Author: Andre Coleman

Conviction before an Investigation Takes Rights away from both the Victims and the Accused

A recent uproar at the Dalhousie Dentistry educational institution is leaving both sides of the argument feeling wronged. The controversy is based on the supposed remarks posted on a private Facebook page for a group referred to as the “Class of DDS Gentlemen” which includes 13 members. It recently came to light that some of the students have been accused of posting violently sexual remarks directed towards women on that Facebook page. Some of the comments directly reference students from that dentistry class. The editorial argues that the partial suspension is only beneficial for the culprits and in no way helps to support the victims in which the harmful sexual comments were directed towards. I support this editorial’s perspective about the way the school handled this case which illustrates a lack of consistency. The attention given to the perspective of the victims that are involved with this case is not justified but I will be critiquing the author’s reasoning and arguing that the accused students should be suspended. I will argue that not all 13 students should be reprimanded based on the information provided within this editorial as this piece illustrates a complex view of which members are truly the wrongdoers. I will also argue that a variation of classes should be offered based on the partial suspension the school has initiated to honour the idea that no suspect should be deemed guilty before a proper evaluation of all the information.

The author of this editorial strongly argues that all 13 members of this Facebook page should be suspended based on what was posted on Facebook. The author clearly states. “the violent, misogynist comments posted by some of the members of the private Facebook page called “Class of DDS Gentlemen”” (Thestar.com). Comments referenced some female students from the class, asking “‘who would you like to hate f—k?’ — where they rated their choices. Other posts joked about using chloroform on women. In another post, a woman is shown in a bikini with a caption that says ‘Bang until stress is relieved or unconscious (girl)’” (Thestar.com). The severity of the supposed postings by some members of this class illustrates the violent sexual content illustrating the need to investigate those who posted this information. Not all 13 students should be punished if they did not all make any comments connected with this harmful content. The first thing that must be reviewed is exactly which members of the group directly posted the comments or supporting discussion that was linked to a sexually violent nature of conversation.

The author’s argument that the school did not handle the situation properly is relevant, however the outcome that is proposed defies the legal system that is meant to operate in a fair and just manner. Firstly the author is correct in indicating anger that it was “nearly a month after women complained” that something was done by the school. In support of following the proper procedures of a justice system the school should have acted immediately. The author indicates that the action should have been a full suspension. The argument that is offered indicates “so far. Dalhousie has gone a long way towards balancing the rights of the accused and those of potential victims. However, it has fallen short on one important point: it should suspend the 13 men involved from classes as well as clinics” (Thestar.com). The point is not well argued as it defies the very idea of rights that entitle the accused to a fair proceeding. The school has suspended the

students partially indicating a grave concern that these men are in contact with innocent patients within the clinical component of this semester. The author argues, “the partial suspension is serious. 13 fourth-year students cannot work with patients or classmates in the school’s dental clinic, a requirement for graduation this spring” (Thestar.com). The fact that the school has taken action to protect patients is a strong argument that is presented by the author. In agreeing with this opinion, the lack of attention to the female students in the class is alarming, as they have either directly or indirectly have been spoken about within a violent and sexualized context by those accused fellow classmates. The author’s concern is valid, however, I will argue that they should not be suspended from class but should be offered an independent study period while the accusations are being investigated.

The first issue that is recognized within this editorial is the wrongful grouping of all members of this Facebook group as being regarded as directly involved with the accusations that are being made. The author argues that some of the members posted those comments. It is recognized that simply being a part of a group does not make everyone necessarily responsible for the deeds that may be performed by several members of that party. The author of this editorial indicates that those who are guilty of posting such degrading and violently abusive comments should be punished. This is justifiable; however, the need to ensure that those who are guilty of these very actions that are being described must be clarified. This editorial continuously calls for the suspension of all 13 men; however, this is a flawed argument. The need to act in a just manner as argued in the editorial on behalf of the victims should also be extended to those who may be in the group but may not have offered any of the negative remarks being reviewed. The recognition that there could be members of the group who may not have added comments must be acknowledged. It is important to ensure only those connected with posting those comments face the ramifications of being investigated and facing the temporary rules issued by the school during this process.

The second argument offered reinforces the necessity of issuing a fair trial to ensure that both sides of this conflict are treated in a just manner. The editorial suggests for the immediate suspension from all classes of the 13 members of this Facebook group. That is unfair to the rights of those who currently have been accused of this action. The need for a fair trial is necessary before such extreme and final action can be made. That direct suspension could jeopardize the school career of these students. Should they be found innocent, or connected to foul play this represents an unfair situation for the students. The editorial indicates that the victims should be treated with respect and that a balance needs to be struck between the opposing parties. That being said the author is correct that the balance of justice should be maintained. The proposition that should be offered is a compromise between what the editorial has suggested as well as the actions that the school has taken. To suspend the students is to illustrate that they are guilty but this has not been determined as yet as the investigation is still under way. The school has already acted in a harmful manner by taking action a month after the information was brought to their attention. The suggestion is to let the accused student’s remain connected with the professors (outside of the classroom) based on the current scenario. They have paid their tuition and are entitled to be educated until this matter is fully investigated and resolved. The school feels that they should not be able to interact with clinical patients to protect those individuals should these students be found of wrongdoing. That being said, that same courtesy must be extended to the other students in the classroom. Specific females in the class were ridiculed and referenced in a sexually violent manner that is quite disturbing. Their rights must be protected as they may feel threatened and the school must act accordingly. Another example that may be used to offer a correlation to this case could be reviewed in the case of a parent who may be accessed of abuse. The children are removed from custody to ensure that they are protected while the matter is investigated. The school must also protect these female students during this time. The suggestion, however, of suspending the accused students fails to ensure the rights of those men. The editorial argues for the balance of rights to be performed within this scenario. To ensure the women are offered a fair set of rights also means the accused men should also be treated in a fair manner. Justice can only work if everyone is treated equally. If the justice system does not adhere to that model of equilibrium, then no one is safe, undermining the freedom of everyone. The editorial does not offer a sense of balance as suggested by the need for suspension as that illustrates a commentary of guilty before a trial has even begun. The women must be protected and creating an alternative level of study for the accused students becomes pertinent as further investigations are completed.

The editorial takes a strong stance on the actions that Dalhousie has taken in light of the postings that have been made public. The necessity to be ready to properly deal with these types of concerns swiftly and justly illustrates the need to protect victims at the centre of these cases. The editorial rightfully highlights an imbalance between the victims and the suspected culprits. The flaw in this work indicates the passing of judgment before a rightful investigation has been made. Accusing all 13 men and saying they must be suspended undermines the integrity of the justice system. To use the justice system to protect these women means adhering to the rules that govern that very system. Firstly, the determination of the men who are connected to the comments should be found. Only those men should be offered another form of schooling outside of the current parameters of class lectures and clinical practice. The school’s failure to immediately address this issue is where the tension of being perceived as flippant about the safety and well-being of the victims is recognized. One month is far too long to take action against the allegations of sexually violent comments being made against classmates. The school must set an example that they will immediately act in a fair manner to both sides to ensure that the reputation of the school is not tarnished. Suspending the students before a full investigation of the case fails to respect the justice system. The fulfillment of the guidelines that promote justice is necessary to protect these women as well as those only suspected of this crime. The responsible thing to do is to act right away and prevent any emotional turmoil, which results in the suspected students being investigated while continuing their classes in a diminished and altered capacity. The threat of sexual violence, even in a joking manner, is unethical and to combat that problem acting in an ethical and just way is necessary and can only be achieved by fulfilling a thorough investigation and maintaining the rights of all parties at all times.

Works Cited

“Dalhousie Should Suspend Accused Dental Students from Classes: Editorial.”

Thestar.com. The Star, 6 Jan. 2015. Web.

Task 1 : Explain how Te Tiriti O Waitangi applies in the social services, you must include an overall explanation as well as giving at least three(3) specific examples of how Te Tiriti impacts in the area of assisting people to resettle in the community following residential care.

One of the important concepts to emerge is that Te Tiriti O Waitangi is a living document this means that it was never meant to freeze iwi and their aspirations at the time of signing, but was intended to continue to protect their interest and status as tangata whenua into the future. Another important concept is that Te Tiriti applies not just to Maori and the crown but to all new Zealanders, guaranteeing us all the right to live here peacefully as actives and develop New Zealand together.

The Treaty ensured that Maori, would be given full authority status and prestige with regard to their possessions and interest, the treaty also states that their possessions would be protected, and also the ‘’Mana’’ to control them in accordance with their own customs and having regard to their own cultural preferences.

The treaty established a partnership, and the treaty partners are under a duty to act reasonably and in good faith with one another, the needs of both cultures must be respected, and compromises may be needed in some cases.

Te Tiriti O Waitangi applies in social services by ensuring that all social services have a bi – cultural perspectives e.g. physical environment, protocols and practises.

Partnership

applies in social services by respecting Maori traditional spiritual rites, it describes a relationship between two parties, the concept of partnership applies to all Maori, and it describes the way in which Maori can relate to each other. Partnership means enabling the Maori voice to be heard and Maori perspective to influence the type of health services delivered to Maori people and the way in which they are delivered. It also ensures that social services have a bi – cultural perspective.
Consultation with Maori leadership and management when organisational policies are being discussed in order to ensure Maori have rangatiratanga rights over taonga,they have equity rights’, to full participation in decision making ,treaty follows that Maori should expect to achieve this outcomes and participate in society .
In good faith between two sides (Maori and Crown) social services organisations ensure needs of Maori are pritorised when engaging with Maori or when creating policy that could affect Maori.

Protection

Is also an other principles which can apply in social services .For Maori, a secure cultural identity depends on access to the cultural social and economic resource of tea o Maori (the Maori world),especially te reo /tikanga the Maori language ,whanau, their lands and natural resources.
Protection of Maori identity is likely to be positively correlated with good health, better educational outcomes ,and greater employment we have to ensure that our work practises and environment are culturally appropriate and comfortable for Maori ,and that Maori have opportunities to pursue their employment aspirations and interest, Maoris to have protected rights to make choices that best serve their culture, that line with tika and kawa,their traditions and customary practises, work in environments that feel safe and nurturing.
Maori should be allowed to exercise their Tino Rangatiratanga overall of their taonga and benefit from these taonga, social service worker must respect the right of Maori where Maori can enjoy their taonga in social service settings.

Participation

Maintaining active lines of communication amongst there people family, participating in the karakia, koranga, kai, Whanau-Hui.
Embracing the four corner stones of health i.e. Te Taha Wairua (spiritual) Te Taha Hinegaro (Mental) Te Taha Tinana (Physical) Te Taha Whanau (the family).
Providing freedom for Maori to speak Te-Reo and to participate in any Maori spiritual or cultural practises.

Permission

Consultations of all levels with MAori perspectives, allowing them to speak in their own language Te reo/Tikanga, involve them with kaumatua’s, families support.
Let them participate in any MAori spiritual or cultural practises, also involvement of MAori models of health i.e. Te Whare Tapa Wha to be applied rather than western models when working with MAori.
Services accessibility for the Maori should be permitted. While engaging with Maori clients we can involve a translator who can translate Te reo with Maori clients, allowing them to practise their own culture.

Task 5 Application of social service theory

Explain how your actions throughout the process of assisting people to resettle in the community following residential care were guided and supported by valid theory for social service practise. Include examples.

As a social worker you have to apply all four principles of Treaty O Waitangi. The four principles are Partnership, participation, protection, and permission

A social worker should ensure that the needs of Maori client are taken into account when interacting with Maori or when creating policy that could affect Maori consultation or having Maori representative on the steering committee or their board while creating organisation policies and procedures to ensure that they allow Maori to rangatiratanga over their Taonga.
Social workers must consider cultural values, principles or beliefs under the guidance of Te Tiriti O Waitangi for Maori.
Working together with whanau Hui, involve families for support, allowing client to do her karakia, mirimiri, and involve the client in Maori culture.
A social worker we should always provide safety and confidentiality for the client, respecting clients dignity and integrity, values and beliefs, social worker should build a trust with understanding each other and should have a holistic approach at all times.

Te Reo/Tikanga and Development of Iwi and Maori

Social workers should provide appropriate cultural supervision ,allowing the client to involve in their maoridom ,events like karakia, mirimiri, Maori community, peer group members, providing clients right to speak their language (Te Reo) involving whanau-hui,engaging the client into marae activities, providing the safety and reassuring the client that he or she is the part of facility.
Social worker need to provide appropriate cultural supervision and training so all social workers provide culturally appropriate and safe practise when working with Maori, they should have integrated approach towards Maori wellbeing models and traditional knowledge within the framework of engagement.

Social work ethics

Social worker should be professional ,always provide clear information’s to the clients and following the ANZASW code of ethics ,promoting the clients wellbeing, involving the whanau, and always maintaining their professional boundaries ,showing respect and all relevant information’s should be kept confidential and provide safety to the client.

Maori models of Practise

Maori models of practise should have a holistic approach, we as social worker have to develop good relationship, understanding health, and wellness of whakapapa, have to understand the Maori models of health, e.g Te WhareTapa Wha-four corner stones of Maori health.

Taha Tinana (physical health) provides safe environment, basic needs and inclusiveness. However for Maori physical well-being is intertwined with spiritual, emotional and family well-being.an example of the connection between Te taha wairua and Te taha Tinana is how for Maori the body and things associated with it are tapu. The concept of tapu (meaning sacred) was the basis of law and order and health in traditional Maori society.

Taha Hinegaro-(mental health) provide education ,brochures in Maori language about the sickness, if possible translate, involve Kaumatua,whanau,friends for support. We need to consider the bigger picture retains the essence of the individual while addressing the needs of the whole, Maori think can be described as being holistic, healthy thinking for many Maori is about relationships, communication through emotions is important and more meaningful than the exchange of words and is valued just as much.

We need to consider Te Taha hinegaro, be aware of the different cultural values and beliefs around health and the individual and whanau.
Being respectful and open to these different beliefs and values will ensure meaningful engagement and connections can occur.
In considering chronic care conditions, need to change the focus from individual management to whanau self – management.

Taha Wairua(spiritual health)-practising culture, going to marae, performing karakia, mirimiri, healing body and mind, using herbal medicines. Te Taha Wairua is more on spiritual wellbeing. We need to consider the spiritual wellbeing and health of Maori people, breakdown of relationship could be seen in terms of ill health or lack of personal identity.

Taha Whanau (family health) consultations at all levels of Maori, they must have equal access to all levels of services provided to Maori’s always have to provide care nurturance, which relates with Maori identity and sense of purpose. Within all whanau there are roles and responsibilities, families contribute to a person’s well-being and most importantly a person’s identity. The challenge for practitioners will be in supporting the change from an individual focus to that of a whanau focus.

Referencing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Wait

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/THE+TREATY+OF+WAITANGI+AND+SOCIAL+POLICY.-a054024005

http://whakapapa.maori.org.nz/archives/viewthread.php?TOPIC_ID=3532&Page=

http://www.maori.org.nz/papapanui//archives/viewthread.php?TOPIC_ID=3532

http://moodle.unitec.ac.nz/mod/page/view.php?id=162

1.0: Introduction

Youth work in the community, which is mainly performed by specially trained youth workers who work with youth at risk in group homes and community centres demands a high level of managerial skills blend with the skill in social work as argued by Mark Krueger (2000)^[1]. The fact that the youth work is a non-profit approach makes it clear that the established management concepts were successful in profit-based organization need necessarily prove effective when deployed. In this report an overview of the theories embracing the management and social work with regards to youth and community work is presented to the reader. The report also demonstrates relevant examples from my previous experience in order to justify that the author of this report is ready to perform as an autonomous and reflective practitioner in the area of youth and community work. Furthermore, the report also presents a critical analysis on the British Social policies and the European Union perspective. A brief review on the global view on the youth work is also presented before concluding the report.

2.0: Overview of the theoretical concepts embracing youth and community work with examples

This section commences with the overview on the management and historical content that reflects upon the youth work is presented to the reader. This is then followed by the analysis of the information and control system where the importance of the planning and information management is presented to the reader. The section is then concluded with an overview on the human resource management concepts embracing the youth work.

2.1: Management and historical content

Peter F. Druker (1990)^[2] says that management in the non-profit context is not only about effective performance and development but mainly embraces the idea of value addition to the society. The fact that the non-profit organizations are increasing in number with the support from government and public as argued by Robert F. Ashcraft (2000)^[3]. This is not only because of the fact that the non-profit organizations are focused upon charity and fund raising but also involves the development of people at risk. The youth at risk development, which is of interest in this report, was given high level of importance only since the dawn of the twenty-first century even though it was emphasised by many researchers as early as 1978 by Paul Osterman (1978)^[4].

As stated before, youth work in the community is a non-profit approach where the aim is to provide support and development to the youth at risk. This makes it clear that the nature of the work involved is varied and hence management skills that embrace the social work and value addition are essential than the effective performance managers who fair well in the profit-based organizations.

Furthermore, it is also interesting to note that the youth work is not always about the social work to revive youth in danger but also to provide value-added service to the community in order to develop the youth of the nation through imparting culture and discipline. Alongside, it is also an intriguing fact that even through the youth work is a non-profit approach, the investment involved with the setting up and the running costs of the community work are relatively high with negligible or no income being generated. The support by the government and the local city council being the major source of the support financially, the management skills of the youth workers should not only embrace the efficient cost management methods but also focus upon developing the effective relationship strategy with the community in order to involve the neighbourhood to support the community work morally or even financially as argued by Mark Krueger (2000).

The fact that youth work is predominantly involves the counselling, teaching and caring for the youth who come to the youth shelter having been abused, or in need of respite from home. In these cases the managerial skills of the youth worker should be more empathetic than focusing upon the development. The soft skills of the management like patience, proactive management to support people in need are the essential elements of management that should be demonstrated by a youth worker as argued by Mark Schoenhals (1998)^[5]. This justifies that the effective management in the social work context is not about performance but mainly about the deployment of the soft skills to support the youth in need.

Alongside it is also essential to mention that the youth worker’s management skills should not only reflect upon the development of the youth but also to focus upon the entire neighbourhood the youth worker is working at as argued by Mark Krueger (2000)^[6]. The fact that the youth worker predominantly working in a volatile environment (i.e.) an unstable work place like the temporary youth shelter, working with the parents, foster parents etc as identified by Mark Krueger (2000) makes it clear that the youth worker management skills should be versatile to accommodate the changes in the environment effectively.

The author’s experience from working with the Coventry Youth service has justified the aforementioned argument where the author gained experience of working with the Asian community youth in Hill-fields are of Coventry. Alongside, the student development programme conducted at Binley area which was focused upon the development of the youth through working with the parents and foster parents of the youth is another justification that the versatile management skills that embrace the soft skills is essential for the successful development of the youth work. It is also critical to state here that the author who led the youth development programme at Binley with a team of six youth workers accomplished the goals of the project (provide support and development opportunity to the youth in the community through working with their parents or foster parents) through the efficient deployment of the management skills discussed above.

2.2: Information and Control system

Information and control in the youth work is a critical element in order to achieve the goal of providing development services to the youth. This is mainly because of the fact that the youth worker having to face a varied environment requires accurate and comprehensive information so as to effectively deploy the development plan. Mark Krueger (2000) argues that the information is a vital element for the successful planning of the development plan in a give youth and community work scenario. This is not only because of the need to effectively deploy the resources but also to accomplish the goal of the youth work that is projected for the day. Alongside, it is also essential to note that the control over the youth work is essential in order to accomplish the set goals of the project on hand without wastage of time and resources.

Sara Banks (1998)^[7] argues that the youth work in a community should be deployed in a controlled manner reflecting upon the ethical conduct and code of ethics mainly because of the fact that the youth work itself involves the deployment of self-discipline and control by the youth worker who strives to set an example of himself to the youth community he/she targeting to reform or protect. The fact that the control in the youth work is not the control of the youth but the stages of the programme being deployed makes it a critical that the information gathered is accurate and effective in nature.

The information being the vital ingredient for the deployment of a plan in the youth work as argued by Sara Banks (1998) further justifies that the youth work should comprise effective background research on the community targeted prior to planning. Sara Banks (198) further argues that the information research and the planning can be accomplished effectively and successfully deployed through closely working with the city council and the local community centres by which the youth worker enjoys higher level of support and help from the community.

Sara Banks (1998) also state that stating the objective of the youth work for a particular project is the critical element for the successful planning itself. This is also justified by the arguments of Abraham Daniel (1999)^[8] who says that the objective of the youth work is the main element that attracts the community to participate in the youth development programme by the youth workers. Apart from the objective setting the factors of planning and evaluation are essential in order to deploy the resources since the plan of the youth work devised can be accomplished only through the effective evaluation of the information and plan in the light of the needs in the community targeted.

The youth work participated by the author at Shotton in North Wales where the major barrier was the language because of the predominant Welsh population in the community. Alongside the cultural differences faced by the author and his team members along with the language barrier was overcome only through the effective information research on the community and closely working with the city council. The objective of the work being the rehabilitation of the youth who were under drug abuse was effectively planned through the effective information gathering on the activities of the youth in the community as well as the involvement of the local community centres to support the planning of the project. Furthermore, it is also essential to mention that the author who was the team member during the deployment of this project was given the opportunity of planning the work along with the team leader. It was clearly evident from the experience gained that the efficient planning is an essential element for the successful deployment of the youth work on hand.

Alongside, the work at Shotton also provided valuable experience on the development of the controls around the project and the targets to meet in order to effectively accomplish the revival of the youth from drug abuse in the community. Since the project was initially misinterpreted as a rehabilitation project than support to the community, the marketing and communication of the project objective as a supporting element to develop the youth in the neighbourhood rather than a rehabilitation school. The process of working closely with the local community centres and the city council was highly supportive to achieve the confidence and support from the parents and foster parents of the youth. This is synonymous to the arguments of Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005)^[9] who argue that the marketing communication is the vital tool for successfully reaching the target customers both in case of the profit-based and non-profit organizations.

The discussions cited above comprise a vital example for the critical nature of the information and control in the youth work.

2.3: Human Resource management in youth work

Human resource in any kind of work is indispensable in nature as argued by Derek Torrington and Laura Hall (2003)^[10]. This is apparently because of the fact that the effective performance of the personnel involved in the project is the kindling element for accomplishing the project goals. This is also evident from the arguments of Michael Armstrong (2003)^[11] who emphasises the fact that the human resource especially in a non-profit scenario is the foundation pillar for the entire project itself.

The fact that the motivation and encouragement in the youth work or in any other form of social work is only through the effective leadership skills of the team leader who has to consider that the motivation is purely moral in nature and does not always include financial benefits. This apparently means that the leadership skills of the manager managing the project should be exemplary and must also demonstrate flexibility along with the authority and control. This is essential because of the volatile nature of the community work and the continuous changes that can affect the performance of the team members in involved in the community work.

Andrew Rothwell and John Arnold (2005)^[12] argue that the human resource management in a non-profit scenario and mainly the performance management are dependent upon the level of authority and control exercised by the manager in deploying the resources. This is also because of the fact that the results are not easily measurable in case of youth and community work, which makes it critical to understand that the performance of the youth workers is predominantly dependant upon their adherence to the controls and effectiveness in deploying the plan.

Alongside, the authority element as argued by Mark Krueger (2000) is also an element of management and influence among the team members mainly because of the fact that the managers in the youth and community work do not have direct supervisory control over the team members since they work in a dispersed nature within the community under consideration itself. This makes it clear that the effective management can be accomplished only through the effective exercise of the authority.

Furthermore, the fact that the youth workers and the youth with whom they work comprise the overall project plan makes it a complex job to effectively manage the youth worker to demonstrate self-discipline and character so as to set an example in the youth community they work. This being an essential element for the success of the youth and community work project is the major element that attributes to the human resource management by the managers in the youth work.

Unlike the profit-based organization the non-profit approach with the need to demonstrate empathy and maintain effective relationship with the community makes it further critical for the managers to deploy a structured approach to the management of the youth and social work as argued by Peter F Druker (1990). A structured approach will not only enhance the performance of the youth workers but also help accomplish the objectives of the project effectively. This is also evident from the need to effectively organize the resources in order to accomplish the objectives as well as establish effective relationship with the community. The fact that the relationship with the community can be effectively nurtured through the structured deployment of the project by the managers emphasises the importance of the structured approach and performance management in youth and community work.

The learning development project by the author and his team members at Tividale, in Dudley port at Birmingham is a classical example for the aforementioned discussions. The author being the team leader not only faced the language and cultural barriers but also a level of non-cooperation by certain community centres. Since the population in the target community was of diverse origin the need for a structured approach was essential to accomplish the planning and information research stages itself. This is not only because of the structured deployment but also through the effective deployment of the human resource (i.e.) management of the team members. The team had an inherent advantage of inclusion and diversity since the members were of different origin working for the same goal. This was effectively utilised to liaise with the community centres and gather required information and involvement to the project. The management of the members through the exercise of authority for example the emphasis on working for target by the author was the factor that contributed to the effective performance among the team members. Furthermore, the planning and deployment of the project through allocating each team member a team of youth and an attached community centre also proved successful to the youth work as well as motivating to the youth worker.

The effective planning process, which provided effective management as well as accomplishment of the targets within the time frame agreed, helped to the success of the project greatly.

From the above discussions it is clear that the author of the report has strived to demonstrate a clear understanding of the management theoretical concepts with examples from this experience gained through fieldwork. In the next section a critical analysis on the big picture of the British Youth policies and comparison to that of the European Union and a global perspective is presented to the reader.

3.0: The big picture

The British youth policies as argued by John A. Calhoun (2002)^[13] is predominantly rehabilitation based (i.e.) the use of law and order to accomplish the youth development can be seen in the system. Although the youth development in the UK embraces the welfare of the youth, the stringent laws present on the Binge drinking and other anti-social activities that results in cash penalties and even imprisonment makes the youth policy a little overstated in the UK.

Bill Katz (2004)^[14] further argues that the policies adhered in the UK is not only the critical element for the successful deployment of youth and community work in the society but also establishes the need to establish trust among the public in order to gain their co-operation. The British youth policies in general even through as stringent laws is focused upon the overall development of the youth community in the UK in order to present an effective and sustainable environment for the future. This approach of the government is necessary because of the increasing diversity in the population in the UK.

The interesting fact that the diversity in the UK population has not tarnished the support by the community to government’s strive to youth development but is also against the use of force and law against youth accused for anti-social activities.

The need for self-discipline and control in the society as stated by John A Calhoun (2002) makes it clear that the need to use force when necessary to accomplish the aforementioned is inevitable. Furthermore, an insight into the Greater Manchester Metropolitan Police report (2004)^[15] makes it clear that the use of force is the last used method to control anti-social behaviour by the youth involved in anti-social behaviour. This further makes it clear that youth policy both at the local and national level use force to control anti-social behaviour of youth as a last sought method rather than using it in the first instance. This justifies the youth policy of the nation, which is focused upon the development of youth and protection from abuse whilst exercising force when involved in anti-social behaviour.

The youth policy proposed by the European Union is similar to the approach of UK except for the emphasis on the use of force on youth. The policy not only reflects upon the need to provide development and support to the youth but also emphasises upon the restricted use of force in by the authorities. Since the approach of European Union embraces the member states it is thus essential to emphasise upon the restriction on the use of force. This is because of the varied nature of the exercise of law and order across European Union member states thus making it essential to prevent the use of force on the youth.

It is also intriguing to note that not only the western countries are involved in the youth development and support but also the countries in the Far East like China and India. The Chinese government approach to youth development as a critical element for the economic growth of the nation makes it clear that the Far eastern countries have realised the importance of youth development in order to sustain the economic growth of their nation.

4.0: Conclusion

Thus to conclude this report, it is clear that the management of youth and community work by the youth workers and managers is a challenging role that requires versatile people skills blended with effective management and planning. The overview on the theoretical concepts and the examples has revealed the author’s understanding and knowledge in managing youth and community work.

The overview on the big picture detailing the British youth policy and the European Union has also justified the extent of research conducted in order to establish as an autonomous and reflective practitioner in the area of youth and community work by the author.

5.0: References
Books

Derek Torrington and Laura Hall (2003), Personnel Management HRM in Action, UK: Prentice Hall

Michael Armstrong and Tina Stephens (2003) A handbook of employee reward management and practice, London Kogan Page

Peter F. Druker (1990), Managing the non-profit organization: practices and principles, London: Butterworth-Heinemann

Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005), Marketing Management 12e, Prentice Hall India

Journals and reports

Abraham Daniel (1999), ESTABLISHMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CO-OPERATIVE UNITS. Annals of Public & Cooperative Economics, Vol. 42 Issue 2, p169

Andrew Rothwell and John Arnold (2005), How HR professionals rate ‘continuing professional development‘ Human Resource Management Journal, 2005, Vol. 15 Issue 3, p18-32

Bill Katz (2004), Youth Policy: The Monthly Report on National Youth Program and Issues. Library Journal, 4/1/89, Vol. 114 Issue 6, p119-119

Greater Manchester Metropolitan Police (2004), Performance Statistics

John A. Calhoun (2002), Claiming youth: A new paradigm in youth policy. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, Winter2002, Vol. 2002 Issue 38, p67-80

Mark Krueger (2000), Presence, Fear, Curiosity, and Other Themes in Community Youth Work. Applied Developmental Science, 2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4.

Mark Krueger (2000), Presence, Fear, Curiosity, and Other Themes in Community Youth Work Applied Developmental Science, Jun2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4 Issue 3, p21-27

Mark Schoenhals (1998), The Educational and Personal Consequences of Adolescent Employment. Social Forces, Dec98, Vol. 77 Issue 2, p723-762

Paul Osterman (1978), Youth, Work, and Unemployment. May/Jun78, Vol. 21 Issue 2

Robert F. Ashcraft (2000), Where Youth Work Preparation Meets Higher Education: Perspectives From an American Humanics Campus Program. Applied Developmental Science, 2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4

Sara Banks (1998), Codes of Ethics and Ethical Conduct: A View from the Caring Professions. Public Money & Management, Jan-Mar98, Vol. 18 Issue 1, p27

Cocker, C. Allain, L. (2008) Social Work and Looked After Children. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.

(This is number 8 on the list)

The area of looked after children have received considerable attention within the social work and policy discourse over recent years. The book Social Work and Looked After Children by Christine Cocker and Lucille Allain was chosen for this review because it is not just another addition to the discourse, it represents a comprehensive and definitive submission which navigates the system of state care for children from the moment they enter the system until the moments they leave. The area of looked after children is an important aspect of social work, entailing the care of extremely vulnerable young people usually suffering from trauma. Social work students usually approach the area with some level of fear and trepidation and there was a definite absence within the discipline of a comprehensive simple to use guidebook. This book is simple, but not simplistic and addresses the core concepts within the area of looked after children robustly. It addresses complex issues from legislation and policy to minority issues, disability, and theoretical debates deftly. While the book was seemingly created for the student practitioner, comprehensive span, research summary tables, bullet point tips and summaries of key frameworks and policies within each areas makes it a must have for any serious student and social work practitioner committed to working with vulnerable children and young people.

The book starts by outlining the relevant policies that direct work with looked after children. It offers a comprehensive summary of the history and ethics of working with looked after children and the values which underline the policies. In tandem, it presents a statistical trajectory mapping the number of looked after children in the care system in recent years to set the foundation for the discussions within the book. The second chapter is an excellent accompanying foundation chapter which identifies the main legal frameworks guiding work with looked children e.g. The Children’s Act of 1989 and the Every Child Matters policy document of 2003. Central to the thesis in this chapter, was the emphasis that work with looked after children should attempt to remove labels of exclusion and reinforce the entitlements of the child, according to the United Nations Convention’s Rights of the Child document.

The various pathways by which children entered the system was examined and these were considered in relation the existing legal frameworks and how the conditions surrounding their entry into care, should be of vital importance to social workers whose main aim to support the child by understanding the entirety of their cases. The navigation from entry to exit of the care system, highlighted its strengths and weaknesses and in so doing zoomed in on areas where social workers need to be especially alert, for example, in their support and assessments of foster parents and the conditions of residential care homes for vulnerable children. The examination of the child assessment process, presented a chronological and in-depth look at one of the core tools of the social worker. Cocker and Allain focused on the important skills such as observation, reflection and empathy needed by the social worker to deliver best practice meeting the needs of the child and also to build the future client practitioner relationship. The authors emphasized the importance of planning the assessment by studying the child’s files and reflecting on your own judgments regarding the issues emerging before beginning the assessment in order to avoid projecting your own values and stymie the future client relationship or create barriers to getting information which may best support the client.

The book considered the importance of communication skills to the social work practitioner and in work with looked after children. It examined the impact of language on culture, the various types of communication patterns both verbal and non-verbal and highlighted how being able to engage the looked after child to participate in their own recovery through expression was central to successful practice. It also highlighted the need for practitioners to recognize that their language is inclusive and does not make the looked after child feel as if they are being controlled. It implores the practitioner to be aware of the power in language and to ensure that the way they communicate does not impart discriminatory undertones about the looked after child’s vulnerable position.

While the issue of ethnicity and disability is often examined on the fringes of the mainstream work, this book dedicates two rigorous chapters to both areas. The chapter identified the importance of cultural awareness in working with looked after children especially considering the high numbers of minority children in looked after facilities. Cocker and Allain underline the need for practitioners to be vigilant in ensuring their practice is anti-discriminatory and impressively, they also link communication with ethnic minority looked after children as one are which is usually affected by cultural ignorance. They argue that looked after children from ethnic minorities are usually very aware that are sometimes treated differently because of not only being in care but because of their ethnicity and are therefore very attuned to individuals who are culturally ignorant of their needs. They highlight the dangers this can pose to developing trust within the client practitioner relationship and encourage vigilance in this area.

Also considered was how attachment issues must be interrogated within social work assessments and interventions with look after children. The authors acknowledged the debates about using attachment framework with looked after children and acknowledged that while there is a risk of using attachment theory in a deterministic manner with looked after children who are constantly in transition between carers, it can also be useful to build problem solving skills, coping strategies and to build self reliance and resilience.

Also addressed were the mental health needs of looked after children and implored social work practitioners to seek out inter-agency collaboration with other specialist for such children. They also address the importance of education in the lives of looked after children and explore the disjointed and inconsistent educational experiences they usually experience. Social work practitioners are encouraged to support the educational experience of looked after children as this can help to improve their self esteem and outlook. Finally, the book looked at the issue of adoption and permanence and discussed how this process can be emotional and confusing for the looked after child. It provides great advice on how to support both adoption parents and the looked after child through the process of change for example in working with them on how to display empathy and how to communicate with the child.

In conclusion, there was a need for a comprehensive text on looked after children and as is demonstrated in this review, the areas interrogated by Cocker and Allain in this text, provides a first-rate resource with which to study, debate and get guidelines on current issues within the subject.

1

Introduction

The law and organization context of social work is extremely important when looking at specific cases and scenarios. The aim of this essay is to examine two specific cases, one involving children and families and the other involving community care issues. In these cases the relevant issues regarding social work and law will be identified, and recommendations will be made regarding the assessment criteria that need to be met and what the likely outcome of the cases might be. This will be done by looking at relevant government legislation and case examples, as well as general social work and law practice.

The first section will look at a case of Children and families, and examine the issues of significant harm and children in need in relation to the scenario. There will be a definition of these two concepts as they are laid out in the Children Act and Every Child Matters document, as well as recommendations on how best to assess and determine the outcome of this case.

The second case will look at community care issues involving a disabled parent and elderly carer. The assessments regarding the welfare of the child and parent as well as any potential care issues will be looked at. This will involve consultation with the Children Act, the Human Rights Act, the Community Care Act and the Carer’s Act. Recommendations will be given regarding how to properly assess this situation and what benefits may be offered to the parties involved.

Scenario 1 Children and Families

Scenario: Working in Children’s social services, you receive a referral from a church worker about the Jones family. She says that the parents (18 and 19) are often under the influence of drink or drugs, that the children (2 and 4) are dirty and smelly and not being fed properly. You are asked to carry out an initial assessment. What is the role of the local authority when children are in need and if they are facing significant harm? What options does the law offer to ensure that these children are safe?

In this situation, the first thing that needs to be referred to is the Children’s Acts of 1989, and of 2004 (OPSI, 1989 and 2004). These acts are the basis by which social workers determine how at risk children are in particular environments, and what the assessment criteria should be used when looking at such a case. In this case, the main issues are the definitions of ‘significant harm’ and ‘children in need’.

Looking at the 1989 Children Act, we will start with the concept of significant harm.

The concept of significant harm and its definition is referred to in section 47 of the 1989 Children Act. This says that the local authority is under a duty to investigate or create inquiries into the suffering of a child where there is cause to suspect that significant harm is being done to the child or significant harm is likely to befall the child (OPSI, 1989, s. 47). From this, a court can only make a supervision order or care order if the child is suffering or likely suffer significant harm, and this harm is caused by the lack of adequate parental care or control (OPSI, 1989, s. 31).

In this case, ‘harm’ refers to ill-treatment such as physical and sexual abuse, as well as mental abuse, poor physical or mental health cause by the parent’s lack of care and impairment of health or development. These factors are compared to what a ‘normal’ child would be expected to have at a particular age (OPSI, 1989, S. 31(9-10)).

However, there are no precise guidelines on what would constitute significant harm in each case. Despite this, it is fairly clear in this scenario that where alcohol and drugs are involved and the children are dirty, smelly and potentially malnourished, a duty to investigate is there. The children are being physically impaired at the very least with regards to their health, and the involvement of alcohol and drugs means that this is potentially being caused by the lack of parental care. In such a case, the family context would need to be looked at, as would the child’s development, any special needs the child has, and the exact nature of the harm and the adequacy of parental care.

In this case the parents are both very young, but this alone is of course of no particular issue as discrimination laws prevent such discrimination of parental rights based on age. The most important things in this case would be to investigate and prove or disprove the claims about the parent’s alcohol and drug abuse, and also look at the exact state of health of the children.

However, there is another concept to look at as well, regarding the nature of children in need. This definition is located in section 17 of the 1989 Children Act. This part of the Children Act shows where legal work and social work combine to form the assessment criteria for families (Tunstill, in Parton, 1997, pp. 40-43). The legal definition ‘Children in Need’ is that the child is unlikely to achieve or maintain or have the opportunity for a reasonable standard of health or development without provision of services from the local authority, and that the child’s health is likely to be impaired or further impaired without such services (Surrey County Council., 2008). In this case, it is not yet determined whether the children are suffering because of the parents, or whether there is some medical reason why the children are in a poor condition. However, if it is proven that the parents are abusing alcohol and drugs; this would most likely constitute a case of children in need or children with the likelihood of suffering significant harm.

However, in such a case it is unlikely that a permanent care order would be given, and more likely that a temporary care order or supervision order would be put in place, giving the parents the chance to deal with their problems and raise their children properly. If the parents failed in this, then a permanent care order may be issued. There may also be police investigations in light of the allegations regarding illegal drug abuse.

If when the children are initially assessed they appear to be in poor physical health, then it is likely that an emergency protection order will be put in place in order to protect the children from further harm in the short-term, whilst the parental and family situation is better assessed and looked at. This way the children will not be placed in further danger, and a more measured approach can take place with regards to the ability of the parents to look after the children (RPsych, 2008).

If the children are taken away, then the first option for many Councils currently is to place the children with suitable relatives or friends. It is often found that children are happier and less distressed in such situations, particularly in the short-term. However, this is not always possible and if not a foster home will be assigned for the children should an emergency care order be put in place.

The use of drugs and alcohol by the parents, if proven, is a strong indicating factor of danger to the child. In a study in the London area of 290 cases it has been found that nearly 1 third of cases involved substance misuse, and that these children were even more vulnerable than many of the others because of this. The children were generally very young, as in this case, and the parents had a variety of problems in addition to the substance misuse, either directly or indirectly linked to this problem. Therefore, this case must be looked at extremely carefully and all efforts made to safeguard the children (Department for Education and Skills (DfES), 2002, s. 2.16).

This is particularly crucial because many studies have also shown that in many cases, the children were not fully safeguarded and not enough was done to protect the children from harm. Although this must not mean looking at the parents immediately as if they were guilty, it is important to fully and thoroughly assess the situation so that the children remain safe, as this is the number one priority (DfES, 2002, s. 2.11).

It is clear in this case that investigation is warranted; as one such allegations are made there is a duty on the part of the local authority to investigate. However, in order for any action to be taken, the threshold for significant harm needs to be met. As mentioned before in this case it seems likely that significant harm might be occurring or likely to occur, but the threshold needs to be met, and this can only be determined by a detailed investigation of the family. This can prove difficult, as a study of 105 cases found that there were varying interpretations of significant harm, even with the guidelines set out in the Children Act. This can make it very difficult to determine what exactly constitutes significant harm, and whether or not action should be taken. However, it seems that being more cautious and putting the rights of the children first, without immediately determining the parents as guilty, is the most appropriate way to act in light of the guidelines (Brandon, Lewis, and Thoburn, 2007, pp. 15-19).

Giving parents ‘the benefit of the doubt’ or not looking deeply into the situation can prove extremely harmful, as was shown in the Victoria Climbie case. In light of this, the government has made sure that organizations are now much more integrated, and that the principle responsibility in such cases is the welfare of the children and making sure the children are safe. This means that staff can now more accurately and easily determine cases of abuse or ill-treatment, and they have the necessary support to follow through such investigations. This is certainly important in this case, as the abuse may be hard to determine, especially if the children are merely dirty or have hygiene issues rather than noticeable wounds or damage (Department of Health., 2003)

One of the most difficult factors to decide is if the child is suffering significant harm from seeing violence committed by their parents, perhaps on each other rather than the child. Whilst this cannot yet be determined in this case, if the children themselves are unharmed then the harm caused by witnessing violence cannot be underestimated. In another study by Brandon and Lewis (2007), it was discovered that 49 of the 105 cases reviewed included children who witnessed violence, and in many cases the harm caused to the child was often overlooked or downgraded by the social work professional. Although in this case the circumstances may be different, because the children are already being reported as in poor physical health. However, this issue of witnessing violence must be considered an issue in light of the claims regarding alcohol and drug misuse.

In this case, the allegations would require a full investigation of the family, to see whether the thresholds for significant harm and children in need have been reached. If this is the case, then the children will be fully examined, and should be put on a program of health improvement. This may involve removing the children from the parents for a period of time if their health is a real issue or the parents have alcohol and drug misuse problems. However, if this is not the case then a supervision order may be enough to improve the health of the children. If this does not look like improving matters, then more drastic care measures may be taken so as to make sure the children are safe.

Whilst this is occurring, it needs to be made sure that all issues of discrimination are dealt with, particularly in the form of racial or age discrimination as these issues are often a problem in child safety assessments such as this. It must also be remembered that whilst the parents may be having problems at this time, if the parents can get support as well then any care placement or supervision order may be short-term, as the aim wherever possible is to keep children with their parents if they can remain safe and healthy in that environment (Bretherton, Huzzard, and Little, 2006).

It must also be remembered that whilst the care and safety of the child is important, the parents have needs and rights too and traumatizing them unduly when a more appropriate measure might be an initial talk rather than a full investigation. The children should always come first, but if their parents are accused wrongly then the child’s needs are not being met (Spratt, 2000, pp. 611-615)

Scenario 2 Community Care

Scenario: Julia, 45 contacted her local disability action group to find out what support might be available to her. Her husband left the family home six months ago, shortly after Julie had given birth to a baby girl and received a diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Julia’s sight has recently deteriorated and her mother, Anna who is 75, has been commuting thirty miles per day to provide general help around the home and support with the care of the baby. As the social worker/advocate taking Julia’s call how would you advise her? What is she entitled to from social services? What support might be available to the family?

In this case, there is a delicate balancing act to be had between giving the disabled parent the right amount of support, making sure the child is adequately cared for, and providing support for the elderly carer. This involves looking at the legislation and guidelines laid out in the Community Care Act, and the Carer’s Act.

Firstly, it must be decided whether or not the disability or health issue of the parent is separate from them being a parent, and does not impact on the quality of the life of the child. If this is the case, then the assessment for support is based on an adult assessment framework. However, if it is judged that the child is in need and the disability or health issue of the parent impacts on the well-being of the child, then an assessment must be made under the Children Act with regards to the child’s welfare.

Firstly, the parent would be advised that they can be assessed by the NHS and Community Care Act framework to determine the level of support they require. This assessment will not only look at the needs of the disabled parent, but also the ability of the parent to take care of the child. This is included in section 47 of the Community Care Act, which states that a person will be assessed who has a disability, and their needs will be determined with regards to welfare and accommodation. This may involve an inspection of the home to see how it could be improved to meet the needs of the disabled parent, and also in this case the child (North Somerset Council., 2003).

This assessment would also determine how much support the parent needs, and therefore how capable they are of looking after the child (OPSI, 1990, S. 47). In this case, it must be pointed out that the parent already requires care in order to look after the child, which at the moment is provided from her elderly mother.

However, needing support in order to take better care of the child does not mean that the parent is incapable of looking after the child. However, because of the nature of the disability as something which is only like to get worse from a degenerative illness, an ongoing monitoring of the child’s well-being may well take place. This is so that the child can remain with the parent, but also remains safe should the condition of the parent deteriorate to a point where they can no longer provide adequate care for the child.

The parent should be advised that as well as having their own situation looked at with regards to support, an assessment of the child’s care will also be done. It should be pointed out to the parent that this is in no way indicative that their child will be removed into care, but it helps the local authority to make sure the needs of the disabled parent and the child are looked after.

The process will eventually lead to a care strategy being created that should allow for services that will help the parent to look after their child and also meet the needs of the adult. It is crucial that the adult is not discriminated against because they are disabled, and that it is not immediately assumed that they are incapable of looking after the child. Whilst the potential for degenerative blindness in the parent is worrying, with adequate support they should still be able to look after their child effectively. This is important because a number of studies have shown that disabled parents are often treated poorly, with their rights as parents looked down upon and their needs not met.

A disabled person has the right to have a family and get support for this family, within reasonable limits, and as long as the child can be taken care of so that they are not in need. This is covered by the Human Rights Act of 1998, and means that discrimination against disabled parents is prohibited. In these cases, the children protection agencies and adult care agencies should work together to provide support for the adult so that they can best look after themselves and their child (DirectGov, 2008). The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2003) found that disabled parents often face the assumption that their disability is placing the child at risk. It should be made clear to parents that they are entitled to assistance with parenting tasks from adult community care services. It is important that the rights and needs of the parents are looked after, because by doing this they will be able to look after their child.

One other problem is that much of the emphasis is put on ‘Young Carer’s whereby children who are capable will help to care for their parents when they can. They of course receive support, but the overemphasis on this side means that the needs of the parents are overlooked and perhaps too much responsibility is placed on the children. In this case such a young carer is not possible as the child is still only a baby (Wates, 2007).

Another issue here is the care being given by the elderly mother of the disabled parent. At 75 years old it is certainly not ideal that she be in charge of caring for the baby and the parent, not because she is incapable but because it is a lot of strain for someone elderly to have to go through. However, if this is only to be a short-term measure or partial relief along with other support services, then the elderly mother can claim support and benefits as a carer under the Carers and Disabled Children Act (OPSI, 2000) and the Carers Act (OPSI, 1995). The carer will be assessed to see if they are qualified or capable of being a care giver, and support will be given to them in order to help carry out this duty. Although in this case it is more likely that this would only be as a short-term or emergency measure, given the age of the potential carer and the fact a young baby and a disabled parent need care.

The most important factor here is to make sure that both the adult assessment and child assessment are carried out with the desire to make sure the adult gets the support they need to look after themselves and their child adequately (Solihull NHS., 2006). In this case, one of the best ways to gain support might be through the use of direct payments to the disabled parent, thereby allowing them the chance to arrange support that suits them and their child. The assessment will give the parent a chance to understand the ways in which support can help them, and the direct payment scheme can help them to remain independent (Bytheway et al, 2002, pp. 341-343).

Conclusion

In both cases, the most important factors are to make sure that the assessment criteria are fulfilled, and that adequate support is given so that both parents and children can remain together in a safe and stable environment. In the first case, the welfare of the child must be of paramount importance, and any risk to the child should be put first. However, it must also be made sure that every effort is made for the parents and children to remain together if the parents can receive support to improve their care giving abilities (Whitney, 2004, pp. 52-55). In the second case, the most important factor is to make sure that the disabled parent gets the support they need and, if possible, continue to look after their child effectively with this support. If these procedures are implemented then both parents and children will be able to remain safe and receive the support they need.

Bibliography
General:

Butler, I., Butler, I.G., and Roberts, G., 2003. Social Work with Children and Families: Getting Into Practice. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Millam, R., 2002. Anti-Discriminatory Practice: a guide for workers in childcare and education. Continuum International Publishing Group.

Parton, N., 1997. Child Protection and Family Support: Tensions, Contradictions and Possibilities. Routledge.

Whitney, B., 2004. Protecting Children: A Handbook for Teachers and School Managers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Scenario 1:

Brandon, M.B., and Lewis, A., 2007. Significant harm and children’s experiences of domestic violence. Child and Family Social Work, 1(1), pp. 33-42.

Brandon, M.B., Lewis, A., and Thoburn, J., 2007. The Children Act definition of ‘significant harm’—interpretations in practice. Health and Social Care in the Community, 4(1), pp. 11-20.

Bretherton, H., Huzzard, S., and Little, P., 2006. Family Justice Research Digest, Issue 1. Available at: http://www.family-justice-council.org.uk/docs/rd_06_issue1.pdf

Department for Education and Skills (DfES)., 2002. Children Act Report 2002. Available at: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/publications/childrenactreport/docs/DfES-Childrens%20Act.pdf

Department of Health., 2003. Keeping Children Safe: The Government’s Response to the Victoria Climbie Inquiry Report and Joint Chief Inspectors’ Report Safeguarding Children. Available at: http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/_files/684162953674A15196BB5221973959E3.pdf

Department of Health., 2008. Department of Health Website. (Online). Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/index.htm (Accessed 17th August 2008).

Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI)., 1989. Children Act 1989. http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1989/ukpga_19890041_en_1

Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI)., 2004. Children Act 2004. Available at: http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts2004/ukpga_20040031_en_1.htm

RPsych., 2008. Overview of the Children Act 1989. (Online). http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/files/samplechapter/102_0.pdf (Accessed 18th August 2008).

Spratt, T., 2000. Decision making by senior social workers at point of first referral. British Journal of Social Work, 30, pp. 597-618.

Surrey County Council., 2008. What does the term children in need mean? (Online). Available at: http://www.surreycc.gov.uk/sccwebsite/sccwspages.nsf/LookupWebPagesByTITLE_RTF/What+does+the+term+Children+in+Need+meanQ?opendocument. (Accessed 16^th August 2008).

Scenario 2:

Bytheway, B., et al. 2002. Understanding Care, Welfare and Community: A Reader. London: Routledge.

DirectGov., 2008. Rights, legislation and disabled parents. (Online). Available at: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/Disabledparents/DG_10037905 (Accessed 17th August 2008).

Joseph Rowntree Foundation., 2003. Disabled parents are undermined by poor support and negative attitudes, says task force. Available at: http://www.jrf.org.uk/pressroom/releases/240903.asp

North Somerset Council., 2003. Parents with Care Needs. Available at: http://www.n-somerset.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/611F9138-4C4F-4762-9ECB-5AC16C94622D/0/document_20030701_Protocol19ParentsWithCareNeeds.pdf

Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI)., 1990. National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990 (c. 19). Available at: http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1990/ukpga_19900019_en_1

Available at: http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts2000/ukpga_20000016_en_1

Solihull NHS., 2006. Supporting disabled parents – Solihull MBC inter-directorate protocol and staff guidance. Available at: http://www.solihull.nhs.uk/foi/policies/social_care/D%20-%20Disabled%20Parents%20Protocol.pdf

Primary socialization could be more important than secondary socialization as the primary socialization phase is the basic step that an individual takes to enter into society. Socialization has been described as to render social or make someone able to live in society and learn the social norms and customs. Socialization is central to the functioning of any society and is also central to the emergence of modernity.

Socialization tends to serve two major functions of preparing an individual to play and develop roles, habits, beliefs and values and evoke appropriate patterns of emotional, social and physical responses helping to communicate contents of culture and its persistence and continuity (Chinoy, 1961). However social rules and social systems should be integrated with the individual’s own social experiences. However individual social experiences have become much less important in the study of socialization as the focus is now on identifying functions of institutions and systems in socialization and cultural changes.

Socialization is especially true in family and education and has been seen in many family forms and differences in gender roles, in cultural diversity and in occupational standards. However it is important to note the relationship between ethics, norms, values, roles in socialization. Socialization is the means through which social and cultural continuity is attained however socialization itself may not lead to desirable consequences although it is a process and meant to have an impact on all aspects of society and the individual (Chinoy, 1961). Socialization provides partial explanation for the human condition as also the beliefs and behaviour of society although the role of environment may also be significant in any process of socialization (Johnson, 1961).

Both socialization and biology could have an impact on how people are shaped by the environment and their genes and behavioural outcomes are also significantly different as the capacity for learning changes throughout a lifetime.

Socialization could have many agents such as the family, friends and school, religious institutions and peer groups as also the mass media and work place colleagues. The family establishes basic attitudes whereas schools build ethics and values, religious institutions affect our belief systems and peer groups help in sharing social traits. Socialization is usually seen as a life process and a continued interaction will all agents of society in a manner that is most beneficial to individuals.

Socialization could be primary which occurs in a child as the child learns attitudes, values, actions as members of particular societies and cultures. If a child experiences racist attitudes in the family, this could have an effect on the child’s attitudes towards minorities and other races. Primary socialization is the first and basic step towards interactions with the outside world and the family is the first agent in primary socialization as the family introduces a child to the world outside, to its beliefs, customs, norms and helps the child in adapting to the new environment (Clausen, 1968). Secondary socialization happens when a child moves out of family and learn how to behave within a small community or social group and teenagers or adolescents are largely influenced by secondary socialization as they may enter a new school. Entering a new profession is also secondary socialization of adults and whereas primary socialization is more generalized, secondary socialization is adapting to specific environments. Primary socialization happens early in life and is the first socialization in children and adolescents when new attitudes and ideas develop for social interaction. Secondary socialization refers to socialization that takes place through one’s life and can occur in children as well as in older adults as it means adapting to new situations and dealing with new encounters (White, 1977).

There are other types of socialization such as developmental socialization and anticipatory socialization. Developmental socialization is about developing social skills and learning behaviour within a social institution and anticipatory socialization is about understanding and predicting future situations and relationships and developing social responses or skills to these situations. Re-socialization is another process of socialization in which former behavioural patterns are discarded to learn new values and norms. This could be a new gender role if there is a condition of sex change.

Socialization is a fundamental sociological concept and the elements of socialization are generally agreed upon as having specific goals such as impulse control and cultivating new roles, cultivation of meaning sources. Socialization is the process that helps in social functioning and is often considered as culturally relative as people from different cultures socialize differently (White, 1977). Since socialization is an adoption of culture, the process of socialization is different for every culture. Socialization has been described as both a process and an outcome. It has been argued that the core identity of an individual and the basic life beliefs and attitudes develop during primary socialization and the more specific changes through secondary socialization occurs in different structured social situations. Life socialization, especially through social situations as in secondary socialization, the need for later life situations highlights the complexity of society and increase in varied roles and responsibilities.

However there could be several differences between primary and secondary socialization as Mortimer and Simmons (1978) showed how these two types of socialization differ. Content, context and response are the three ways in which the differences between primary and secondary socialization could be explained. In childhood socialization involves regulation of biological drives and impulse control which is later replaced by self image and values in adolescence. In adulthood socialization is more about specific norms and behaviors and relates to work roles and personality traits development.

Context or the environment in socialization is also important as the person who is socialized seeks to learn within the context of family and school or peer groups. Relationships are also emotional and socialization also takes place as an individual takes the adult role. Formal and informal relationships tend to differ according to situational context and in some cases contexts tend to affect the emotional nature of relationships. As far as responding to situations is concerned, children and adolescents could be more easily moulded than adults as adult socialization is more voluntary and adults could manipulate their own responses considerably.

Socialization involves contacts with multiple groups in different contexts and interactions at various levels. Socialization is a social process and in the process of socialization, parents, friends, schools, co workers, family members tend to play a major role (Chinoy, 1961).

However socialization could have its positive or negative impact as seen in broad and narrow socialization process as in broad socialization, individualism, and self expression are important whereas in case of narrow socialization conformity is more important. This differentiation was provided by Arnett (1995) who suggested that socialization could result in both broad and narrow social interaction process as broad socialization helps in expansion and narrow socialization is more about conformity and according to Arnett, socialization could be broad or narrow within the socialization forces of friends, family, school, peer group, co workers etc. Socialization type could vary across cultures as in America for instance there is an increased emphasis on individualism whereas in many Asian countries as in India or Japan socialization could be about conformity to religious or social norms (Arnett, 1995).

However primary socialization could be more significant than secondary socialization as primary socialization is about forming a basic attitude towards people and society and this in turn helps in shaping the identity of individuals as a child. Primary socialization is social learning process in childhood whereas secondary socialization is social learning in adulthood or social learning added to already existing basic learning process so secondary socialization is about added learning and in some cases substitute learning where changes in the socialization process takes place due to new environments such as change of workplace or entering new work environments or new schools (Johnson, 1961).

Primary socialization is more basic as in primary socialization the child learns the very first social responses and develops the first social beliefs and attitudes. Based on primary socialization process, secondary socialization is about using the primary socially learned responses to adapt them to new environments through secondary socialization. Since primary socialization occurs in childhood and in the child’s immediate environment as through home or family, it is more significant and has a greater impact on the child’s attitudes and beliefs as well as social and emotional development. Primary socialization could be said to have a direct impact on the child and shapes the future of the child and how he grows up with certain beliefs as in case of children who see racial hatred in the family is more prone to develop their own hatred towards other races as a result of direct conditioning in the family environment. In fact the young people in later years are peculiarly shaped by what they learnt and experienced in childhood and how they were conditioned to react to situations and people and thus primary socialization is of greater significance in later years than secondary socialization (Clausen, 1968).

Within this context, families and schools are of prime importance and are considered as the first agents that implement the processes of social control. Youth crime and anti social behavior could be explained with the aid of direct primary socialization as what the individual learns at home is of major importance and shapes his later life and could also explain any kind of deviance (Pitts, 2001). Young people enter crime possibly through racial hatred or lack of social inclusion and these attitudes such as against other races are formed in childhood or adolescence and the child usually learns from the family members, school peers and direct social environment (Muncie, 2004).

Social inclusion is one of the major issues of socialization as emphasized by the government as minority communities and individuals from different races and religions may feel excluded and this exclusion leads to a sense of frustration and crime among the youth of the excluded groups (McAuley, 2007). In order to overcome this sense of exclusion, minority groups and especially the young people of minority groups have been given special support through various social services of inclusion and inclusion is also part of the socialization process and could be considered as secondary as individuals go through social inclusion adaptive processes and behavior after they have been already brought up and undergone primary socialization in their family homes or schools that were not too conducive to inclusion.

In fact the making of responsible citizens include adaptive processes at home, family and school, work or general community and the young people develop knowledge of cultures at home and in the community and also endorse their own subcultures of social attitudes and behavior that are influenced by primary rather than secondary socialization (Hall and Jefferson, 1976). Considering that primary socialization and what we learn from the immediate environment in childhood is more important than secondary socialization and what we learn at the workplace or in new environments, primary socialization still remains the basic socialization process and secondary socialization only implies a change or an addition to what has been already learnt in childhood.

Section: 1Social Integration Essay

The process of social integration of a complex consisting of several dimensions involving the participation in work and production, and real consumption, is looking forward to the many, and to participate in caring for the public and social practice, and much of the social interactions. On this basis, the individual is socially integrated if he takes part in the core activities of the society in which they live. The core activities are intended to be able to purchase goods and services, to participate in activities of economic and social value, to participate in decision-making process at the local level or national origin, and integration with family, friends and communities. Social integration concept created by each society and every group for the purposes of individuals and groups from the situation of disagreement and conflict to the situation of living together. It also reflects the social integration of the form of access to political and legal systems necessary to make these rights a reality.

There is a deep awareness in the UAE that the only guarantee of sustained development is continuous investment in education, health and social services, with the provision of meaningful employment for all.[1] (Social development, 2009), but as everybody knows that money doesn’t last forever and they should think of looking for something else that they can use from their children or their boys and girls that they spent a huge amount on giving them the best life they ever thought of it or dreamt of in order to pay them some of what they have done to them.

The UAE population increased by a staggering 74.8 per cent between 1995 and 2005, the date of the last census. This is one of the highest population growth rates in the world. Estimated by the Ministry of the Economy (MoE) at 4.488 million in 2007, the population is expected to increase by 6.12 per cent to reach 4.76 million at the end of 2008 and by 6.31 per cent to 5.06 million at the end of 2009. [2](Population, 2009), with that increase people will have communities of their own whether they were expats or locals that will discriminate their own people, so the UAE should unit them and don’t discriminate them in order to raise their way of life.

It is generally accepted that there is a need for additional policies to guarantee a more significant representation of UAE nationals in the labor force.[3] (Labor, 2009) these guarantees will protect the UAE nationals in the labor force because of the increase of the expatriates labor force and to protect UAE nationals because they have a right to be prior than the other nationalities.

There always should be awareness about driving in the country because for the last decades there are so many casualties whether they were men, women or even kids and if it is remained without waking the people up then even statistics won’t be able to calculate them 2009) these guarantees will protect the UAE nationals in the labor force because of the increase of the expatriates labor force and to protect UAE nationals because they have a right to be prior than the other nationalities.

There always should be awareness about driving in the country because for the last decades there are so many casualties whether they were men, women or even kids and if it is remained without waking the people up then even statistics won’t be able to calculate them.

Reference Page

How can a knowledge of social inequalities and social exclusion assist social workers in their practice?

In some respects the topic of this essay reflects both the heart and core of the philosophy behind social work. There are some who would argue that it is the recognition and appreciation of the inequalities of society that are the driving force behind most of the social legislation in this country today. (Powell, J et al 1996).

The definition of social inequality can be made on many different levels – philosophical, intellectual, socio-economic, cultural and health related, to cite but a few and a complete discussion is clearly beyond the scope of an essay such as this. In the same way social exclusion can be due to a myriad of causes – cultural, religious, behavioural, criminal, socio-economic, age, immobility and illness are a few of the more common factors. The fact of the matter is that in practical terms, both social inequality and social exclusion tend to overlap a great deal and in many cases, one is the cause of the other. (Lovelock, R et al 2004)

Because it is completely impractical to consider all of the possible causes of both social inequality and social exclusion we shall approach the issue by considering a number of different examples and discuss them in the context of the question.

In general terms, disability (both physical and mental) is a major cause of both these phenomena. We shall begin by considering the impact that disability has on both social inequality and social exclusion.

To it’s credit, the Government has recently taken a number of steps to try to combat the inequality and the exclusion elements that are inextricably linked with disability.

In order to be technically correct on the matter, we should note that the World Health Organisation actually subdivides the term “disability” into three different elements

Problems in bodily function or structure, which they used to call ‘impairment’; problems relating to activities, or ‘disability’; and problems related to social participation, which they called ‘handicap’. (Ramcharan P et al 1997)

For our purposes however, such a definition is hardly helpful in terms of examining the problems of the disabled. We would suggest that a definition in social terms is probably far more practical. Some commentators (Clasen J 1999), have observed that:

The treatment of disability as if it was a single problem may mean that disabled people receive insufficient or inappropriate assistance. The problems that disabled people have in common are not so much their physical capacities, which are often very different, but limitations on their life style.

In the context of this essay Goodin (et al 2000) adds the observation that:

Their income tends to be low, while disabled people may have special needs to be met which require increased expenditure. Socially, disabled people may well become isolated, particularly as their health declines and they struggle progressively to manage on the resources they have, and they may be socially excluded.

For our purposes in this essay we shall use the word “disability” in its English grammatical sense (a la Clasen and Goodin) rather than in the narrower WHO definition above.

Perhaps the first observation that we should make, is that disability, or the perception of disability, is very culturally dependent and to some extent is culturally determined. The cynic might suggest that the stereotype caucasian British white male might consider that a disabled person is the responsibility of the social services and the state, who can look after him, provide him with carers and organise a regular income in the form of some type of protected benefit. Equally, the stereotypical Asian family might consider the disabled family member to be the responsibility of the family itself and would only look to the state for advice and resources.

Clearly both of these stereotypes are cartoon exaggerations of the reality of the situation, but we use this to illustrate the cultural elements of the expectations of both the disabled person and their families or carers.

In the context of our considerations here, we need to consider how a knowledge of the social inequalities and social exclusion can assist the social worker in their practice. In order to do this in the specific area of disability, we should examine The Disability and Discrimination Act (1995). Many would argue that this has been a piece of legislation that was long overdue as it addressed a need that has been demonstrably present from time immemorial (Baldock J et al 1999). The fact of the matter is that the ability to discriminate on the sole grounds of race has been illegal in the UK for a considerable time.

As Spicker (P 1995) has observed:

The ability to discriminate on other, arguably more fundamental features of existence, still remained an option that did not have the sanction of the law.

In this respect, the Act has proved to be a valuable piece of legislation as it has helped to directly tackle many of the areas of social inequality and social exclusion. Many consider the Act to be simply aimed at the discrimination practices that were rife in the workplace, but the reality of the situation is that it is, in real terms, a far reaching piece of legislation which has implications for most areas of society and social interaction (Alcock P, 2003). The social worker will clearly need to have a working knowledge of the provisions of this Act if they are to be able to function effectively in this particular area.

The social worker, in their daily practice, may very well come across clients with disabilities of various types, and these clients may look to them for help, support and guidance if they have an appreciable element of social exclusion in their lives.

We can point to research which shows that the disabled have a substantial burden of discrimination when it comes to employment. (Chapman P et al 2004).

Jowell (R et al 1998) demonstrated a 7 fold increased incidence of unemployment when compared to their able bodied counterparts. It generally follows that greater levels of unemployment are associated with lower levels of income and this, in turn, is associated with greater levels of social exclusion (McKernan SM et al 2005),

The professional approach of the social worker will be to assess all of the possible factors that may contribute to their isolation and consider practical ways of breaking down the barriers to inclusion, whether they may be in the workplace, on the social front or even in terms of simple physical mobility. (Haralambos M et al 2000)

Another major area of social inequality, which again has repercussions on social exclusion, is the area of health in general. In this context the (then) Health Secretary, Frank Dobson, made the very pertinent comment :

Inequality in health is the worst inequality of all. There is no more serious inequality than knowing that you’ll die sooner because you’re badly off (Dobson 1997)

There is a direct and demonstrable link between social depravation and ill health. It follows from this that social inequalities have a direct effect on both morbidity and mortality. This is most marked in the children from deprived backgrounds. (Black 1980)

The Black report (cited above) was largely adopted and expanded in the publication of “The Health Divide” (Townsend & Davidson 1988), which further quantified the areas of social inequalities as manifested in morbidity rates in the population and correlated them to social stratification. The Report came to the conclusion that these social inequalities were not being adequately addressed either by the Health Authorities or the Social Services. These identified inequalities later emerged, further modified, in a document “Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health” ( IIIH 1998), and were associated with 39 separate recommendations. These were subsequently criticised for a lack of prioritisation, (McKernan SM et al 2005), where” the fundamental role of poverty was lost in a sea of (albeit worthy) recommendations ranging from traffic curbing to fluoridation of the water supply.”

Obviously, the findings of this succession of reports does not only impact upon the Social Services, it equally impacts upon other providers such as the Health Service and indeed the Government itself.

We have examined two specific areas of the whole picture of social inequality, and it is prudent to also consider an overview before leaving this area. The trend to socio-economic inequality can be considered to be either rising or falling depending on which criteria of assessment one takes. If we consider the number of people who are living in low income households, there has been a measurable downward trend in the last decade, this is partly due to the fact that there are progressively fewer people in workless households (Chapman P et al 2005)

Equally, if one considers the number of families on out-of-work benefits, this has risen by 30% in the last 6 years (JRF 2005)

If one considers the impact of the association of low income and increased morbidity, then we can cite studies that show that there has not been any significant reduction in these health related inequalities in the last 9 years.

(McKernan SM et al 2005).

There is also the geographical factor. We can show that virtually all the indicators of both social socio-economic inequality and social exclusion are more prevalent in the north-east of the UK and they tend to progressively reduce as one moves towards the south-west. The only notable geographical anomaly in this respect is London which has a peak of low income and unemployment problems and Scotland which has a peak in health-related issues. (JRF 2005)

In conclusion, although it is accepted that we have only examined a few small facets of the whole potential area related to both social inequalities and social exclusion, we would suggest that we have presented sufficient evidence to be able to suggest that the social worker cannot reasonably be expected to practice in the modern environment without a thorough knowledge and appreciation of these factors. It is not so much a case of “Does this knowledge assist the social worker in their practice?” but “This knowledge is essential to be able to practice effectively.”

References

Alcock P, 2003, Social policy in Britain, Macmillan 2003.

Baldock J et al 1999, Social Policy, Oxford University Press 1999

Black report (The) 1980, DHSS, HMSO: London 1980

Chapman P, Euan Phimister, Mark Shucksmith, Richard Upward and Esperanza Vera-Toscano, 2004, Poverty and exclusion in rural Britain: The dynamics of low income and employment, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Prentice Hall : ISBN1 899987 67 3,

Clasen J (ed) 1999, Comparative social policy: concepts, theories and methods, Blackwell 1999

Dobson F 1997, Department of Health: The NHS Plan. A Plan for Investment. A Plan for Reform. Cm 4818. London: The Stationery Office 1997

Goodin R, B Headey, R Muffels, H-J Dirven, 2000, The real worlds of welfare capitalism, Cambridge University Press 2000.

Haralambos M, M Holborn 2000, Sociology: themes and perspectives, Harper Collins 2000.

IIIH 1998, Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health (1998), Department of Health, HMSO: London 1998

Jowell R, J. Curtice, A. Park, L. Brook, K. Thomson & C. Bryson (eds.) 1998, British and European Social Attitudes: how Britain differs. The 15th BSA Report, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot. (1998)

JRF 2005, Low pay, and poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Prentice Hall: 2005

McKernan SM, Ratcliffe, C 2005, Events that trigger poverty, Social Sceince Quarterly Vol. 86, Number 5, December 2005, pp. 1146-1169 (24), JRF 2005

Millar J and Karen Gardiner 2005, Low pay, household resources and poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Prentice Hall: ISBN 1 85935 257 X

Townsend & Davidson 1988, The Health Divide, London: Penguin Books 1988

Ramcharan P et al 1997, In: Empowerment in Everyday Life: learning disability, Jessica Kingsley (EDS), Oxford University Press 1997

Lovelock, R. and Powell, J. (forthcoming, April 2004), ‘Habermas/Foucault for social work: practices of critical reflection’, in Lovelock, R., Lyons, K. and Powell, J. (eds), Reflecting on Social Work – Discipline and Profession, Aldershot, Ashgate, pp. 183–225.

Powell, J. and Lovelock, R. (1996), ‘Reason and commitment: is communication possible in contested areas of social work theory and practice?’, in Ford, P. and Hayes, P. (eds), Educating for Social Work: Arguments for Optimism, Aldershot, Avebury, pp. 76–94.

JRF 2005, Joseph Rowntree Foundation 2005

April 1998 – Ref 418 Poverty and exclusion in rural Britain: the dynamics of low income and employment

To what extent are EITHER children OR people with disabilities OR older people OR people with illnesses socially excluded?’ Social exclusion is a blend of multi-dimensional and mutually reinforcing processes of deprivation associated with a progressive dissociation from social milieus, resulting in the isolation of individuals and groups from the main-stream of opportunities society has to offer” (Vleminckx and Berghman, 2001, p6)

In this piece of work I am going to discuss the notion of social exclusion using the service user group of people with learning disabilities to give examples of social exclusion and to show what the Government is doing to tackle social exclusion.

The quote above is a complex description of the term ‘social exclusion’, and perhaps a simpler explanation would be the definition given by BMJ Journals (2001) which defines social exclusion as ‘the inability of our society to keep all groups and individuals within reach of what we expect as a society and the tendency to push vulnerable and difficult individuals into the least popular places’ (p1).

Exclusion is linked to a person’s identity, and the identity of a person that has been excluded becomes oppressed, which in turn leads to the person finding it difficult to control their own life, and which inevitably leads to further exclusion from society (Dominelli, 2002).

It is also important to realise that when discussing exclusion you must also need to take into account the Government initiatives on inclusion, as these initiatives are proactive rather than reactive, which means they react to the problem instead of trying to prevent the problem before it arises (Thompson, 2001). The report, Inclusion through Innovation: Tackling Social Exclusion Through New Technologies is a good example of how exclusion and inclusion are linked together (www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk, 2006). This report explores the improvement of the quality of life for the most excluded groups in society by using Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to meet their complex needs (www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk, 2006).

The Joint Report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion, that was published by the EU in 2005, tells us how a well designed social protection system not only leads to good economic development but helps to combat the problem of social exclusion (www.europa.eu.int, 2006).

A significant piece of legislation that affects the whole population is the Human Rights Act 1998, and Mind (2006) makes us aware that there are articles within this Act that are specific to people with learning disabilities; these articles include the right to life, prohibition of inhumane or degrading treatment, prohibition of discrimination and the right to education. Whilst this piece of legislation is in place, our society should not be facing the problem of social exclusion, let alone having to produce and implement more initiatives in a bid to control the problem (Mind, 2006).

“People with learning disabilities are one of the most vulnerable groups in society, and the Government is committed to improving their life chances”

(www.dh.gov.uk, 2006)

The Government in various ways is dealing with social exclusion, although this is difficult because social exclusion comes in many different forms. Despite this, the Government is dedicated to tackling these problems, although ‘many initiatives come late in the process, addressing consequences rather than causes’ (www.mind.org.uk, 2006, p1). Mind (2006) also informs us that in our society it is the learning disabled that are amongst the most isolated groups.

Thompson (2001) tells us that disabled people have never had priority status in social work, and this particular area has often been given very little attention on training courses for this profession. This in itself can be seen as discriminatory and leads to what is now known as disablism (Thompson, 2001). Thompson (2001) describes disablism as ‘referring to the combination of social forces, cultural values and personal prejudices which marginalizes disabled people, portrays them in as negative light and thus oppresses them. This combination encapsulates a powerful ideology which has the effect of denying disabled people full participation in mainstream social life’ (p112).

When discussing the exclusion of learning disabled people from society it is important to take into account the medical model of the disability and the social model of the disability; the medical model of disability looks at the person and their difficulties in terms of their condition and looks to ‘repair’ the person, whereas in contrast the social model of the disability looks towards the society being disabling as society is not making enough provisions to enabled the disabled person to lead what we consider to be a normal life (Thompson, 2001).

There is an important link between social exclusion and poverty; because of benefit rules people with learning disabilities are effectively unable to gain employment which means that they have to rely on benefits to survive, which rules out the chance of them ever owning their own home which is a common goal for much of the nation (Davies, 2002). Although education is becoming increasingly available for people with learning disabilities, especially opportunities for further education, the reality is that there are still no jobs available for people that are learning disabled, and inevitably this group of people end up re-entering education again as there are no other opportunities for them (Davies, 2002).

People with learning disabilities often struggle to find relationships; if they are still living with their parents they very rarely spend time with other people of the same age, and those who have left their parents home tend to have only a small social group of people with similar disabilities to their own (Davies, 2002). Because of the protectiveness of parents of children with learning disabilities their children become very dependant on them so when they get older they find it difficult to cope on their own which in turn leads to further segregation for society (Davies, 2002).

Another aspect that excludes people with learning disabilities is that they have a lack of information of the range of services that they are entitled to, from health to housing, although Mencap has produced a picture bank of information to help resolve this problem. The picture bank is a range of visual explanations that can be accessed by people with learning disabilities (www.mencap.org.uk/html/accessibility/accessibility.asp, 2006), and has also helped the Guardian newspaper to publish a news stories with easy to read words and pictures.

Watt (2001) tells us that it is in the past 20 years that society has become immensely unequal in the UK, where some people have done extremely well and others have not. It appears that the Government has recognized the issues surrounding social exclusion for many years, but their proposed solutions are small for the problems that apply to the whole of society (Watt, 2001).

The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2006) emphasizes the fact that people who have become socially excluded often become part of a vicious cycle of related problems which include unemployment, low incomes, poor housing, bad health and family breakdown, and its focus is to prevent this from happening in the future by fighting the problem now. The Social Exclusion Unit repeatedly tells us that it is critical to implement early preventative action, and children and young people are ‘especially vulnerable to the effects of social exclusion’ (www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk, 2006, p1).

“Valuing People” (Department of Health, 2001)

The white paper called ‘Valuing People: a new strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century’ was published by the Government on 20th March 2001, and was a key turning point for people with learning disabilities, and not only addressed their needs, but proposed a way of trying to make their lives better (www.mind.org.uk, 2006). Four of the key principles in this white paper were civil rights, independence, choice and inclusion – things that people born without disabilities take for granted (www.mind.org.uk, 2006). The main aim of ‘Valuing People’ was to give people with learning disabilities a chance to have ‘a real say in where they live, what work they should do and who looks after them’ (Department of Health, 2001a). Valuing People sets out proposals from the Government to improve the life chances and opportunities for people with learning disabilities and their families, and looks towards collaboration between different agencies in order to achieve this (Niace, 2003).

“Nothing about us without us” (Department of Health, 2001b)

This report was published by the Department of Health regarding the rights of people who have learning disabilities, and the report says that a person with learning difficulties cannot have their lives discussed without them being present so that they are involved in making the decisions about their life (Department of Health, 2001). The report also says that if decisions are being made that could affect people with learning disabilities then there must be people present that have learning disabilities (Department of Health, 2001).

A report called Hidden Lives was published by the charity Turning Point, in which they examined how effective legislation had been in tackling social exclusion (Batty, 2004). The results of the report were quite alarming, with many service users claiming that improvement had been very slow, and the charity fear that people with learning disabilities are facing social exclusion forever (Batty, 2004).

“The solution to social exclusion lies not in myriad attempts ro repair society at points of breakdown, but in persuading relatively affluent groups that social inclusion is worth paying for” (Watt, 2001)

Within this essay I will attempt to examine what is meant by the term social exclusion, its issues and causes and how it links with poverty. I will also identify groups that face social exclusion, their experiences, the affects it has on them and the role of the social worker in overcoming this. I will touch upon the media and legislation and the part they play in social exclusion. Finally I will endeavour to define anti-oppressive practice, the role of the social worker regarding it and how it can lead to social inclusion.

Social exclusion is defined by Pierson as the act by which certain people are excluded from partaking in activities within the society of which they should be part of. This includes individuals, families, groups and whole neighbourhoods. Predominantly, this is a result of poverty, however, other influences can consist of discrimination and lack of educational attainment. Those who are socially excluded are unable to participate in the activities, services and opportunities that most of a society are able to take advantage of (Pierson, 2010).

It has been recognised within this definition that poverty can be a factor within the causes of social exclusion and many writers on the subject of social exclusion and poverty, including government, will pair these two together. Other causes include unemployment, lack of social networks, geographical location and limited access to services. These are all interlinked, with poverty being a theme throughout. People who face social exclusion can be locked within this deprivation cycle making it difficult to escape (Pierson, 2010). However, Pierson notes that these causes of social exclusion are also the keys to overcoming it as he discusses the “five building blocks for tackling social exclusion” (2010, p.48). These building blocks which comprise of maximising income, strengthening social networks, building partnerships, creating effective participation and community-level practice, should be used by social workers who are working with those who are socially excluded to support them into becoming participative members of a society (Pierson, 2010).

It is worth noting that anyone could face social exclusion at some point of their life, although those who are most likely endure it consist of ethnic minorities; as they make up a small proportion of the population, people living in poverty; to illustrate this, in 2011/12 15% of the population of Wales were living in relative low income (ONS, 2014), the unemployed; although it has been highlighted in the press that many people are in poverty despite being in employment (Gander, 2013), those with a long-term illness, those in the lower social classes in accordance with The Registrar General’s Classification of Social Classes, the disabled, those with low educational attainment, the homeless and the elderly, to name but a few (Trevithick, 2005). These marginalised individuals or groups face discrimination and often have a stigma attached to them. If I concentrate on ethnic minorities, in particular immigrants, this group and the individuals within it face a stereotype which becomes a barrier that keeps them socially excluded. This stigma is based on ideas of racism. The media also play a part in this with headlines suggesting immigrants are taking away jobs from the British labour force, which in turn only fuels racist feelings and further stigmatises individuals (Paton, 2013).

One priority for the social worker when dealing with social exclusion would be to promote positive change for those they are working with, to do this it is important that they understand what is going on for individuals and appreciate why it is happening, this is essential if a difference is to be made (Trevithick, 2005). Change can be made at an individual level, in the work that social workers do directly with people, empowering these individuals to make a positive difference to their lives and therefore enabling them to become socially inclusive. Social workers may also tackle social exclusion at a higher level by promoting the rights of individuals on a wider societal platform, this could be, for example speaking with other agencies and local authorities to get changes made to public transport to enable individuals or groups with mobility issues to access this service where they had not previously been able to (Wilson et al, 2008). According to Pierson (2010) social workers are in the best position of all the health and care professionals to tackle social exclusion and achieve social justice due to the knowledge and skills they have, which have been gained not only from their education but also from their experiences in practice around dealing with the complex issues at all levels of society (Pierson, 2010). It states within the Code of Practice laid out by the Care Council for Wales, who oversee social work within Wales, that “as a social care worker, you must protect the rights and promote the interests of service users and carers” (CCW, 2011), it is therefore clear that overcoming social exclusion and challenging stigma is an expected aspect within the role of the social worker.

The British Association for Social Workers defines social work as a profession that is about people. It is about improving outcomes for individuals and families by working with them and supporting them, advocating for them and signposting them to services. They will work with other agencies including education and health to ensure that service users are offered the best service available (BASW, 2014).

It is the impression of Williams that in Wales, social workers can be the voice of the service users and their families, speaking up alongside them ensuring that their interests are heard. From reading the policy document Fulfilled Lives, Supportive Communities (WAG, 2007) she understands that social workers should be “actively involved” (p.191) in the influencing of policy making at both national and local levels (Williams, 2011). This power can be used by social workers to impact on discrimination, poverty and social exclusion.

Disability Wales states that people with a disability are often disadvantaged because of society’s perceptions. When a person with a disability does not access a service this may be seen by mainstream society as a result of their impairment rather than the need for environmental changes. However many people with disabilities feel that although their bodies have an impairment it is societal barriers that cause them problems. Examples of this include badly designed buildings with no ramps or lifts and lack of accessible parking which are the problem for a person in a wheelchair, rather than the wheelchair being the problem. This hypothetical badly designed building may not only be the place of potential employment but could also be the job centre that this individual needs to access to enquire about work or the benefits office where they can find out about financial entitlements. These examples can mean the difference between a person with a disability gaining employment, escaping poverty and becoming socially inclusive and a person continuing to be socially excluded (Disability Wales, 2014). Research produced by Class (Centre for Labour and Social Studies) in association with Red Pepper dispels the myth that many people would rather claim disability benefits than work. The reality is that employers are less willing to employ a disabled person in spite of anti-discrimination legislation put in place by government which expects employers to make reasonable adjustments to their premises to accommodate people with disabilities (Class, 2013). In 2013 the UK government fronted an initiative to get more disabled people into mainstream employment through the Access to Work scheme (GOV, 2013). This initiative saw the closure of the few remaining Remploy factories, who employed mainly disabled people, with the view of supporting them into mainstream jobs rather than segregate these individuals from society. Despite the intentions of this scheme to encourage disabled individuals to become socially inclusive, an article from BBC news suggests that there are currently 30% fewer people with disabilities in employment now compared with when the factories were still in use, further excluding them from society (Fox, 2013). However, government statistics show that there has been a recent increase in the number of people finding employment through the Access to Work scheme suggesting progress is being made (GOV, 2014). The role of the social worker within this example would be to challenge the barriers faced when getting people with disabilities into employment and working with individuals to overcome them. Often, this may include liaising with family members and other agencies to ensure the best outcomes possible. In tackling social exclusion, the social worker would also need to work at a wider level, challenging services and legislation that may be oppressing these individuals and groups (Horner, 2006).

Oppression occurs due to disproportions of power resulting in dominant groups within society holding control over others leading to the creation of institutions, parliament for example. Dominant groups typically consist of white, wealthy, able-bodied males. These institutions go on to promote the interests of the dominant group, providing them with power. Those who do not have control or power therefore find difficulty in making their opinions and values heard, this can lead to oppression (Pierson, 2010).

The purpose of the social worker when embracing anti-oppressive practice (AOP) is to work holistically with an individual, understanding their circumstances and values, the distinctiveness of their situation and their self-determination whilst also challenging the effects society has on this person. The effects of oppression de-value not only the individual but other individuals within the same marginalised group. Looking again at the example of people with disabilities, the social worker should recognise that all disabled people face oppression however each individual within that group will experience that oppression differently (Horner, 2006). This allows practitioners to embrace individualisation which not only sees the individual but also sees that person on a wider platform encompassing their socio-political situation (Thomson, 2005). Placing themselves in the position of the individual allows the social worker to empathise with them, from here social workers are able to understand their values and promote the rights of the individuals. Social workers should also be mindful of how they approach people, what level of understanding the service user has and adapt to this, being aware of the language they use for example (Horner, 2006)

AOP has no permanent definition, rather a fluid meaning that changes in reflection to social, political, historical and economic factors facing the reality of the service user (Dalrymple et al, 2006).

Pierson finds that although AOP is valuable within social work practice, it is also faced with boundaries. He believes that it fails to recognise the importance of poverty within the realms of social injustice for individuals and that AOP ignores the power that neighbourhood can hold in tackling social exclusion by encouraging community participation from individuals. It is seen however as an institution that has one voice speaking for a whole community (Pierson, 2010).

Using an ecological approach, looking holistically at an individual by mapping out their connections with their society, neighbourhood and family, it is possible for the practitioner to understand how they have reached social exclusion and potentially oppression. This approach will highlight areas that need addressing which may have been missed and can aid practitioners into supporting service users into social inclusion (Pierson, 2010).

This assignment has determined what is meant by social exclusion. It is evident that socially excluded individuals and groups face great difficulty in attempting to overcome it. Discrimination and social attitudes play a part in this although I have found poverty to be the main barrier. The role of the social worker is therefore a vital component, by empowering individuals and challenging legislation and services it can be possible to tackle social exclusion. This should be done at both individual and wider societal levels. What is also apparent is that although social exclusion and oppression are closely linked they may also undermine one another. I have also acknowledged that legislation that is put in place to overcome oppression can sometimes have the opposite effect, this was found when examining the governments initiative to get more disabled people into mainstream employment. As well as anti-oppressive practice, a multi-agency and ecological approach is needed for social workers to address and overcome social exclusion, which according to the Code of Conduct set out by Care Council for Wales is an expected role within social work practice.

References

BASW (2014) Social Work Careers [online]. Birmingham, The British Association of Social Workers. Available from: https://www.basw.co.uk/social-work-careers/ [accessed on: 30/10/2014]

Care Council for Wales (2011) Code of Practice for Social Care Workers. Cardiff, Care Council for Wales

Class (2013) Exposing the Myths of Welfare [online]. London, Centre for Labour and Social Studies. Available from: http://classonline.org.uk/docs/2013_Exposing_the_myths_of_welfare.pdf [accessed on: 31/10/2014]

Dalrymple, J and Burke, B (2006) Anti-Oppressive Practice, Social Care and the Law (2e) Berkshire: Open University Press

Disability Wales (2014) Social Model [online]. Caerphilly, Disability Wales. Available from: http://www.disabilitywales.org/social-model/ [accessed on: 30/10/2014]

Fox, N (2014) What are Remploy workers doing now? [online]. London, BBC News. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-29843567 [accessed on 31/10/2014]

Gander, K (2013) Millions of families living in poverty despite being in employment says new study [online] London, The Independent. Available from: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/millions-of-families-living-in-poverty-despite-being-in-employment-says-new-study-8991403.html [accessed on: 30/10/2014]

GOV.UK (2014) Access to Work: Individuals helped to end of June 2014 [online]. London. Gov.uk. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/access-to-work-individuals-helped-to-end-of-jun-2014 [accessed on: 31/10/2014]

GOV.UK (2013) Drive to get more people into mainstream jobs [online] London, Gov.uk. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/drive-to-get-more-disabled-people-into-mainstream-jobs [accessed on: 31/10/2014]

Horner, N (2006) What is Social Work? Context and Perspectives (2e) Exeter, Learning Matters Ltd.

ONS (2014) Social Indicators [online]. Newport, Office for National Statistics. Available from: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/compendiums/compendium-of-uk-statistics/social-indicators/index.html [accessed on: 30/10/2014]

Paton, G (2013) Immigrants fil one in five skilled jobs [online] London, The Telegraph. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10424148/Immigrants-fill-one-in-five-skilled-British-jobs.html [accessed on: 30/10/2014]

Pierson, J. (2010) Tackling Social Exclusion (2e). Oxon: Routledge

Thompson, N (2009) Understanding Social Work (3e). Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan

Trevithick, P. (2005) Social Work Skills: a practice handbook (2e). Berkshire: Open University Press

WAG (2007) Fulfilled Lives, Supportive Communities. Cardiff: WAG

Williams, C (2011) Social Policy for Social Welfare Practice in a Devolved Wales (2e) Birmingham, Venture Press

Wilson, K., Ruch, G., Lymbery, M and Cooper, A (2008) Social Work: An introduction to contemporary practice. Essex, Pearson Education Ltd

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