 34(10). Pp 1252-1265.www.jstor.org. (Accessed: 16th February 2010)

Linberg K. R., 1999, ‘Software developer perceptions about software project failure: a case
study. The Journal of Systems and Software.49 (1). pp 177-192.www.elsevier.com. (Accessed: 16th February 2010)

May P., 2000. The Business of Ecommerce: From Corporate Strategy to Technology; Cambridge University Press
McLachlin R. D., 2000,’Service quality in consulting: what is engagement success, Managing Service quality, 10(4).pp. 239-247. www.emeraldinsight.com. (Accessed: 16th February 2010)

Pingjun J., Jones D. B., Javie S., 2008.’ How third-party certification programs relate to consumer trust in online transactions: An exploratory study’ .Psychology and Marketing. 25(9). Pp 839 -858. www3.interscience.wiley.com. (Accessed: 16th February 2010)
Porter M. E, 2008, On Competition; Harvard Business School Press 2nd Edition
Yeo K. T., 2002.’Critical Failure Factors in Information systems projects’. International Journal of Project Management.20(3). www.elsevier.com. (Accessed: 16th February 2010)

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Describe the Structure and Functions of Microtubules – Why Can Drugs That Interfere With Microtubule Assembly Be Used as Cancer Therapy?

Introduction

Microtubules form as a highly organised network of polarised tube filaments from a protein called tubulin. Its regulation is needed for processes such as mitosis, cell migration, cell signalling and cell trafficking. The microtubules themselves are regulated by several kinases and phosphatases via signalling cascades, and concomitantly by interactions with actin cytoskeleton and adhesion sites.

Microtubule-targeted drugs (MTDs) constitute a major anticancer therapeutic class having properties of anti-mitotic and anti-angiogenic properties, thereby inhibiting malignant cell growth mainly by altering microtubule dynamics in both cancer and endothelial cells. The key to design of MTDs and the understanding of tumour progression regulators is the identification of proteins regulating the microtubule network.

Cell Morphology and Function

As the name implies, microtubules are hollow tubes having an external diameter of roughly 25nm and a cell wall thickness of 5-7nm. One of their functions is to transport organelles (e.g. secretetory vesicles) through the cytoplasm, a particularly important role in nerve cells where axoplasmic flow is required. They also have a critical role in cilia and flagella movement. Microtubules originate from a complex structure known as centrosome.

Between cell divisions (figure 1), the centrosome is located at the centre of a cell near the nucleus. Embedded in the centrosome are two cylindrical centrioles, arranged at right angles to each other. At the onset of cell division, a centrosome divides and the two daughter centrosomes move to opposite poles of the nucleus to form a mitotic spindle

The functions of microtubules are important to the survival of eukaryotic cells because, along with actin and intermediate filaments, microtubules constitute the cytoskeleton which offers shape and strength to the cytoplasm. It is therefore vital that we understand their fundamentals, such as what they are composed of and how their structure is both maintained and destroyed within cells.

As mentioned in the introduction, the building blocks microtubules are tubulin. However, only two forms of tubulin, ?-tubulin and ?-tubulin, play a role in the formation of the microtubule structure. When the ? and ?-tubulin bind, a useful subunit called a heterodimer forms.

When intracellular conditions favour assembly, tubulin heterodimers assemble into linear protofilaments, which in turn assemble into microtubules. All such assembly is subject to regulation by the cell. [11]

The interactions holding ? and ?-tubulin in a heterodimeric complex are strong enough that ? tubulin subunit rarely dissociates under normal conditions. Each tubulin subunit binds two molecules of GTP. One GTP-binding site, located in ?-tubulin, binds GTP irreversibly and does not hydrolyze it, whereas the second site, located on ?-tubulin, binds GTP reversibly and hydrolyzes it to GDP. The second site is called the exchangeable site because GDP can be displaced by GTP. The recently solved atomic structure of the tubulin subunit reveals that the non-exchangeable GTP is trapped at the interface between the ? and ?-tubulin monomers, while the exchangeable GTP lies at the surface of the subunit

Microtubules may appear to be stable but they usually oscillate between growth and shortening phases. During growth, heterodimers are added on to the end of a microtubule, and during shrinkage they come off as intact subunits. [11]

This active process of assembly and disassembly can be inhibited by a range of drugs that bind to many sites in the ?-tubulin subunit. These drugs prevent mitotic division and ultimately lead to cell death, by means of necrosis and apoptosis.

The subunits are aligned end to end into a protofilament. The side-by-side packing of protofilaments forms the wall of the microtubule. In this model, the protofilaments are slightly staggered so that a-tubulin in one protofilament is in contact with a-tubulin in the neighboring protofilaments.

Microtubules and Cancer Therapy

The aim of treatment in patients with cancer is cure or, if this is not possible, effective palliation of many cancers present as localised tumour masses, but surgery or radiotherapy often fails to eradicate the disease, which eventually becomes widespread. For this reason, there is a trend to incorporate systemic treatment with local treatment at the time of diagnosis. [3] The basic mechanism of anticancer drugs is the inhibition of cell proliferation processes.

However if they fail to selectively target tumour cells over proliferating normal cells, this renders the drug toxic. This particularly arises in the bone marrow, gastrointestinal epithelium and hair follicles. A cytotoxic drug is said to be selective in cancer therapy if it inhibits malignant composite cells undergoing division and concomitantly allows for normal cell proliferation.

Anticancer drugs are classified according to their sites of action either during the cell cycle or along the synthetic pathway of cellular macromolecules. Some drugs are only effective during part of the cell cycle, which are termed phase-specific drugs, while others are cytotoxic throughout the cell cycle usually called cycle-specific drugs [3].

Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are drugs that inhibit mitosis by binding to the microtubular proteins necessary for spindle formation. They can therefore be classified as phase-specific drugs – to be more precise however; they are M-phase specific.

The main vinca alkaloids are vincristine, vinblastine and vindesine. They have been used in the treatment of cancer for over many years. It is because of their efficacy that has guaranteed that they remain among the drugs of choice for numerous types of human cancers, “They are used in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, lymphomas and some solid tumours” [3]. They bind to tubulin and inhibit its polymerisation into microtubules which prevents spindle formation. [14]

Microtubules are central to a number of cellular processes including the formation of the mitotic spindle. It is without a doubt that the destruction of the spindle leads to a loss of chromosome segregation which consequently inhibits cell division causing cell death.

Although the cell spindle was an obvious goal for further drug development, research in this area was obsolete until the exciting clinical results of the taxane drugs were reported in the late 1980s [4].

The taxanes paclitaxel and docelatel also bind to tubulin, however these agents, in contrast to the vinca alkaloids, stabilise the spindle and produces mitotic arrest. Thus, microtubule stabilisation leads to similar effects as microtubule disruption.

Research in the field has again increased following the observation that agents that bind to tubulin can selectively destroy the arrangement of blood vessels within tumours, causing widespread tumour necrosis [5]. It may be possible that the vinca alkaloids and the taxane drugs also exert part of their tumour-destroying action through an antivascular mechanism. This may depend on targeting endothelial cells rather than tumour cells for drug action. A possible advantage of this approach is that endothelial cells are not transformed and are unlikely to acquire mutations resulting in drug resistance. [6] The destruction of the tumour vasculature also arises through a tubulin-related mechanism.

The disorder of the microtubular arrangement impairs the cell function because microtubules are involved in the maintenance of cell shape. The tumour selectivity begins from the unsystematic character of tumour blood vessels. Rouget cells or pericytes are associated abluminally with all vascular capillaries and post-capillary venules. [10] The tumour blood vessels lack these cells along with sustaining smooth muscle which causes them to be feeble.

Therefore the endothelial cells lining the tumour blood vessels are more vulnerable to the effects of vinca alkaloids and taxanes. Although contact with these anticancer drugs is experienced by all vascular endothelial cells, it is the vulnerable tumour blood vessels that are damaged the most. This ultimately leads to necrosis of tumour cells that were reliant on the blood vessels.

One problem seen in these studies is the survival of cancer cells at the periphery of the tumour [7]. These are nourished from the blood vessels of the normal neighboring tissue and are therefore not affected by the damage of blood vessels in the tumour. These tumour cells are likely to increase in number again. For that reason, it is doubtful that these anticancer drugs will be effective unless given in combination with additional therapies. This may be strikingly more successful than single drugs, for example in the treatment of some cancers such as Hodgkin’s disease. [3]

The shortcoming in previous clinical trials on agents targeting tubulin was the rejection of potentially useful agents because interest was more centered on toxicity and survival of drugs, rather than the action or effects of drugs on blood vessels. The breakthrough of new antivascular treatments would be an essential addition to cancer therapy; hence it is these agents that are presently most fascinating to scientists.

Other Drugs That Inhibit Function of Microtubules

There are more than thirty drugs in the past or in present clinical development. [13] In order to maintain a reasonable size for the following sections, only a few of the more fascinating drugs will be discussed. Some that where not mentioned previously include:

Taxol – an anti-cancer drug, stabilises microtubules
Colchicine – binds tubulin and blocks polymerisation. Microtubules depolymerise at high colchicine concentration.
Nocodazole – causes de-polymerisation of microtubules.
Actinomycin – antibiotic able to halt cancer, not widely used as it is highly toxic
The Microtubule Network as a Target for Therapeutic Agents

The various M-phase specific drugs act by targeting different parts of the heterodimer. To date, three binding areas have been acknowledged: the colchicine site close to the ?/? interface, the region where the vinca alkaloids bind, and the taxane binding pocket. [13]

Colchicine, currently a medication for acute gout, also inhibits cell division and has therefore previously been used in cancer therapy. It binds to a site near the ? and ?-tubulin interface within the microtubule, blocking microtubule polymerisation [15]. However, its high toxicity prevents its use for current cancer therapy.

Vinca alkaloids inhibit microtubule assembly by cross-linking at the inter-dimer interface; they sterically distort the protofilament and induce tubulin to form alternate spiral polymers [16].

The mechanism of action of taxanes is quite different from that of the other two, for it promotes the assembly of microtubules, resulting in highly stable, non-functional polymers. Taxanes bind at the M loop on the ?-subunit, stabilising lateral contacts between protofilaments [17].

Antimitotic agents that interact with microtubule components are of interest for the insights they can provide into the roles of microtubules in cells and the subtleties of tubulin structure and also for their potential activity in the treatment of human neoplastic diseases. A variety of bioassays have been used to identify new antitubulin agents and new techniques have been developed to further understand their biological potency and mechanistic basis at the molecular level.

Drug Combinations

Although M-phase specific drugs are remarkable in that it prevents further malignant growth, the administration of combinations of drugs given intermittently often produces better results than more continues treatment with a single drug. The rationale is that a combination of drugs with different toxic effects and affecting different biochemical pathways has anti-tumour activity without addictive toxicity. [3]

However, a large number of antimitotic drugs are currently under development, this implies that microtubules are still a very worthwhile target for anticancer therapies.

Bibliography

[1] Gillian Pocock, Christopher D. Richards. Human Physiology: The Basis of Medicine (Oxford Core Texts). Oxford University Press; 3Rev Ed edition (Jan 2006). p 23

[2] http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/cell_cycle.html

[3] Michael J. Neal, Medical Pharmacology at a Glance, Blackwell Publishing; 5^th Edition (Aug 2005), p92-93

[4] Rowinski, E.K., Cazenave, L.A., Donehower, R.C. (1990) Taxol: a novel investigational antimicrotubule agent. J Natl Cancer Inst 82, 1247-1259.

[5] Dark, G.G., Hill, S.A., Prise, V.E., Tozer, G.M., Pettit, G.R. and Chaplin, D.J. (1997) Cancer Res 57, 1829-1834.

[6] Antivascular therapy: a new approach to cancer treatment. British Medical Journal, March 27, 1999 by A J Hayes, L Y Li, M E Lippman

[7] Zhao, S., Moore, J.V., Waller, M.L., McGown, A.T., Hadfield, J.A., Pettit, G.R. and Hastings, D.L. (1999) European J Nuclear Medicine 26, 231-238.

[8] http://www.ba-education.demon.co.uk/for/science/dnaphotos/dnaphoto.html

[9] http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookmito.html

[10].http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8915187&dopt=Abstract

[11] http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/studies/invertebrates/microtubules.html

[12] Harvey Lodish, Arnold Berk, Lawrence S. Zipursky, Paul Matsudaira, David Baltimore, James Darnell. Molecular Cell Biology, W. H. Freeman; 5th edition (2003) p1036-1035

[13] Jordan, A., Hadfield, J.A., Lawrence, N.J. and McGown, A.T. (1998) Tubulin as a target for anticancer drugs: agents which interact with the mitotic spindle. Med. Res. Rev. p18

[14] H.P. Rang, M. Maureen Dale, James M. Ritter, Philip Moore, Pharmacology, Churchill Livingstone; 5th edition (31 Mar 2003), p 704

[15] Downing, K.H. and Nogales, E. New insights into microtubule structure and function from the atomic model of tubulin. (1998) Eur. Biophys J 27, 431-436.

[16] Wilson, L., Jordan, M.A., Morse, A. and Margolis, R.L. (1982) Journal of Molecular Biology 159, 125-149.

[17] Snyder, J.P., Nettles, J.H., Cornett, B., Downing, K.H. and Nogales, E. (2001) Potential for self-assembly and microtubule interaction 98, 5312-5316.

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Introduction

In general, the term ‘evolution’ can imply a drastic or gradual change from a very broad perspective. Life on earth, the universe,galaxies, as also the earth in general have evolved through millions of years. In this essay we consider only one aspect of evolution emphasizing on evolution as a biological tool for change among species and consider fossil record as supportive of both evolution theories and also the other theories contrary to evolution. Evolution is the central unifying concept, a theory that successfully connects biology, palaeontology and other branches of science. Evolution is a gradual descent of organisms accompanied by changes that help the organisms to adjust and adapt to the surroundings. ‘Descent with modifications’ as Darwin contended implies changes in organisms in successive generations (Mayr, 1976). These changes are triggered by the derivation of new species and there is a change in the properties of populations of organisms and these properties tend to transcend the lifetime of any single individual. Newers pecies are modified versions of older species.

Although, individual organisms do not biologically evolve,populations evolve when heritable genetic materials are transmitted from one generation to another. Biological evolution can range from very limited changes to drastic transformations on a large scale changing the entire special together and bringing in new forms. Evolution can thus be defined as inheritable changes in populations of species that are spread and transmitted over many generations (Zimmer, 2002). It is also more scientifically defined as changes in the frequency of alleles within a gene pool carried through different generations as understood in the Darwinian version of the theory(Dawkins, 1989). Evolution studies are supported by detecting changes in gene frequency within a population and the fact that the theory of evolution emphasizes on a common ancestor, only indicates that two or more species show successive heritable changes in populations since they are separated from each other as distinct forms (Allen and Briggs, 1989). Most popular definitions of evolution however highlight not the transmission of heritable traits and changes but the processes of diversity that has given rise to millions of species from the most primitive organisms. Here however we move on to the evidence for and against evolution theories and the role of fossil record in this context. Some researchers claim that the theory of evolution has been supported by four primary sources that serve as evidence (Zimmer, 2002; Allenand Briggs, 1989):

The fossil record that tracks changes in early and primitive forms of life
The anatomical and chemical similarities in the constitutions of different species.
The genetic changes observed and recorded in several living organisms over several generations
The geographical spread and distribution of species that seems to suggest a definite pattern, and
The Fossil Record

Fossils are buried in rock layers as indentations of dead plant and animal materials. The totality of these artefacts and their impressions on the rock formations is considered a fossil record. Fossil record as we have briefly mentioned is the primary source of evidence supporting the theory of evolution and the gaps in these records ironically also forms the bone of contention taken up by anti-evolution theorists. Fossil records are used by scientists to understand the process of evolution in general, and the subsequent changes in several species at several times of the earth’s existence(Donovan and Paul, 1998).

The Fossil Record seems to provide an important clue to the changes in primitive and even now extinct species and this definitely helps us to frame a conceptual graph on how evolution has taken shape. Fossil and rock record forms the primary source of evidence collected by scientists for nearly400 years and the consequent database obtained is mainly observational. The fossil record among all other evidence gives a large database of documented changes in past life on earth. The use of Fossil record to study life forms on earth dates back to pre-Darwinian times and the changes in life forms could be studied from a sequence of layers of sedimentary rocks and fossils of different groups of species were found in each of these successive layers (SA, 1982).Sedimentary rocks are found widely across the earth’s surface and are formed when small particles of sand, mud or gravel, shell or other materials withered off by water or wind accumulates in sea beds and oceans. As these sediments pileup they bury shells, leaves, bones, and parts of living organisms. Layers of sediments are thus formed for every large period of time and all these layers become subsequently cemented to each other to become different layers of sandstone,limestone, shale and so on. Within these layers of sedimentary rocks the plant and animal remains become buried as fossils and are later revealed as fossil records (Allen and Briggs, 1989). From these fossil records several species have been identified, some of which are extinct and some of which have traits transitional between different major groups of organisms. Fossils of transitional forms actually give considerable evidence of species evolution over time. However there is not enough evidence through fossil records to conclusively prove evolution, as there are still talks of ‘missing links’ as very few and according to some, no transitional forms have been actually discovered. The Fossil record data available to us is incomplete and in conclusive at present.

During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,William Smith, a British Engineer observed different assemblages of fossils preserved at different levels and different ages of rocks. These assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order (cited in, Wikipedia,2004). This was further bolstered by the fact that rocks collected from different locations showed similar fossil formations according to the different times they represented. Smith named this correlation of rock fossil data as the principle of faunal succession. The occurrence of faunal succession was one of the primary arguments of Darwin who used fossil evidence as supporting the theory of evolution.

Various modern approaches to the theory of evolution have been recently developed. Mayr claims that the theory of Punctuation for instance has two basic points that

most or all evolutionary change occurs during speciation events, and
most species usually enter a phase of total stasis after the end of the speciation process (which involves formation of new species).

Speciation thus involves transformation of species in geological time (Erwin and Anstey, 1995). Formation of new species is explained either by phyletic gradualism or a gradual steady transformation of species by phyletic evolution highlighting the deficiency of the fossil records, or by sympatric saltational speciation that highlighted punctuational equilibria and branching of species rather than transformation as lineages as the real explanation for evolution (Mayr and Provine, 1998). Biologists like Gould and Eldredge have also supported punctuation theories. Richard Dawkins on the other hand stresses on the principle of gene multiplication where genes as replicators seems to be the focal point of defining evolution (Sterelny, 2001).

In quite an important paper Volkenstein (1987) suggests that there can be no contradiction between punctuated equilibrium and phyletic gradualism if synergetics and theory of information are incorporated within the theory of evolution. Punctualism can be seen as phase transition maintaining the directionality of evolution. Volkenstein argues that Punctualism, non-adaptationism and neutralism form the triad of internally connected features of evolution.

Problems with Fossil Records

Of course at that point, the absence of a proper theory of evolution prevented Smith or other researchers from providing an explanation of the actual cause of faunal succession. The cause of faunal succession as is known today is mainly due to evolution of organisms and species that change,transform or become completely extinct, leaving behind their traces on earth as fossils. Age of rocks and the changes in species features are both determined by fossil record and faunal succession used as tools in bio stratigraphy. However fossil data show extremely few records of transitional species,organisms that can conclusively suggest how and when evolution of new and different species occurred (Donovan and Paul, 1998). Darwin himself suggested that the geological record itself is imperfect and incomplete and this is further strengthened by the fact that transitional species were short lived and had very narrow geographical range.

Radiometric and Carbon dating have made it possible to identify fossils more than 3.5 billion years old and have indicated that animal species may have appeared abruptly, a phenomenon which Darwin himself found difficult to accept. Even though one or two forms of organisms which may be considered as transient have been identified, there are no records of transitional plants and thus an evolutionary plant history could not be drawn as of yet. Along with these issues it has also been seen that most of the fossils found are of species which have existing forms and are either similar to existing species or are completely identical. The intermediate temporary stages as serve to act, as links between two related species seems to have been completely downplayed by the fossil data obtained. Animals seem to have remained more or less unchanged through all these years. Despite the collection of a huge number of fossils,nearly all of them being fossils of presently existing animals have created problems for the theory of evolution. It is a general belief that based on fossil discoveries already made, there will be little or no evidence that evolution had actually occurred and continues to occur (Donovan and Paul,1998). If animals die a natural death, they are usually decomposed even before being fossilized. However during sudden catastrophes can bury the animals and embed them deep in the earth. Some rocks and organisms that transformed to show fossils for years and decades were actually deposited within a short period of time.

Although Darwin based his arguments heavily on fossil record, most scientists now believe that fossil record is actually incompatible with evolutionary theory as no transitional links or intermediate forms have been discovered among this huge collection of fossils in all these years. This suggests that there is no real evidential data that the theory of evolution is in fact true. There is no evidence of partially evolved species or intermediate forms either in the past or in the present fossil record and the fossil record available is quite representative of all fossil data that will ever be collected. Evolution seems to point out towards more undefined and partially evolved species, fact completely undermined by available fossil record that shows well-defined organisms rather than gradual gradations. The incomplete fossil record is the primary bone of contention in the evolutionary debate and seems to give an edge to non-evolutionists.

Conclusion:

Considering all the aspects of the debate and gaps in fossil records and weighing this against evolution theories highlighting either generational transformation of lineages or drastic changes and speciation at specific periods, we can conclude that available gaps in fossil record may be more indicative and supportive towards speciation and abrupt changes rather than gradual evolution through phyletic transformation.

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NHS Cervical Screening Programme: Liquid Based Cytology vs. Conventional Cytology
Introduction

Cervical screening, such as the regular programme provided by the NHS, is a very successful way of detecting the early signs of cervical cancer (Kitchener, Castle, & Cox, 2006). The NHS programme screens around 3.5 million (Moss et al., 2003) to 4 million (Karnon et al., 2004) women annually and it is estimated that this prevents between 1100 and 3900 cases of cervical cancer a year (Moss et al., 2003). In recent years a new way of screening the cervical samples has been developed. This is referred to as liquid based cytology rather than conventional cytology. However, there has been considerable debate over the costs and benefits of the new technology, as will be examined below.

Background Information

Cervical cancer is linked to human papillomaviruses (HPV), a family of common sexually transmitted viruses (Eifel, Berek, & Markman, 2011). It is believed to be fairly common for women to be exposed to HPV viral cells but usually these are readily cleared by their immune response (Bosch & Iftner, 2005). However, in some instances women can develop an HPV infection following exposure to viral cells. The infection can seem largely asymptomatic but actually causes the abnormal multiplication of cells in the cervix, leading to warts, lesions or benign tumours and, if the infection persists, it can cause cervical cancer (Bosch & Iftner, 2005; Eifel et al., 2011). In fact, HPV is believed to be the main, perhaps even the sole, cause of cervical cancer.

The NHS cervical screening programme is available to women aged between 25 and 64 years of age and involves taking a regular swab or smear of cells from inside their cervix (Moss et al., 2003). These are then sent to a pathology laboratory where they are screened by a cytologist for any abnormalities associated with HPV. In the absence of any abnormalities women between the ages of 25 and 50 years are advised to return for testing every three years, and those aged between 50 and 64, every five years (Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2013). The 2013 national statistics for the UK screening programme indicated that 78.3% of eligible women were up to date with their smear screening (Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2013).

Cervical Cytology

The focus of this essay is on the process that takes place in the pathology laboratory, where the cervical samples are sent for cytological screening. A cervical cell sample that has no abnormal cells is categorised cytologically as being negative (negative for the presence of HPV or risk of cervical cancer). Alternatively, samples may be identified as containing borderline abnormal changes, or having dyskaryosis (Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2013). In some literature the terms dysplasia or CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) seem to be used in place of dyskaryosis (Eifel et al., 2011), but NHS literature seems to make most consistent reference to dyskaryosis. The extent of dyskaryosis is then classified across a range from mild to severe. Depending upon the severity, the woman may be referred for colposcopy or recalled for a repeat cervical smear test 6-12 months later. In the 2013 national statistics, 6.5% of cervical samples were identified as being abnormal, although only 1.2% were classified as being high risk (Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2013).

Recently a new cytological screening technique has been developed, called liquid based cytology (LBC). The aim of this new method was initially to try to reduce false-negative and false-positive results (Karnon et al., 2004; Siebers et al., 2009), as well as the number of samples that are ‘inadequate’ or ‘unsatisfactory’ for effective screening (Arbyn et al., 2008; Siebers et al., 2009). In the conventional cytology method, a woman’s cervical sample is transferred directly from the collection spatula onto a microscopic slide (Arbyn et al., 2008; Moss et al., 2003). This transfer process seems to sometimes lead samples to be ‘inadequate’ for screening because the transferred cells are too difficult to clearly discern. This manual process does also, very occasionally, result in false results, even when conducted by experienced cytologists. The liquid based cytology (LBC) method involves a slightly different approach to the preparation of the slides. The cell sample is placed into a vial containing a preservative fluid (Arbyn et al., 2008; Moss et al., 2003). This creates a liquid suspension of the sample, which can then be poured onto the slide in a very thin, uniform layer. However, debate remains over whether this method really offers a substantial improvement over conventional cytology. The main points of contention surround accuracy and cost effectiveness, with other arguments relating to patient anxiety and opportunities for HPV testing.

Exploring the Issues
Accuracy

Evidence is mixed over whether LBC offers a substantial improvement in accuracy compared to conventional cytology. Early studies, such as that by Monsonego et al. (2001), were very favourable towards LBC. Further, in an extension of the LBC technique described earlier, it became possible for a computerised system to read the LBC slides to identify potential areas of concern prior to examination by a cytologist (Davey et al., 2007). Across a large Australian sample of over 55,000 women, Davey et al. (2007) found that this method of LBC was significantly better at detecting additional high grade histology cases than conventional cytology. However, more recent studies seem to undermine these reputed improvements of LBC over conventional cytology. For instance, in 2009, Siebers et al, drawing upon a sample of close to 90,000 women in the Netherlands, concluded that LBC “is neither more sensitive nor more specific in detecting CIN or cancer” (p.1764). This same point is reiterated almost exactly by Arbyn et al. (2008) at the end of their thorough review of the most reputable, gold standard comparison studies.

Whilst this creates a somewhat inconclusive picture, it is evident that LBC has not offered as marked an improvement in accuracy as might have been hoped. However, it is important to point out that none of the studies suggest that LBC is less accurate than conventional cytology. In fact, all of the studies mentioned above agree that LBC probably is more sensitive at picking up mild abnormalities and changes. It is just that this too is framed from a negative angle in the more recent studies because of concerns that unnecessarily following up these cases, when they are likely to be cleared by the patient naturally, would waste resources that would be better focused on high risk patients (Arbyn et al., 2008).

There is, however, one clear point that emerges in favour of LBC in relation to accuracy. All studies seem to conclude that LBC does reduce the number of inadequate or unsatisfactory samples (Arbyn et al., 2008; Davey et al., 2007; Doyle et al., 2006; Moss et al., 2003; Siebers et al., 2009; Williams, 2006). For example, when LBC was initially trialled at three sites in the UK in 2002, Moss et al. (2003) collated data showing that LBC reduced inadequate slide preparations from 9% of samples down to 1-2%. In Scotland the difference was even greater, falling from 13% to 1.9%, and consequently referrals to colposcopy for women with repeated unsatisfactory results dropped from 25% to just 0.5% (Williams, 2006). These improvements substantially raise the efficiency of the whole screening programme. Therefore, it seems likely to have been these sorts of results that influenced the NHS that it would be cost effective to adopt LBC across the UK (Arbyn et al., 2008; Moss et al., 2003; Williams, 2006).

Cost Effectiveness

Turning to cost effectiveness, there are a number of aspects to take into consideration. As mentioned above, LBC may lead to a potential increase in costs if there is an increase in following up low risk abnormalities. Whilst this is framed negatively by Arbyn et al. (2008) it might be better, both for the patient and economically, to fully confirm that there is no cancer risk earlier on, rather than allowing any potential cancer to develop. Further, the significant reduction in inadequate samples may outweigh this through much larger potential savings. Reducing the number of women who are recalled due to an inadequate sample saves valuable nursing time, reduces administration costs and reduces the costs associated with repeating the whole procedure. With these primary care benefits in mind, Moss et al. (2003) estimated that LBC could generate savings of between one to ten million pounds annually.

More recent studies have focused on the laboratory to consider whether LBC improves productivity during this part of the process. Doyle et al. (2006) studied several laboratories during the change over from conventional cytology to LBC and found that on average each scientist was able to process more samples per day. The data collated by Williams (2006) similarly demonstrated that overall workload in the laboratories decreased and backlogs were cleared. Presumably, if LBC is combined with the computerised imaging technology that automates a large part of the process, there may be further efficiency as cytologist time and effort can be focused on the samples identified to contain abnormalities.

Of course, all of this economising does not take into account the initial investment costs involved, or the on-going cost of the LBC specific materials. It is notable that both techniques mentioned in the NHS pilot study, ThinPrep and SurePath, are registered trademarks. Perhaps this is why more recent studies tend to argue that one of the disadvantages of LBC is that it is more expensive, both in terms of initial outlay and on-going operating costs (Arbyn et al., 2008; Eifel et al., 2011). Therefore, Arbyn et al. (2008) suggest that “economic advantage might be peculiar to the United Kingdom where inadequacy rates for the conventional Pap were excessively high” (p.175).

Patient Anxiety

Beyond economics, another important point to consider is patient anxiety. A benefit of reducing inadequate samples is the reduction in anxiety for the patient. Although the nurse may try to reassure the woman that an inadequate sample does not indicate any abnormality, it may be difficult for the patient not to fear a risk of cancer. On the otherhand, if minor abnormalities picked up via LBC are followed up, as Arbyn et al. (2008) suggest, this might create unnecessary stress and anxiety for these patients and their families. This seems to suggest that between the two technologies patient anxiety may balance out – being alleviated for some patients or created for others. However, perhaps the balance swings in favour of LBC here, as it would seem preferable to monitor cases of mild abnormality just in case these progress, rather than to create unnecessary anxiety due simply to technical inferiority.

HPV Testing

The other key advantage of LBC is the potential it offers to conduct additional laboratory tests. Preparing an LBC slide from the cervical sample uses only a small amount of the solution in the vial. Therefore, the remainder can be subjected to further tests. In particular, it is now possible for laboratories to test for the presence of HPV using HPV DNA testing (Kitchener et al., 2011). Any cases showing cell abnormalities during LBC can undergo HPV testing on the same sample. This might clarify any false-negative cases or mild abnormalities without the woman even knowing. It would also reduce the costs of referring false-negative patients for colposcopy or for an unnecessary recall screening.

Whilst controversy has largely focused on conventional cytology and LBC, the NHS actually introduced LBC in combination with HPV testing (Moss et al., 2003). Recent studies have demonstrated that HPV testing may be more powerful than cytology, and suggest it may come to replace cytology as the primary screening technique (Katki et al., 2011; Kitchener et al., 2011). Katki et al. 2011 advocate that one negative result via HPV testing offers “strong reassurance against cervical cancer for five years in women from age 30” (p.1470). This could significantly reduce primary care costs as currently women aged 30-50 are tested every 3 years under the NHS screening programme. Kitchener et al. (2011) have gone further than this, suggesting that HPV testing might even allow the interval between cervical screens to be extended to every six years.

Conclusion

There has been significant debate around the shift from conventional to liquid based cytology when screening for cervical cancer. This has been particularly heightened given the evidence that LBC does not appear to reduce false-positive or false-negative results in the way that had been hoped. However, in the UK at least, LBC significantly reduces the number of ‘inadequate’ samples, reducing primary care costs and patient anxiety in these cases. Although it is a little unclear whether LBC is more cost effective when all costs are taken into consideration, it seems that by investing in the technique the NHS is now well placed to quickly and easily adopt new scientific developments, such as wide-scale HPV testing. Given LBC, HPV DNA testing and the HPV vaccination, cervical cancer prevention seems to be a rapidly advancing area of science where new developments progress fairly quickly from research into routine health practice. Therefore, it seems wise that the NHS chose to invest in LBC and HPV testing when it did so that it can keep apace, and continue to offer cutting edge cancer screening to women.

References

Arbyn, M., Bergeron, C., Klinkhamer, P., Martin-Hirsch, P., Siebers, A. G., & Bulten, J. (2008). Liquid compared with conventional cervical cytology: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 111(1), 167-177.

Bosch, X. F., & Iftner, T. (2005). The aetiology of cervical cancer. Sheffield: NHS Cancer Screening Programmes.

Davey, E., d’Assuncao, J., Irwig, L., Macaskill, P., Chan, S. F., Richards, A., & Farnsworth, A. (2007). Accuracy of reading liquid based cytology slides using the ThinPrep Imager compared with conventional cytology: prospective study (Vol. 335).

Doyle, B., O’Farrell, C., Mahoney, E., Turner, L., Magee, D., & Gibbons, D. (2006). Liquid-based cytology improves productivity in cervical cytology screening. Cytopathology, 17(2), 60-64.

Eifel, P. J., Berek, J. S., & Markman, M. A. (2011). Cancer of cervix, vagina, and vulva. In V. T. DeVita, T. S. Lawrence, & S. A. Rosenberg (Eds.), DeVita, Hellman and Rosenberg’s Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology (9th ed.). Phildelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

Health and Social Care Information Centre. (2013). Cervical screening programme, England 2012-13. Leeds: UK Statistics Authority. Retrieved from http://www.hscic.gov.uk

Karnon, J., Peters, J., Platt, J., Chilcott, J., McGoogan, E., & Brewer, N. (2004). Liquid-based cytology in cervical screening: An updated rapid and systematic review and economic anylsis. Health Technology Assessment, 8(20).

Katki, H. A., Kinney, W. K., Fetterman, B., Lorey, T., Poitras, N. E., Cheung, L., . . . Castle, P. E. (2011). Cervical cancer risk for women undergoing concurrent testing for human papillomavirus and cervical cytology: a population-based study in routine clinical practice. The Lancet Oncology, 12(7), 663-672.

Kitchener, H. C., Castle, P. E., & Cox, J. T. (2006). Chapter 7: Achievements and limitations of cervical cytology screening. Vaccine, 24, Supplement 3(0), S63-S70.

Kitchener, H. C., Gilham, C., Sargent, A., Bailey, A., Albrow, R., Roberts, C., . . . Peto, J. (2011). A comparison of HPV DNA testing and liquid based cytology over three rounds of primary cervical screening: Extended follow up in the ARTISTIC trial. European Journal of Cancer, 47(6), 864-871.

Monsonego, J., Autillo-Touati, A., Bergeron, C., Dachez, R., Liaras, J., Saurel, J., . . . Mottot, C. (2001). Liquid-based cytology for primary cervical cancer screening: a multi-centre study. British Journal of Cancer, 84(3), 360-366.

Moss, S. M., Gray, A., Legood, R., & Henstock, E. (2003). Evaluation of HPV/LBC cervical screening pilot studies. UK: First report to the Department of Health evaluation of LBC (December 2002).

Siebers, A. G., Klinkhamer, P. J. J. M., Grefte, J. M. M., Massuger, L. F. A. G., Vedder, J. E. M., Beijers-Broos, A., . . . Arbyn, M. (2009). Comparison of liquid-based cytology with conventional cytology for detection of cervican cancer precursors. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 302(16), 1757-1764.

Williams, A. R. W. (2006). Liquid-based cytology and conventional smears compared over two 12-month periods. Cytopathology, 17(2), 82-85.

This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

In the age where media inhabits numerous conduits for the production of culture it is difficult to imagine culture without its mediated form, from television and comic books to fashion and postcards, culture is derived through a range of diverse vehicles. We experience our cultural life through media in various ways.

Modern society is founded on universal law, enlightenment of reason and science is the solution to social problems, utopia is possible (except the poor will always be poor); Western-centric humanism will save the world; mass consumption means mass employment and modern society contained in the grand narrative of history.

Progressive social transformation of the post-modern turn will take us on new adventures; resituating science, technology, society & capitalism into a multi-perspective and multi-disciplinary framework. One attempt to account for the emergence of post-modern condition is the shift during the 20th century of the economic needs of capitalism from production to consumption. Reality is what we see fit by these various forms of seductive illusion.

The prefix ‘post’ clearly implies a break, a relation to a period that has happened before. In the case of post-modernism the previous period is undoubtedly ‘modernism’. Thus, postmodernism refers to a breakdown of the distinction between culture and society – emergence of a social order in which the importance and power of the mass media and popular culture means that they govern and shape all forms of social relationships. For Lyotard, a key post-modernism theorist, the post-modern condition is neither a periodizing concept nor does it refer to the institutional parameters of modernity and post-modernity. Rather it is:

“…the condition of knowledge in the most highly developed societies. I have decided to use the word post-modern to describe that condition… (it) designates the state of our culture following the transformations which, since the end if nineteenth century, have altered the rules for science, literature, and the arts” (Lyotard, 1991, pg xxiii)

Lyotard refers to postmodernism as a loss of faith in meta-narratives, the big stories that have justified the rational, scientific, artistic and political world of the modern world. Rejection of all overarching and totalising thought; Marxism, liberalism, etc. that tell universal stories which organize and justify the everyday practices of a plurality of different stories (narratives); Science, which has developed importance since the Enlightenment, has assumed the status of a meta-narrative, organizing and validating other narratives on the road to liberation. Lyotard says “since Enlightenment status as a meta-narrative has waned.” Science is no longer seen to be making progress on behalf of mankind.

It’s a breakdown in distinction between art and popular culture: there are no longer any agreed and definite criteria which serve to differentiate art from popular culture. For example, take Warhol – Velvet Underground art becomes increasingly integrated into the economy both because it is used to encourage people to consume through the expanded role it plays in advertising, and because it becomes a commercial good in its own right.

Popular cultural signs and media images increasingly dominate our sense of reality, and the way we define ourselves and the world around us. The world which tries to come to terms with a media-saturated society.

Mass media was once thought of as holding up a mirror to, and reflecting society. Now, reality can only be defined as the surface reflections of this mirror. Society has become subsumed within mass media – it is no longer a question of distortion of reality, since the term implies that there is a reality outside the surface simulations of the media, which can be distorted, and this is precisely what is at issue according to post-modern theory. Is the media creating reality?

Linked to this is the notion that it is more difficult to distinguish the economy from popular culture. The realm of consumption is increasingly influenced by popular culture. For example, we watch more films because we have a VCR, then they reference and advertise products that we go and buy. Surface and style have become more important and evoke a kind of designer ideology. The obsession with being super-model thin, fad-diets, use of sexuality, football, designer clothing, and many more simulations that work as a network in exchange order with each other to create reality narrative for post-modern consumer. The argument is we increasingly consume images and signs for their own sake rather than for their usefulness or for the deeper values they may symbolise. The very values that ‘modernists’ used to talk about.

In the production-era machines had to be built and updated, basic materials like iron and steel made, infrastructures such as roads, rail, communication had to be laid down, the work force had to be taught the work ethic: Taylorisation and Fordism. Once this was established, the need for consumption emerges. And people need to acquire a consumer ethic. The need to consume becomes equal to the need to produce. Increased affluence combined with consumer credit, advertising, marketing and design. Culture celebrates consumerism and style, therefore the media becomes more important. New occupations or changed role of older ones involved in need to make people consume: advertisers, marketing, design, journalism, television, finance, etc.

Consuming images

In his essays, Stuart Hall has conceptualized the production and consumption of the television message as a complex social construction of meaning within the semiotic framework. His theory of encoding/decoding is very important in the discourse of consumption of advertising in TV. The polysemic images have been encoded in a particular way and the process of decoding is not symmetrical. Looking back at the work of Barthes we understand that advertising texts are polysemic and at the connotative level of signification signs possess fluidity which enables them to be articulated in multiple ways (Barthes, 1973, pg 122). Eco argues that the viewers determination to decode the message in aberrant ways are to be found in the readers general framework of cultural references such as his ideological, ethical religious standpoint, value systems, etc, (Eco, 1998, 141).

Following the same path of consumption and ideology, Baudrillard follows Althuesser in arguing that the subject is constituted through social classifications and ideological processes. Ideology converts humans into subjects. Ideology lets us mistakenly recognize ourselves as autonomous self-determining agents, whereas in fact we are subjects formed through a social physic processes. Ideology therefore is not the mirrored inversion of the real but our imaginary or symbolic to our shared conditions of existence. Watching the latest Levi jeans advertisement we are addressed as individual consumers with our own unique passion and desires. The ideological effect of the ad lies in its ability to interpellate us in this way. Althusser complicates Marx beautifully by not accepting the concept of ideology as false consciousness. It is material practice produced by ideological state apparatuses. It makes us think are sovereign consumers rather than a member of social class. (Stevenson, 2002,150)

In the age of postmodernism where the product is a sign instead of a commodity, as Baudrillard argues, the way in which adverts are consumed by television viewers depend on the very same framework Eco talks about. Jean Baudrillard’s essay “The Ecstasy of Communication” evokes TV and its technologies as a metaphor for the regime of simulation in the contemporary western culture.

A TV screen cannot be thought simply as an object to be looked at, with all the old forms of psychic projection and investment; instead, the screen intersects responsively with our desires and representation and becomes an embodied from of our psychic worlds. What happens on the screen is neither on the screen nor in us, but in some complex, virtual space between the two. Marshall McCluhan’s notion that the “medium is the message” is clearly related to consumption theory. McCluhan argues that television influences viewers’ thinking processes and leads to alienation and individualism. But McCluhan sees this not as the result of television content but rather caused by the sensory nature of the medium itself. It is the form of the medium, according to McCluhan, and not its content that influence viewers (Mcluhan, 2002, pg7).

TV advertising is a representative part of the arena where the post-modern scene of simulation takes on the relationship between the product and consumer. Baudrillard has contributed significantly towards the theory of consumption. He abandoned Marxist analysis after his book called the ‘Symbolic Exchange and Death’ (1976). He argues that through a more explicitly post-industrial analysis the real relations of production and consumption have been replaced by a sign system. According to Baudrillard the arrival of consumer society requires a radical reconstruction of critical theory. Baudrillard argues that before goods (objects) can be consumed they must become signs (Baudrillard, 1988, pg 23). The meaning of the objects is established through the organisation of signs into codes. It is only through these codes that people realise their sense of self and their needs. The codes themselves are hierarchically ordered, being used to signify distinction of statue and prestige. As Baudrillard argues “a need is not for a particular object as much as it is a ‘need’ for difference (the desire for social meaning) only then we will understand that satisfaction can never be fulfilled, and consequently that there can never be a definition of needs”. A subject whose needs are fixed by human nature does not consume the object. Social goods are consumed not to satisfy pre-existing needs but to signify social distinctions.

We have become completely absorbed by adverts, images and simulation. Baudrillard would call this simulation as an ecstasy of the real. In Baudrillard’s “hyper-reality” and “simulacra” terms, the storied images of Nike sports heroes are more real than the reality of Third World workers to millions of consumers. However this consuming condition is an obsession and the product of late capitalism in Western societies.

Digitally created commercials – Faking the real

When we examine television advertising we once again find art and technology being used to create simulations that tell stories in an effort to evoke desired reactions from audiences. But in advertising we see a strange new cultural creation: the 20-second ‘cinematic’ production full of dancing, singing and joke-telling characters playing physicians, housewives, and used car salesmen, with ultra-abbreviated plots and quick resolutions of conflict in which the characters overcome obstacles and fulfil their desires in record time with the help of the product. Unlike movies, which will evoke the wrath of the audience if the unfolding of the story is interrupted, in commercials there is virtually no story to interrupt. The entire commercial is a dynamic, graphic, field composed of images, music, theatrical performances, superimposed illustrations, narration, and other elements, which reinforce each other to achieve their effect.

Commercials also include another kind of simulation in the form of digitally manipulated images that are used to portray another realm of fantasy in which the limits imposed by the physical world no longer seem to be in effect. As a result, they are full of talking dogs, giant sized children, products that zoom into space, dancing credit cards and scenes that suddenly become two-dimensional which spin out of existence, creating a virtual world that surpasses anything produced by Imax or Nintendo.

Commercials take these elements – visual fantasy, deceptive images of the products, and false claims – and weave them into their various approaches. There are, perhaps, a handful of approaches that they rely on and put together in different ways, just as theme parks, video games, television and news fall into a few basic categories.

The product, no longer able to offer satisfaction on its own ground (“a potato chip is a chip is a chip”), instead offers the consumer a chance to be part of a certain ‘crowd’ or ‘scene.’ They belong to a cool “product tribe,” revelling in the image and sensibility that the product somehow mystically confers – the fetishism of commodities. More and more people are being sold style, image, and celebrity, since there is no substance or material satisfaction to the product-in-itself. Concealed within the jump-cut flash of post-modern advertising is a simple code: consumption is a mode of transcendence, a way to take part in something larger than yourself, the “Pepsi Generation.” Today, ads are filled with a strange sort of rugged selfishness, misanthropy, and mean-spirit people (“touch my Doritos and die.”) A person is told sternly to buy as much as they can of the product but never to share with friends. “Get your own,” they’re told. Latest ads on TV have that narrative that goes on and on and takes the form of a mini soap or a series of short cinematic films. The product is like a movie star. The product has taken the stand of the character in the commercial. It has become another simulation for audiences. Small Nokia phones that are given a character play a different role in each different Nokia commercial.

Digital technology has given designers the ability to make real characters and models that we see in everyday TV. The big entities spend millions of pounds in one 60 second commercial. The commercial has the production company behind it; director, actors and the whole set that would normally be used in film production.

Many television commercials thus give us another variation on Umberto Eco’s absolute fakes; they are false promises that make everything seem better than it is. Like theme parks, they make mundane realities look like transcendent utopias.

All cultures place people inside invented worlds, so that in itself, isn’t what is new about all this. The human world is by nature full of fictionalization and metaphor and drenched in stories and metaphysical assumptions, much of it contrived by conscious and unconscious design to support the claims of those in power. But never before has a culture been scientifically invented in this way, using the tools of rationalization – including marketing studies and computers – to sell products and a way of life. These tools of rationality extract the essence of our own irrationality – our fantasies, imbued with fears and desires – and give them back to us in the form of their invented worlds. Real experiences and things have been replaced with simulacra – copies without an original. Due to the power of mass media advertising, our relationship to the signifier has changed. Now it hides the absence of a signified: conceals the inability to deliver real satisfaction by cleverly simulating it. Part of our hyper-real lives is the fact that our simulations are more real than real.

This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

Introduction

Some of the artists known for their work of art in the Renaissance period consist of Giovanni Bellini, Leonardo Da Vinci, Titian, Michelangelo and Raphael. The Renaissance was a time period in which stunning sculptures and artwork increased all over the world (Denna’s World: The Renaissance, 2008). It described the high points of humanism and the expression of creativity and beauty of life. The Renaissance period rapidly approached the simplicity, monumentality and heftiness of the art of Renaissance of the early 16th century (Denna’s World: The Renaissance, 2008).

Artists and their contribution

The three artists which I have chosen are Leonardo de Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo.

Leonardo Da Vinci

Leonardo Da Vinci was the incarnation of the Renaissance ideal of the universal man. He was the first artist to achieve comprehensive mastery all over the branches of art (Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519), 2008). Besides being a scholar in the natural sciences, medicine and philosophy, Vinci was a painter, sculptor, architect and engineer. He was an Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor whose brilliant paintings characterized the Renaissance humanist ideal. His art contribution includes: The last supper, Mona Lisa and St. Jerome in the Wilderness (Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519), 2008).

The last Supper

The Last Supper is a 15th century painting created by Leonardo Da Vinci for his supporters. His painting particularly portrays the reaction given by each follower when Jesus said one of them would deceive him (Leonardo Da Vinci, 2008). With various degrees of anger and shock, all twelve apostles have different reactions to the news.

Mona Lisa:

During the Italian Renaissance, Mona Lisa is a 16th century portrait painted in oil by Leonardo Da Vinci. The painting depicts a woman whose expression is often described as enigmatic (Leonardo Da Vinci, 2008). The ambiguity of the sitter’s expression, the monumentality of the half-figure composition and the subtle forms of modeling were the qualities that have contributed to the fascination in the painting (Leonardo Da Vinci, 2008).

St. Jerome in the Wilderness

This painting was an unfinished painting by Leonardo Da Vinci. The painting depicts Saint Jerome during his draw back to the Syrian Desert, where he lived the life of a solitary person (Leonardo Da Vinci, 2008).

Raphael Sanzio

Raphael was an Italian painter and designer of the Renaissance period. He was known for the excellence and refinement of his paintings and drawings. Raphael is best known for his large shape compositions in the Vatican in Rome (Raphael, 2008).

Vision of knight

The theme of the painting was controversial. The painting depicts a sleeping knight who was dreaming to choose between Virtue and Pleasure. There were two feminine figures that were representing as the ideal attributes of the knight (Raphael, 2008). The picture holds the ideals of a scholar, soldier and lover.

Madonna and the child

The painting describes a woman known as Madonna who is holding the Christ Child with enormous kindheartedness. The pictures itself says that they two are linked in such a way that any reader can read the book which is open for all (Raphael, 2008).

Connestabile Madonna

The Connestabile Madonna is a small and unfinished painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. The painting reveals the Madonna holding the Child while reading a book (Raphael, 2008).

Michelangelo: Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter, architect, and poet who usually used to make the use of an unparalleled influence on the expansion of Western art.

Bacchus: Bacchus is a marble sculpture designed by Michelangelo. The statue represents Bacchus, the Roman god of wine, in a revolutionary intoxicated state. Bacchus is shown with rolling eyes, with staggering body, almost teetering off the rocky outcrop, sitting behind a faun and eating the bunch of grapes that are slipping out of his left hand (Michelangelo, 2005).

David: It is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture and one of the greatest works of Michelangelo. The painting describes the statue of the young Israelite king David that almost without doubt holds the title of the most identifiable stone sculpture in the history of art. The picture is regarded both the symbol of strength and youthful human beauty (Michelangelo, 2005).

Pieta: it is a marble sculpture designed by the Michelangelo. This work of art gives a picture of the body of Jesus on the knees of his mother Mary after the excruciation. The theme is basically of Northern origin (Michelangelo, 2005).

I have chosen these particular pieces because their work is admired for the clarity of form and ease of composition and for the visual achievement of the ideal of human dignity. The structural design of the Italian Renaissance period is the most lucid and comprehensive volume available till today.

The painting of these artists extravagantly illustrates the readers everything they need to know about the architectural life of the paintings and drawings. The art in Renaissance shows the freshness and breadth of approaches used by the artists. The drawings of the renaissance period focus on works of art, their creators and the state of affairs that affect the creation. The sculpture of Michelangelo defines the work of art very clearly and specifically.

Renaissance period

The renaissance period was a period of attractive artwork and structures. These pictures and sculptures boomed all over the Western Europe. The renaissance period of art was expected to commence in Rome, but it started out in Italy where there was always a remainder of classical-styled structural design (Denna’s World: The Renaissance, 2008). In renaissance period, there was a greater interest in the depictions of pattern and color.

Color was underlined by utilizing the diverse marble inlays, for example, the front wall of the church of the Certosa di Pavia and Venetian structural design. There were many painters and sculptors from the period of renaissance period. All these paintings and the sculptures are the important work of art and also balance the Renaissance ideals of classical beauty with naturalism (Denna’s World: The Renaissance, 2008).

The museums which I visited at the end of the essay are Musee du Louvre in Paris and Vatican Museums, Rome.

References

Denna’s World; The Renaissance,(2008). Retrieved June 11, 2008 from http://www.dworldonline.com/REN.HTM

Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519). Retrieved June 11, 2008 from http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEducation/greatartists/DaVinci/about/

Leonardo Da Vinci, (2008). Retrieved June 11, 2008 from http://www.abcgallery.com/L/leonardo/leonardo.html

Michelangelo, (2005). Retrieved June 11, 2008 from http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/michelangelo/

Raphael, (2008). Retrieved June 11, 2008 from http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/raphael/