Author: Andre Coleman

As a part of my Postgraduate degree program I got an internship opportunity for a period of three months at Fostering Solutions Ltd. The internship duration was from June till September. This report is a reflection on my experience of working as a consultant at Fostering Solutions. The project consisted of conducting a Competitor Analysis for the betterment of Fostering Solutions. Along with me were my team members Li who was responsible for carrying out the process improvement and Mani Shankar was vested with the responsibility of devising a national and marketing strategy. There was going to be a lot of team work, since the three parts would be combined together as one project. The project turned out to be a grand success and in this report I take you through my journey as a consultant from the beginning of the project till its conclusion looking at the various problems I faced and how I overcame them, the skills I learnt, my strongest motivation, how we developed team capabilities and finally the ending of the project. This was one of earliest projects that were posted on blackboard which I applied for, and was successful in proclaiming an internship after an interview with Fostering Solutions at Manchester Business School. It was a special feeling as I had a chance to work for a foreign company and this would subsequently add commendable strength to my resume.

The Beginning

The prospect of working on a live project as a consultant evoked plenty of excitement. For me the most significant aspect of the project was my opportunity to inculcate the theories and models I learnt in class to the corporate world. Having done my Bachelors in Management studies and currently pursuing a Post graduation in Business Analysis, this was the perfect opportunity for me to utilize my skills and relate to the learning’s from the classroom. Most significantly having the knowledge and understanding of business models which I studied in the Analysing companies module at Manchester Business School helped me a lot. Though, this was possible only because I was able to implement those learning’s in my internship project.

The beginning was challenging because this was a new industry to me and we were unfamiliar with the concept of fostering. I had to start from scratch by learning the fostering basics, the industry mechanics followed by the current scenario of the market. This was going to be the foundation of the project and a key factor to its success. All this had to be done in a short span of time because I needed to get a head start in the project.

2.1 Day 1

In our first meeting with the client at Fostering Solutions Ltd, we were introduced as external consultants to all the members of staff in different departments. My first observation about the company was its organisational culture. I noticed that the organisational culture was of the role culture type, in which the organisation is split up into various functions and each individual is responsible for a particular duty. (Learn management, 2010) We were given a briefing about the project, the company’s background and the fostering industry in general. I learnt that Michelle Sloan would be supervising me for my part of the project at the company. My first impression about Michelle was that she is a friendly and easy going person. I was given authority and freedom to work in any method comfortable to me. Her style of leadership was participative, since she would give me freedom and authority to work in my own way although she would check and double check my work to assess its suitability. We were presented a red folder containing inspection reports of different offices of fostering solutions, details of Fostering Solutions offices, contact details and a survey that was conducted on foster carers named as Foster Carer Viewpoints. This was the first significant aspect of my learning process to carry out a competitor analysis, this was regarding an inspection carried out by an organisation named Ofsted on independent agencies known as Ofsted Ratings. I learnt that Ofsted ratings is one way to assess competitors.

The motivation

I was strongly motivated by the fact that Fostering Solutions were going to take our findings and analysis very seriously. Subsequently our supervisor Prof Kurt kept highlighting the fact that Fostering Solutions unlike other big company internship project would analyse our recommendations meticulously and implement a few key ones. Knowing I had an opportunity to make a difference to an organisation was a big driving force for me. In addition to this I acknowledged to the fact that I was working for a social cause of helping overcome the shortage of foster carers in United Kingdom to the increase in the number of children in care with local authorities. My findings would help Fostering Solutions to recruit better and more foster carers and in turn help a number of children find homes and family.

The Learning process

In this section I reflect upon the learning process with respect to this internship project. I illustrate the gradual progress I made towards completion of the project successfully, there were learning’s and knowledge gain at every level. The learning process began with understanding the foster carer approval process. Understanding this process was very complex and was a difficult task. As the project progressed I realised I cannot compare the approval process or the number of foster carers approved between different competitors because they would not divulge such key information to me. There was no other procedure to find the information either. However understanding this process helped me understand that for a fostering agency it is critical that the right people register their initial interest with the agency. This was the first step to recruiting foster carers. Therefore, more the number of suitable applications received more will be the foster carers approved. The learning process continued with understanding the Fostering industry business model. Learning and understanding the business model was key to carry out an efficient competitor analysis. Independent agencies like Fostering Solutions recruit and approve foster carers, and place them with children provided by local authority. The Independent agency charges the local authority for this and pays the foster carer allowance for their carer service. Shown below is my understanding and reflection about the fostering industry business model.

My Understanding of the Fostering Industry Business Model

For determining an organisations success in today’s highly competitive and complex environment, the business model is the most significant tool. I understood that for any company to exist in this industry it has to recruit foster carers. Subsequently, I learnt more and more about the company, the industry and how things work in general with each passing week. One of the key learning’s was when I realised that the local authority runs this industry and is a key ingredient of the business model. This understanding was essential for me to carry out my competitor analysis. After this the most significant aspect was to list out the key issues involved in recruiting foster carers. I understood that different people had different motivations to choose fostering. They are 1. For the sole purpose of fostering. 2. For the purpose of fostering and the financial interest in the allowance they would get. 3. They could be interested in adoption but first would like to foster the child and adopt at a later stage.

After this I began the data collection process by assembling data regarding the industry to write a brief description and the challenges it is facing. By doing so, I learnt that there was a shortage of foster carers in the industry and an increase in the number of children coming into care. I learnt that the government of the United Kingdom were looking to reduce spending on Fostering in the coming years and this was a major threat to the fostering industry. By the end of June after consulting with Michelle, Fostering Solutions, we short listed nine companies on whom I would be filing reports which would shed light on how these firms compete with Fostering Solutions in the market. On doing further analysis to understand the factors which clarified how these firms compete with Fostering Solutions, I came up with criteria on which they would be compared and analysed, these criteria included turnover, profit margin, number of employees, location, foster carer allowance paid, services provided, placement provided and Ofsted ratings. On carrying out a through analysis of these factors would enable me to gain an understanding of the positioning of these companies in the market. The learning process reached its peak when I could prepare a framework for my project report as shown below.

Framework of the competitor analysis
Working in teams

There were times when I had to inherit the qualities or role of a leader, friend, colleague and subordinate while working as a part of a team. Good team leadership is to create conditions which would allow thoughts, ideas and people to succeed, by coming together and with a flow in the performance. When in pursuit of challenging team goals one can encourage effective teamwork by balancing people’s strengths with building good relationships. I enjoyed working with this team. The team would meet twice a week to discuss our parts and understand the progress each one of us was making. We would go to the office to meet with the client twice a week till the middle of July.

The difficulties I faced in working in this team were communicating with Li who is Chinese and has a funny English accent. Similarly, she would have found our accent funny and would have found it a little difficult to grasp an understanding in one conversation. There were numerous occasions most recently today itself when I had to ask her to repeat her suggestion on the recommendation because I could not understand her English in the first attempt. Despite the cultural and geographical differences, it was an interesting experience working with a person from another country. I adjusted my method of working and communicating with the dynamics of the team. I believe this would be a key requirement for my future prospects when I work in an organisation. It is very important to adjust and settle down in accordance with the dynamics of the team you are working with. Despite our differences, we were a team that worked together, fought the difficulties and appreciated each other’s work. (Lawford, 2003)

We shared work in such a way that every member could use his/her strengths to attain the required goal and not have to work on tasks which required skills which may be deficient. By doing this we increased the productivity of the team and the team morale. An example could be that I was good at making charts and compiling the whole report, whereas Li was good at the editing work and proof reading and accordingly we distributed the tasks to achieve proper synergy.

An example of our progress as a team with reference to the Tuckman’s Team Model

Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development – Tuckmans model gives an understanding of how a newly formed team gradually develops maturity, ability and the establishment of relationships within the team members. From the Forming stage where the team comes together for the first time through 4 different stages the team goes through a series of changes and ultimately performs as a team and works towards achieving its goals

Forming stage – Formation of the team

Tuckman’s model explains

In this stage the team has been assembled and tasks are allocated among members. Team members pretend to get on with each other but they might not trust each other due to not knowing each other well enough. At this stage I felt it was important to bring the group together and work on our goals. It was important that we established our roles and this stage was a period of high learning. It is a stage where I learnt about beliefs, attitudes and observed the behaviour of my team members. Such things gave me an idea to understand these individuals and thus understand the group dynamics which were going to be formed.

Storming

Tuckman’s model explains

In this stage the team members strive to get down with the issues and ways to achieving them. At this stage, it is expected that arguments and tempers will flare. We did have a lot of arguments regarding each other’s report analysis and findings. The arguments occurred on topics such as format of the reports, whose part should come first and also the word count. As mentioned above, the incident where I named a file wrongly had led to arguments. Sometimes teams can become stuck in this phase for a long time due to persistent arguments and problems. At this stage the most important thing is to listen to each other, there was a need to create a positive vibe in the group and appreciate each other’s work. There was a necessity to set tasks and walk along with the team towards the next step. Hence a belief of “yes we can” was needed to make the transfer to the next stage.

Norming stage

Tuckman’s model explains

This as the stage where the team members get used to the working ways of each other and develop trust and strive for team productivity. In this phase teams begin to work as a cohesive unit trusting each other. Li and Mani were aware that I work through the night and sleep early in the morning right upto 11 a.m. Hence we used to schedule some meetings for 1p.m. or later. Mani and I took a little longer to finish our sections of the report because we had a tough time getting the data we needed from secondary sources. Li understood and appreciated this difficulty. We had developed an understanding of exactly what was going on in each others section of report. It is highly important to self evaluate and communicate effectively at this stage. We shared responsibility by delegating tasks to be completed between the three of us. The risk at this stage was that the team could become complacent and lose its creativity or driving force that is required to achieve success in its goals. Our team did not lose its focus we kept working towards a common goal and took the step towards the final stage of our project.

Performing stage

Tuckman’s model explains

This is a stage where the team is totally committed and strives towards a common goal. This is the final stage of the team where it focuses in finishing the tasks it set out and adjourning. Once we finished individual parts of group report, we met regularly at Manchester Business School to discuss the link between the 3 parts. At this stage individuals in the team are highly motivated for the success of the team wasting little time with high trust on one another. We proof-read each others work and thoroughly examined each other’s recommendations, sometimes through discussions, before coming to a consensus. It is key to note that a team according to tuckman’s model can return to an earlier level if there is a change, for instance a review of the recommendations or the report or if a team member leaves prematurely.

Difficulties Faced and How I Overcame Them

At the outset of this Internship project I faced plenty of difficulties. In this section I reflect on the difficulties that I faced and what I did to overcome them. The beginning period was very tough for me from a personal point of view. My Father had a heart problem during May end/June start. I could not concentrate on my work and kept thinking about how things would be back home and worrying. It was an emotional and stressful beginning. At such time, there is no way to find out if your family is telling you the truth about the situation or otherwise. This makes things all the more difficult. It took me about ten to fourteen days to get back to normal self and believing that everything was alright. Nevertheless, this incident motivated me a lot to give it my best shot. I worked harder than ever to make my parents proud of me.

6.1 Problem solving model

This problem solving model was adapted by me from the eight disciplines problem solving method. (David Bruce, 2010) I reflect on different problems I faced during the project and how I used this model to find a solution to those problems.

Lack of Data

During the early days of the project I had a tough time because I was reading information that had nothing to do with competitor analysis. Such was the vast nature of information provided to me about Fostering Solutions. I was given a number of books on fostering, care and training methods, which I read and found out, had nothing to do with my competitor analysis. A lot of precious time was wasted in going through irrelevant data. Often in research projects consultants could spend time reading, researching information that are of no use in the research but still have to be read and assessed to find out its use in future analysis. When analysing this problem with respect to the model I concluded the best option would be to create a framework and scope for my research. By doing so I exactly understood the data I was required to collect and carry out further analysis.

I got all the data regarding Fostering Solutions from the company. However getting information about competitors to undertake a competitor analysis was a challenging task. Getting the financial data such as turnover, profit margin proved to a job in itself. During a meeting with Dr. Kurt, he suggested FAME database and it worked. The data for 8 companies out of 9 was available but TACT being a charity organisation there was no data. Another problem was that for Orange Grove (now taken over by Hillcrest Foster Care) and SWIIS the financial information available was only for the year 2008 and not 2009. But the data for other companies was available as per our requirement. The research could have been better had I got the required annual reports of these companies. I overcame this difficulty by considering the options to counter this problem. I selected the best suitable option which would be to conduct a comparison of these companies on data that I had such as services provided or foster carer allowance. In this way I used my problem solving model and decided to concentrate on the data I possessed to continue my competitor analysis, rather than getting demotivated about the unavailable data.

Similarly, getting data regarding the foster carer allowance was a hurdle. This information is important as it provides insight into who provides the best allowance to the foster carers and where Fostering Solutions stands in comparison. The hindrances I faced during this task were immense. This data for many competitors was not available directly; it was either hidden in the services page or FAQ’s section. By The Bridge did not divulge this information as it was not present on their website, but only in their brochure which they won’t send out unless an initial application was filled. I went to the step 2 of my problem solving model and tried a few options to find out this data. I tried calling fostering companies on my radar and acting like a person who was interested in foster care and asked for access to their annual reports, brochure and foster carer allowance. I was told there was no access to annual reports and for brochure I would be required to fill in an application form. Later, I decided to try calling them saying I was a Manchester Business School postgraduate student and wanted their brochure, annual report of 2009 or 2008 as I am doing a research project on fostering industry. Even this trick did not work as they outsmarted me. The person I spoke to told me to forward my research project plan and key objectives and then only they will send this information. I could obviously not send this because the research objective was a competitor analysis for the benefit of Fostering Solutions. Thus, foster carer allowance for By The Bridge and TACT could not be found out after exploring the options stage. Hence I went to step 3 of the problem solving model and decided to compare these companies on other key factors such as size, turnover, ofsted ratings and services provided.

Similarly, there was no data available regarding number of children placed by each of the competing companies. It would have been very helpful and interesting if I could have got data regarding children placed by each of 9 competitors. There was data available only regarding total children placed by all the Independent agencies and local authorities. I have included the same in the competitor analysis, but there was no data available on children placed by each competitor.

Vast nature of the project

The vast nature of the project and short span of time of 3 months to complete was a hindrance. According to our Academic supervisor Prof Kurt this project could have been carried out as a PhD for a three year term, such was its wide scope. I had 4000 to 6000 words to present and analyse data, compare the 9 companies to fostering solutions and come up with how they compete with them. This was always going to be too short to compile reports on these companies, write down my analysis, analysis regarding financial data, compile findings/comparison for each company to fostering solutions and lastly recommendations. I progressed to step 2 of the problem solving model and explored my options. Then I selected the suitable option of presenting some of the important data in the appendix and decided to strictly following the framework I had set out for the project and restricting myself to only presenting analysis and information that was key and omitting irrelevant data.

Skills Utilized, skills I Lacked and Skills Acquired
Skills Utilized
Skills I utilized to successful completion of the project

It is extremely crucial that a consultant has a complete understanding of the project requirement. I achieved this by breaking down the project into small elements and developed my understanding of the requirement of my client. This was done by discussing the project brief in detail with Fostering Solutions and Prof Kurt. Having applied this skill effectively I now feel I would be able to carry this experience on to future assignments I receive at my workplace.

Secondly, having broken down the project into tasks I utilized my communication skills to keep the client informed about my progress in the report. I used the 7 C’s of communication clarity, confidence, comprehensive, concise, conviction, comfort and charisma to effectively communicate throughout the project.(Leslie, 2010) Having good communication skills helped me massively because this being a team project, there were three lines of communication. Firstly with the client, secondly with my team and thirdly with my academic supervisor Prof Kurt. Hence, to avoid confusion it was important to see that everyone was on the same wavelength. This was achieved by arranging a meeting between the company supervisors and our academic supervisor, Prof. Kurt. We agreed that all communication regarding meeting with our academic supervisor would be handled by Mani Shankar. I would be reporting directly to Michelle at Fostering Solutions and emailing Prof Kurt regularly regarding the progress of my report. We had a number of meetings at Manchester Business School and Fostering Solutions to discuss the progress of the project. Once the channels of communication were established early in the project, I had no problems working on the report and communicating with both the supervisors. Thirdly, I needed to be a good analyst to successfully progress in this report. Prof. Kurt gave me a nudge in the right direction by suggesting FAME database to me to look for financial data of companies that are available. Once this was done, competitors were assessed and compared with Fostering Solutions on turnover, profit margin, foster carer allowance paid, services provided and placements provided. This required a lot of data collection most of which was secondary and required a lot of analysis to find out exactly how they competed with Fostering Solutions in the market.

Having analysed data on each competitor I discussed it with Michelle and Prof Kurt and got their feedback on the same. I found out an interesting statistics at fostering.net. From this file I found out that local authorities were always going to be big competitors with independent agencies in this industry. They had placed more children, recruited more foster carers and received more applications than the independent fostering agencies across the UK. This was the first analysis I had conducted. Showing it and proving it in meetings at MBS with the supervisors and again at Fostering Solutions gave me a lot of confidence. I started believing in my abilities to succeed in this challenging project and provide a lasting contribution to the success of Fostering Solutions. I found it difficult and challenging to collect the data required in order to carry out my analysis. FAME provided limited information and financial data for some companies were available only for the year 2008. There was no other way to find out the information I needed. I overcame this problem by comparing and doing my analysis for these companies on other variables such as foster carer allowance and services provided. Belief in my abilities grew when I discovered that local authorities had recruited, placed more children and received more applications than independent agencies and proved it with evidence in a meeting at Fostering Solutions. I conducted my analysis on turnovers, foster carer allowance, services provided and the locations of the competitors. This understanding was essential for me to come up with important observations regarding how the competitors compete with Fostering Solutions. Thus, in this way I excelled in using my analytical skills.

Skills that I developed during this internship were my planning, organisational skills and time management. If I had to be successful in this project it was essential for me to plan and organise tasks before executing them. I believe I did this efficiently. One thing I would like to highlight and criticise myself is it took me a while to get a head start; Prof. Kurt and Michelle were extremely understandable, patient and helpful. This report could have been better if I had made a better start and I am critical about this issue. Though, the effort that has been put in is the same as I worked longer hours at a stretch when the real assignment began. I efficiently planned the time schedule for understanding the industry, data collection, analysis and writing the report. After analysing the data I would discuss it with Michelle. She would give her feedback and I would incorporate the completed data and analysis in my written report. As planned I completed writing my report before August 22nd 2010. Hence I believe that I have developed good planning and organising skills because without them I would not have been able to complete this project within the time duration; especially after the slow start that I had.

One skill I lacked due to my inexperience of working on a project of such magnitude was presentation skills with respect to formatting and presenting a management report. This was the first time I had worked as a consultant for a company. I had no idea about how to present a report of such magnitude. Prof Kurt in one of our final meetings was critical about the way I had presented and written my report. My report draft had a shabby presentation with parts in bold, unnecessary paragraphs and some parts underlined unnecessarily. Prof Kurt showed me the right way and guided me to prepare the report and present it in a more professional and readable way. He taught me that presentation is a key aspect in report writing and all the hard work done could be undone by a shabby presentation. He gave us ideas to make the report look good and interesting to the reader.

AIDA Model Attention Interest Desire Action – I learnt that a good presentation of the report is a must because firstly it will capture the attention of the reader and generate an interest in the material. After which the reader would develop a desire to read it. These lessons will remain with me for the rest of my life and in future when I work for a company and have to present a consulting report I would reflect upon these lessons Prof Kurt enlightened upon me. (Aida, 2010)

Working with Fostering Solutions – The Client

Fostering Solutions were supportive of this project. Michelle my supervisor was very excited about the whole project from the start. She was very friendly, supportive to me during the duration of the project. I was given a lot of freedom to choose whether to go and work from the office or working from my home/business school library. Michelle could not give me proper feedback because my report was in bits and pieces and in draft format till start of first week of August. But once I sent her the report in full, she helped me edit and also proof read given data analysis for me. Once I submitted my final draft to her, she was very happy with it and gave me her feedback. Michele and Prof Kurt appreciated my effort inspite of the challenges I faced such as lack of data, time constraints, word constraints to conduct a competitor analysis. Michele presented my findings, analysis and recommendations to the director of Fostering Solutions who requested for the FAME financial data to be put in the appendix, and congratulated me for my good work.

In my recommendations to the client I adopted a diplomatic method to avoid being too critical or too polite. Michele was critical about a few of my recommendations at first, but once we debated the issues involved she realised that I had raised valid arguments. My responsibility was to recommend ways in which Fostering Solutions could compete in a better way in the market with respect to competitors. Hence I had to find out and raise concerns in the current working methods/strategy of Fostering Solutions in comparison with its competitors. This had to be done with care due to sensitivity of the issue involved, no organisation would like to hear or accept their faults or limitations. Thus I had to structure my recommendations in such a way that it would be read and accepted by the client. The reason being unless they are accepted with an open mind there is no chance of it being implemented by the organisation.

Self evaluation model

Following is a self evaluation model in which I assess the utilization of skills in this internship project using a coordinate diagram.

X axis – Skills to be evaluated

1 – Planning and organising tasks

2- Communication skills

3- Analytical

4 – Problem solving skills

5- Presentation skills with respect to formatting, editing.

6- Team work

7- Creativity

Y axis – Perfomance rating

1 – Poor 2 – Satisfactory 3 – Good 4 – Excellent

Self evaluation model

Excellent 4- (1, 4) (3, 4) (6, 4)

Good 3- (2, 3) (4, 3)

Satisfactory 2 ———————————————— (5, 2) ——– (7, 2)

Poor 1-

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Skills to be evaluated

Coordinates and evaluation using the coordinates model

(1, 4) Planning and organising skills Excellent

(2, 3) Communication skills Good

(3, 4) Analytical skills Good

(4, 3) Problem solving skills Good

(5, 2) Presentation skills with respect to formatting and editing, presentation of work has to be improved -Satisfact

“A good risk decision requires both good risk assessment and good risk management” (Carson and Bain, 2008: 156). The intention of this assignment is to critically evaluate this statement with reference to my own practice experience. With the focus of this piece of practice being on children, this assignment will predominantly explore risk from the perspective of children. The assignment will start with a brief outline of the practice experience that will be referred to and will explore the social, cultural and political concepts that shape practice in relation to risk. The concepts of risk, risk assessment and risk management will be examined along with what makes them good. The assignment will then explore how Brearley’s (1982) risk assessment was used before looking at theoretical frameworks of reflection.

The practice experience that I will be referring to throughout this piece of work is the assessment process in preparation for a Full Assessment Report that had been requested from the Children’s Reporter Administration due to concerns for the safety of a child. During a domestic incident between Mr and Mrs Hassan, their son Raj (aged 12) was struck on the side of the face by Mr Hassan. As a result of bail conditions Mr Hassam was not allowed within a certain distance of the family home and he was not present during the first half of the assessment process. However halfway through the assessment process Mr Hassam was charged and convicted a Schedule 1 offender, with bail conditions no longer in place Mr Hassam returned to the family home.

Towards the end of the twentieth century risk became a major concern within western society; Beck (1992) argues that we live in a risk society that has an emphasis on uncertainty and blame, and there is no longer a focus on succeeding in doing something good but where we are preventing the worst. Parton (1996) would agree with Beck and believes that globalisation has separated society and in turn created more uncertainty within social and economic life. As a result of the blaming culture professionals are finding themselves avoiding taking risks and feeling that they have to defend their practice and risk decisions (McLaughlin, 2007 and Barry, 2007).

The media and public blame practitioners, particularly when there is a child death, and state that they put children at unnecessary high risk as they fail to intervene quickly enough. Examples of high profile child death inquiry cases include Jasmine Beckford (1985), Caleb Ness (2003) and Baby P (2008). Baby P is an excellent example of how the media and public blame practitioners and received high media attention. Media coverage of how risk assessments and risk managements have failed along with demands for minimising risks and organisational and professional accountability has constrained the role of a social worker and The 21st Century Review of Social Work (2006) acknowledges this (Barry, 2007). It implies that social work professionals were lacking in confidence when it came to taking risks in what has become a risk adverse society. One of the main areas highlighted in the report was the need for a new organisational culture and approach to risk assessment and risk management which would promote merit (Scottish Executive, 2006).

Official policies and guidance have been developed in recent years with the aim of improving practices and knowledge where high risks can be identified (DOH, 1991 cited in Parton, 1996). This is evident in documents that influenced my practice and I referred to them before making risk decisions, some examples include; Getting it Right for Every Child: Proposal for Action (Scottish Executive, 2005), Every Child Matters: Change for Children (HM Government, 2004) and It’s everyone’s job to make sure I’m alright: Report of the Child Protection Audit and Review (Scottish Executive, 2002).

The word risk is a complex and comprehensive concept and there is no clear definition when it comes to defining what would be a low, medium or high risk (Stalker, 2003 and Barry, 2007). Many of the problems that arise during risk taking is a result of there being no exact definition of risk (Titterton, 2005). This in turn creates difficulties when defining definitions of risk, risk assessment and risk management.

The Oxford English Dictionary (2002) describes the noun risk as a situation that could lead to a bad outcome or the likelihood of something unpleasant happening, and the verb risk as being exposed to danger or loss or act in a way that something bad could happen. All dictionary definitions will give the word risk negative meanings. Alaszewski and Manthorpe (1991) would agree with the negative dictionary definitions of risk and define it as, “the possibility that a given course of action will not achieve its desired outcome but instead some undesired and undesirable situation will develop.” Similarly Blackburn (2000) views risk as being a loss or cost as a result of uncertainty (cited in Carson and Bain, 2008).

Carson and Bain (2008) and Titterton (2005) disagree with negative meanings of the word risk; they argue that such definitions are not good enough as they pose more difficulties when taking risks with people’s lives. They both argue that risk needs to be explained as looking at the potential benefits and also the potential harms. Alberg (1996) provides a useful definition of risk as, “the possibility of beneficial and harmful outcomes and the likelihood of their occurrence in a stated timescale” (cited in Titterton, 2005:25).

Risk assessment is the stage in risk decision making where information on the elements of risk is collated and assessed, they are usually made to inform risk management. Risk assessment is concerned with collecting information on the two key risk elements; these are known as the outcomes (also known as the consequences, harm or damage) and their likelihood (also known as chance or exposure) and to assess a risk we must consider both (Carson and Bain, 2008, Titterton, 2005). The two basic assessment tools used to assess risk are; clinical which involves professional judgement and information from research on risk factors, and actuarial is based upon statistical calculations of risk and is used in the insurance industry (Barry, 2007 and Davies, 2008). Although not exclusively, actuarial data tends to be used during risk assessments and clinical during risk management (Carson and Bain, 2008).

In order to undertake a good risk assessment we should include all the outcomes that could occur as a result of the risk decision and which could happen in the period that the risk is being assessed. If an outcome would happen regardless of a risk assessment being made then it did not happen as a result of a risk decision. The risk decision must have made the outcome more likely or serious; both the seriousness of the outcomes and their likelihood must be considered (Carson and Bain, 2008). When assessing the likelihood of a situation it should be based upon the best knowledge available and whether the decision would have been the same had a responsible body (i.e. SSSC) had considered it (Carson and Bain, 2008).

A good risk assessment has a purpose and this is to explore the potential benefits over the possible harms. If the value of the likely benefits outweighs the value of the likely harms then we will be able to justify taking a risk decision (Titterton, 2005). We need to be able to justify taking a risk before we can learn whether harm will result. If harm does result then it is not bad risk assessment, similarly if a risk decision leads to successful outcomes we cannot say it is good risk assessment. A risk decision needs to be judged on the risk decision processes and procedures, not by the outcomes (Carson and Bain, 2008). It could be argued that there are no benefits of taking a risk and this would be deemed as bad risk assessment and must be challenged (Carson and Bain, 2008).

After a risk assessment has been carried out a decision needs to be made on how to manage the situation. Risk management is discovering and controlling the dimensions of the proposed risk into a plan to manage the risks; it is involved with implementing, monitoring, influencing, controlling and reviewing the risk decision (Carson and Bain, 2008). Risk dimensions are features of risk that could be influenced by the practitioner, for example the available resources to manage the risk and uncertainty (Carson and Bain, 2008). Risk management also means making the most of the potential benefits and including service users in managing risk decisions (Stalker, 2003).

In order to have good risk management we must be able to make effective use of all the dimensions of the risk assessment. This includes the time during and the amount of time of a risk decision being made and the time available to intervene if necessary. We need to be able to identify people and their skills as a resource and use their qualities, knowledge and ability to recognise problems and opportunities should they arise. We should identify and consider both positive and negative opportunities that arise at different stages as we go along a risk path. Before making a risk decision we must explore the quality and quantity of available knowledge and its significance. Knowledge is a form of power and this creates degrees of control, this includes recognising our professional, ethical and legal limits to intervene and control a risk. Good risk management is being able to use all of these resources however there is a barrier, they all cost money. Risk management is political as it is about resources, we require adequate resources for a good risk management plan and lack of resources will have an impact on this (Carson and Bain, 2008).

Risk decisions are complex and may be based on unreliable or uncertain knowledge. If harm could not occur then it would not be a risk, if harms do occur then decision making and risk management will need to be examined and a risk decision that was justifiable before the event must remain justifiable after the event. The practitioner will also need to show that any decisions they did make were in line with best current practice on risk assessment and risk management. Many risk decisions will be good irrespective of poor risk management. (Carson and Bain, 2008 and Davies, 2008).

Risk management is often overshadowed by risk assessment, despite the fact that it can only identify a risk and not lessen it (Stalker, 2003 and Titterton, 2005). It is important to give risk management more credit as it can prevent bad risk assessment. If a poor risk assessment is made then it can result in harm, inquiries and court proceedings. As risk management comes after the risk assessment has been made it can in turn prevent a poor risk assessment from causing harm (Carson and Bain, 2008). Also risk management concerns the implementation of the risk decision and can therefore protect against the consequences of poor risk assessment. In order to make a good risk decision we therefore require good risk assessment and good risk management (Carson and Bain, 2008). Titterton (2005) argues that risk assessment and risk management should be interconnected within the same risk framework.

Brearley’s (1982) definition of risk focuses on the negative outcomes of risk (i.e. damage and harm) however despite its restrictions it is argued that it is relevant as he has provided a framework that provides a good starting point for understanding and assessing risk, and that helps assist workers to recognise risk factors when faced with risky situations (Watson and West, 2006 and Kemshall and Pritchard, 1996). Brearley’s risk assessment framework is interactive and uses concepts of the systems approach, task centred approach to the actuarial assessment of risk. His framework identifies two types of hazards which he refers to as general predictive hazards (background hazards) and situational hazards (current hazards); a hazard is the possibility of loss or damage that will result in danger. These hazards need to be weighed up with the strengths in order to identify if a risk decision has to be made (Kemshall and Pritchard, 1996).

I incorporated Brearley’s (1982) framework with the assessment triangle (DOH, 2000 and Aldgate and Rose, 2006) during my risk assessment and I identified that identified that there were no general predictive factors for Raj, he was not known to social work prior to this assault and there was no evidence to suggest that there had been any issues in the past. The situational hazards for Raj were; he had been assaulted by Mr Hassam, his behaviour changed and he became withdrawn and angry, poverty and poor housing. His strengths were; he was resilient, he attended and enjoyed school, he openly spoke out about how he felt. The danger for Raj was that he was at risk of further physical and/or emotional abuse for being open and honest with me after his father had warned him not to speak to any professionals.

During my risk assessment I had to consider how capable Mr Hassam was of further assaulting Raj and how likely it was to happen. I thought about the severity of the outcomes, for example if I thought there was a chance that the outcome would be death then the likelihood would be lower than if I thought the outcome could be assault. I therefore considered the outcome of my assessment to be that Mr Hassam could assault Raj again and although the outcome could be very serious but I felt that the likelihood of it happening was very low as Mr Hassam had never been violent towards his son before and showed true signs of remorse for his actions. However just because it was extremely unlikely that Mr Hassam would assault Raj again did not mean that I could consider it a low risk. An unlikely event does not become any more likely merely as it could have serious outcomes (Carson and Bain, 2008). During my assessment I referred to The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 as I had a duty to safeguard and promote the welfare of Raj and his welfare is paramount (SCLC, 1995), and also to the values of the SSSC (2005), particularly codes 4.1 and 4.2.

When considering the risk period to work within and how we are basing our assessment we should examine research based upon that period. During my risk assessment I looked at research on domestic violence and child abuse and several studies show that there is a high association between domestic violence and child abuse (physical and emotional); Morely and Mullender (1994) found that between 40-60% of children are physically assaulted by the perpetrator and Epsein and Keep (1994) found that 38% of children who called Childline had been assaulted by the perpetrator. To make the use of the highest knowledge available I also consulted with my practice teacher and PTL and considered their recommendations before making my decision. My risk decision was that it was safe for Raj to remain in the family home with his father, as the potential benefits (e.g. prior to the assault Raj and his father had a good relationship) outweighed the likely harms. I was able to work in partnership with Mr and Mrs Hassan and the school and they were all resources that assisted me with identifying opportunities for Raj. On reflection I felt confident that I had used the resources available to me well, particularly research and knowledge and I could justify my risk decision if harm was to occur and would be able to explain how I came to my risk decision.

Reflective practice involves being able to think holistically and in turn this includes exploring facts and feelings, the knowledge and understanding of the situation and being able to look at perspectives subjectively and objectively (Wilson et al, 2008). Schon (1983), Kolb (1984) and Boud et al (1985) have given reflective practice currency in recent years by developing ideas and using and applying them to reflecting on experience and improving action and practice (Brown and Rutter, 2008). I based my reflective accounts in practice on Kolb’s (1984) model of experiential learning. Kolb’s model explores having concrete practice experience which we then reflect and observe on, construct new ideas on and then experiment with. His model emphasises the importance of using observation and testing our reflection on what we see and experience and being able to build upon how we experience the real world (Adams et al, 2002). Kolb’s model has helped me understand that learning is individual and I have to make the connections to existing knowledge, theories and legislation when reflecting on what I have learned.

A number of self evaluation questionnaires derived from Kolb’s learning cycle with the aim of helping people identify their learning styles. I used Honey and Mumford’s (1992) learning style questionnaire to discover that I am a reflective learner; I will watch and reflect, gather relevant data and examine all the possible options available before making a decison. Using my learning style as a reflector and incorporating Kolb’s model of learning I was able to confidently make a risk decision for Raj. I used the supervision process to discuss my learning style and how this assisted me when I put plans of action in place with the Hassam family and how I went through the cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualisation and experimentation (Parker, 2006).

To conclude this piece of work has proved that in order to have a good risk decision then we must have a good risk assessment along with good risk management and my own practice experience was integrated throughout as an illustrative. Today’s risk society has a lack of confidence in professionals and this has an impact when they need to make risk decisions, although after using risk and reflective frameworks along with supervision I was confident to be able to make my risk decision and justify it. With the right policies, procedures and support professionals will be able to make good risk decisions and feel confident when doing so.

The purpose of this essay is to critically evaluate the following statement with reference to my own practice experience in working with risk. “As social workers it is especially critical that we apply a resilience-lens, that is, a strengths-based practice approach…” (Saleeby, 2006, p.198).

With the focus of this piece of practice on working with a family, this essay will predominantly explore the above statement from the perspective of a Children and Families placement. The essay will start with a brief outline of the practice experience that will be referred to and will then explore the concepts of resilience and strengths-based practice as well as risk assessment and risk management. The social, cultural and political concepts that shape practice in relation to risk management will also be explored. A reflective discussion of my practice will follow and this will incorporate the concepts of resilience and strengths-based practice as well as risk assessment and risk management and how this approach was utilised to complete BB’s Pre-Birth Assessment. This discussion will also be set within a theoretical framework of reflection.

The practice experience that will be referred to within this essay is the assessment process I undertook in order to prepare for the completion of a Pre-Birth Assessment which had been requested by the Community Ante-Natal Midwife. The completed Pre-Birth Assessment would be sent to the Local Authority’s Child Protection Officer. This was in line with the Local Authority’s High Risk Pregnancy Protocol. BB is 18 years old and pregnant with her second child. She lives alone in local authority housing in a small village. Her oldest child, CA, was at the time of the referral 9 months old. BB’s partner, BA, who is aged 21, is currently in prison serving a two year sentence for Assault to Severe Injury. BA is not expected to get released from prison until October 2010. The Midwife was concerned that BB would find it difficult to cope with the new baby as well as her daughter and described BB as appearing to lack capacity in her understanding of responsibility of CA’s health and welfare and the health and well-being of both herself and her unborn baby. The midwife also raised concerns about BB’s mental well-being with respect to her partner’s long term prison sentence and in particular raised concerns that BB was finding it difficult to contemplate the birth of her second child without the support of her partner. The Midwife was satisfied that substance/drug misuse was not an issue with BB.

The concept of resilience refers to a dynamic process of overcoming the negative effects of risk exposure, coping successfully with traumatic experiences and avoiding the negative pathways associated with risks. (Rutter, 1985; Luthar et al, 2000). From a developmental perspective, a pathway can become negative when circumstances lead to lower than expected progress or regression. Positive pathways occur as individuals or families overcome adversities. Turning points represent times when a pathway alters direction, such as when professional intervention enables a family or individual to start on or return to a positive pathway. (Hill et al 2007). Gilligan (2004) also suggests that three elements are seen as essential to understanding resilience which arises from a process and results in positive adaption in the face of adversity. Further to this, Fergus and Zimmerman (2005) argue that a key requirement of resilience is the presence of both risk and protective factors that either help bring about a positive outcome or reduce and avoid a negative outcome. In order to illuminate how resilience may operate, the key relationships in the lives of children and their families should be explored. The relationships the children and their families have with the wider world as well as their relationships with professionals should also be included in this exploration. (Gilligan, 2004).

According to Hill et al (2007) many of the findings concerning resilience among young people as they move into adulthood are relevant to parents. The capacities and supports that assist their resilience also help them manage stresses arising from parental roles. However, much of the work on parent and family support has been based on the concept of ‘coping ‘ and the development or building on the strengths of families facing difficulties rather than that of ‘resilience’ (Pugh et al, 1995; Quinton, 2004). Nevertheless, as Hill et al (2007) point out “successful coping equates to resilience” (Hill et al, 2007, p.19).

In order to identify and bolster strengths, as well as reduce risk Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt (2004) consider how a risk and resilience ecological framework (Kirby and Fraser, 1997) can fit with social work’s emphasis on empowerment and the strengths-based perspective. Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt (2004) put forward the ideas that the strengths perspective underlies the concepts of ‘protective factors’ and ‘resilience’ in which people are not only able to survive, but also triumph over difficult life circumstances. The ecological emphasis of the framework expands the focus beyond the individual to a “recognition of systemic factors that can create problems as well as ameliorate them.” (Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt, 2004, p.212)

In describing elements and principles of strength-based practice, Saleeby (2000) asks us to imagine an equilateral triangle. P at the apex stands for promise and possibility whilst C on the left represents capacities, competencies and character. R on the angle to the right symbolises resources, resilience and reserves. Taking into account the character and tenor of the helping relationship using the work of Carl Rogers (1951) by utilising respect, genuineness, concern, collaboration and empathy as well having useful and appropriate interventions can provide a context for the family and/or individual to confront the difficult and consider the future.

Central to the strengths approach is to begin making an assessment of the assets, resources and capacities within the service user and equally within their environment e.g. household composition, extended family, neighbourhood and local amenities as well as access to community resources. (Saleeby, 2000; Corcoran & Nichols-Casebolt, 2004). Further to this, professional assessment needs to focus on strengths as well as deficits, on protective as well as risk factors. (Werner & Smith, 1992; Gilligan, 2001). What also needs to be understood, in terms of professional assessment is that protective and risk factors have been found to vary according to the type of adversity, type of resilient outcome and life stage. Also risk factors in one context may by protective in another. (Rutter, 1999; Ungar, 2004).

Risk assessment should be understood as collecting information on the two key risk elements; these are known as the outcomes (also known as the consequences, harm or damage) and their likelihood (also known as chance or exposure) and to assess a risk both should be taken into consideration. (Carson & Bain, 2008; Titterton, 2005). Risk assessment is also described as a systematic collection of information to identify if risks are involved and identifying the likelihood of their future occurrence. It can also be used to predict the escalation of the presenting behaviour as well as the service user’s motivation for change. (Calder, 2002)

When considering outcomes Carson & Bain (2008) argue that a risk assessment only requires from a legal, ethical and professional perspective to cover ‘reasonable’ outcomes. The goal should be to include as much information, and as many considerations as necessary but to keep the decision as simple as possible. Including unreasonable outcomes quickly become counterproductive and thereby show poor practice. Further to this beneficial outcomes should also be taken into consideration. Risk assessment should also take into account that risk is being considered, and can be justified because its likely benefits may be more important than the possible harms. Quality risk assessment requires us to think about the amount of harm and/or benefits which might be achieved.

When assessing likelihood Carson & Bain (2008) suggest that the knowledge source and the quality of knowledge are variable. They advocate the adoption of the cognitive continuum model by Hammond (1978 cited in Carson & Bain, 2008). This suggests that we should be able to distinguish six ‘levels’ of knowledge. The lowest level being ‘intuitive judgement’ next is ‘peer-aided judgement’ where two or more people will share knowledge, experience and discuss assumptions and predictions. The third is ‘system-aided judgement’ e.g. supervisor/manager aided. The final three levels relate to the quality of scientific and empirical research which may or may not be available. However, as Carson & Bain point out the value of the cognitive continuum is that it reminds us that

“When making an assessment of likelihood we ought to use knowledge from the highest level, providing it is relevant knowledge.”

(Carson & Bain, 2008, p.142)

Therefore, when conducting an assessment, it is important that the nature of the interactions between the family and environmental factors are examined carefully, including both positive and negative influences and knowledge and meaning attached to them explored and weighed up with the family. What is useful in this respect is the use of grids and visual aids such as resilience/vulnerability matrix (Daniel & Wassell, 2002), My World Triangle and genograms. The usefulness of these is enhanced when completed together with the service user. At this point it is useful to mention that there are two basic assessment tools used to assess risk. These are clinical which involves professional judgement, information from research on risk factors and constructs risk management as well as allowing intervention strategies to be tailored to situation. The other is actuarial and is based upon statistical calculations of risk and uses scales to assess parental dangerousness. This method does not allow for children and their families unique cluster of circumstances and also takes no account of child development theory. (Barry, 2007; Davies, 2008).

Risk management is discovering and controlling the dimensions of the proposed risk into a plan to manage the risks; it is involved with implementing, monitoring, influencing, controlling and reviewing the risk decision. Risk dimensions are features of risk that could be influenced by the practitioner, for example the available (and the availability of) resources to manage the risk and uncertainty (Carson and Bain, 2008). Gurney (2000) defines risk management as processes devised by organisations to minimise negative outcomes and suggests that risk management moves along a continuum between control, legitimate authority and empowerment. Between the empowering and controlling ends of the continuum lie models of risk minimisation which seek to reduce harms and maximise benefits. (Manthorpe, 2000).

However, in order to have good risk management we must be able to make effective use of all the dimensions of the risk assessment. Risk management suggest ways in which a decision may be best implemented. Different levels of resources may be applied. For example, the child who is perceived possibly to be at risk may be visited more frequently. People are an example of a major resource for risk management. The number of people being able to visit to check on a risk decision will be important but will be of little advantage if they are not sufficiently knowledgeable or skilled in identifying problems or opportunities and to make appropriate interventions. However, the availability of resources is money orientated and the availability of risk management resources in one part of the country (or neighbouring local authorities) could lead to a different risk proposal being assessed from that in another local authority that does not have those resources available. (Carson & Bain, 2008)

Webb (2007) identifies social work as operating within a ‘risk society’, that is, a society which views risk as something which should be managed and can be identified and eradicated. Since the beginning of the 21st Century there have been several reports regarding child abuse deaths and, as pointed out by Ferguson (1997), there are

“Few more disturbing phenomena in advanced modern society than the premature deaths of socially valued children who were known to be at high risk.”

(Ferguson, 1997, p. 228)

Examples of high profile child death inquiry cases include Victoria Climbie (2003), Caleb Ness (2003) and Baby P (2008). These are all very good examples of how the media and public blamed practitioners. The resultant media coverage of how risk assessment and risk management have failed along with demands for minimising risks and organisational and professional accountability have, over the years, constrained the role of a social worker. With respect to this Houston and Griffiths argue that

“Approaches to risk assessment and management in child protection have led to an emphasis on prediction, control and culpability.” (Houston and Griffiths, 2000, p.1).

Furedi (1997) argues that the worship of safety and the avoidance of risk make up the new moral order, an order which is prescriptive, intrusive and deeply anti-humanistic. From this perspective, concern about identifying risk is becoming more dominant than concern about identifying need in assessment and resource allocation in risk management.

Avoiding risk is a difficult business which cannot be reduced to simplistic methods and rather than try to calculate the incalculable social workers should develop mutually trusting, respectful relationships with service users. Also this approach to risk assessment and risk management may deny the social worker empowering approaches which respond to need, focus on prevention and which more centrally tackle issues of poverty and social inequality. (Stalker, 2003; Ritchie & Woodward, 2009). Further to this Ritchie & Woodward (2009) point out that if social workers are preoccupied with high risk situations they are less likely to find the space to work either creatively or therapeutically. Additionally, the Changing Lives Report (2006) suggested that the social work profession had become increasingly risk averse. One of the key areas identified in Changing Lives was the need to develop a new organisational culture and approach to risk management and risk assessment which promoted excellence. (Scottish Executive 2006).

In order to complete BB’s pre-birth assessment I took into account risk factors and strengths which I had to analyse and reflect on. Calder (2002) offers a framework for conducting risk assessment by assessing all areas of identified risk and ensuring that each is considered separately e.g. child, parent and surrounding environment. To counteract the risk factors present family strengths and resources were also assessed, for example good bonding, supportive networks. I undertook research regarding parental resilience and according to Hill et al (2007) a vast array of research shows that parents in poverty or facing other stressors usually cope better when they have one or more close relationships outside the household and these are activated to give practical, emotional or informational support. In the case of BB she had a practical and supportive relationship with her mother as well as the support of her extended family which included her grandmother. BB also had a good relationship with BA’s family and his mother in particular was a source of support for BB as she regularly took CA overnight.

Whilst completing the assessment I centred my practice on the strengths-based perspective. As Saleeby (2000) explains the work of the strengths-based approach is the work of empowerment as both a process and a goal. As a goal, those who are empowered seek a firmer sense of purpose, self-esteem, the possibility of choice and connections to resources. As a process it is the collaboration between a social worker and a family or individual, working together on a mutual plan that will move them closer to their aspirations.

Utilising a strengths-based practice with BB was important as she was finding it difficult to interact with the Community Health Visitor and Midwife. BB felt that she was a ‘bad parent’ as she was not conforming to the routines the Health Visitor had recommended. BB also described how she felt that the Health Visitor was ‘judging her and finding her wanting as a parent’. Taking this conversation into consideration I realised that BB had no sense of self-efficacy, self-esteem or self-concept which Payne (2005) describes as resources that people have in order to cope. However, BB’s strengths lay in the care of her daughter. She had a good bond with her daughter and was quick to attend to her needs. BB also had a routine in place with regard to mealtimes, naps and a bedtime routine. CA was also reaching her developmental milestones, had age appropriate toys and had the freedom of the living area. BB had also erected a baby gate to stop CA from gaining access to the kitchen and stairs.

After a thorough analysis and supervisory discussions with my practice teacher I recommended that a Post-Birth Multi-Agency Conference not be convened. BB was happy to continue to work voluntarily with the Children and Families Area Team which would allow ongoing assessment and intervention. However, I recommended that a Post-Birth Multi-Agency meeting be arranged to discuss future interventions as I was aware that the birth of the new baby could be a future pressure on BB. I also recommended a further assessment take place when BA returns to the family home in October 2010. These recommendations were accepted by the Child Protection Officer at the Local Authority.

In conclusion, Kolb’s Reflective Cycle (1984) was useful in the reflection of my practice concerning BB as it allowed me to take into account Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) Codes of Practice, particularly Section 4.1 and 4.2. This reflective cycle also helped me look at BB’s situation holistically by looking at resilience and risk, strengths-based practice and risk assessment and management. On reflection I felt confident that I had used the resources available to me well, particularly research and knowledge and I could justify my risk decision if harm was to occur and would be able to explain how I came to my risk decision. Overall, I felt that my first practice was very much influenced by the negative issues associated with risk however, I believe that this placement allowed me to put risk, risk assessment and management into perspective and accepting that risk decisions should not be influenced by the ‘blame-culture’ but from a balanced approach which takes into consideration beneficial outcomes. This will in the future enable me to better support service users.

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The objective of this essay is to critically evaluate the following statement with reference to personal practice experience when assessing and managing risk. As my practice experience was based in a Children and Families Area Team, this essay will therefore explore the statement from this perspective.

“A good risk decision requires both good risk assessment and good risk management.” (Carson & Bain, 2008, p.156)

This essay will, initially, explore and demonstrate a critical understanding of the key concepts of risk assessment and risk management. It will then provide an analysis of the political, cultural and social contexts that shape practice in relation to risk management. Following this, a critical appreciation of the concept of risk decision making will be considered. Finally a reflective discussion of a case study drawn from my practice will be evaluated in relation to risk. This reflective discussion will be set within a theoretical framework of reflection.

In order to critically understand the concept of risk assessment, the question of what risk is ought to be defined. According to Alaszewski & Manthorpe (1991) risk may be defined as the probability that a course of action will not achieve the desired result but instead some unacceptable circumstance or event would prevail. McCarthy et al (2004) furthers this point as they also suggest that the term ‘risk’ implies the possibility of undesirable or negative outcomes. Furthermore, McCarthy also indicates that within the concept of risk it is also implied that these outcomes can be avoided. (McCarthy et al, 2004).

It is additionally pointed out that risk has both an objective and subjective dimension. For example, when viewing risk objectively it is possible to identify that any surroundings or environment will be hazardous and associated with danger. Defining risk from a subjective perspective means that the possibility of danger or an unacceptable event taking place will vary from individual to individual as well as social groups. (Aleszewski & Manthorpe, 1991). Nevertheless, Houston and Griffiths (2000) question the validity of the objectivist paradigm that they identify as the basis of risk assessment and point to its “failure to provide valid and reliable measures of risk.” (Houston & Griffiths, p.1) They argue for a move toward a subjectivist paradigm, and a return to the concept of ‘relationship’ as the rationale of social work intervention.

On the other hand, there can be value in taking risks. Indeed, risk taking can be seen to have beneficial as well as harmful outcomes to the life of an individual. (Titterton, 2005; Carson & Bain, 2008). As Titterton points out

“Risk taking is a course of purposeful action based on informed decisions concerning the possibility of positive and negative outcomes…and levels of risk appropriate in certain situations.”

(Titterton, 2005, p.25)

Consequently, the concept of risk assessment is a core activity within social work and further to this minimising risk has become a central element. Indeed, Calder (2002) describes risk assessment as a systematic collection of information in order to identify if risks are involved and identify the likelihood of their future occurrence. It is further suggested that risk assessment should be understood as collecting information and assessing any information gained regarding risk elements. These two elements, which are central to risk assessment, are consequences (or outcomes) and likelihood (also known as chance or exposure). (Carson & Bain, 2008).

As most of the situations social workers deal with contain considerable uncertainty about the meaning of events, the reasons for referrals, the accuracy of assessment, and the consequences of taking one course of action instead of another, it is reasonable to assume that assessment of risk is not an exact science. Further to this, the possible outcomes or consequences could be infinite and consequently impossible to predict with absolute certainty. Therefore, the element of uncertainty must be acknowledged as a core feature of professional judgement. Certainly, it is suggested that when considering the possible outcomes (including beneficial outcomes), a risk assessment should only require that reasonably predicted outcomes are met and that a lawful, moral and professional objectivity is upheld at all times. (Titterton, 2005; Carson & Bain, 2008; Macdonald & Macdonald, 2010). As Webb (2006) points out social workers have

‘an ethical disposition to do the best for clients and insofar as they have the resources to do so…”

(Webb, 2006, p. 203)

Within risk assessment literature, Titterton (2005) also argues that the emphasis remains on assessing for the risk of harmful or adverse outcomes but how this is completed can depend on which assessment framework is used. For example, within Criminal Justice Teams a more actuarial assessment is utilised. An actuarial assessment is based on statistical calculations of risk and, for example, uses scales to assess recidivism. Within a Children and Families Area Team the assessment framework used could be described as a holistic and inclusive assessment which is child-centred and addresses three domains: developmental needs, parental capacity and environmental factors. The GIRFEC practice model therefore aims for early identification of risk in all three domains as well as analysis of evidence, decision-making and planning. (Scottish Government 2008) Furthermore, it allows the practioner to utilise a developmental-ecological approach which is grounded in theories of child development and emphasises interaction between child and environment as well as taking a resilience approach which weights strengths as well as vulnerabilities. (Local Authority Risk Assessment Training Handout, 2009).

However, what all risk assessment tools have in common is that all information gathered is analysed to allow an understanding to be developed which then allows a professional judgement to be formed. Further to this risk assessment should take into account risk factors and protective factors that can anticipate and justify strategies of risk prevention as well as risk management. (Kemshall, 2003; Parton 2006). This should enable the social worker to utilise all appropriate interventions and/or decisions. Analysis of information, therefore, is an important factor when considering outcomes, likelihood and suitable action and accordingly, social workers require a good grasp of probability and statistical reason to interpret research and assessment information, organise their thinking and be able to draw sound provisional conclusions which are open to change in the light of new information. (Helm, 2009; Macdonald & Macdonald, 2010).

Risk management, in its simplest sense, describes the development of strategies to reduce the severity and frequency of identified risks and adverse outcomes. This involves discovering and controlling the dimensions of a proposed risk into a plan which involves implementing, monitoring, controlling and reviewing the risk decision. Further to this, at an organisational level, risk management requires a service that is adequately staffed with personnel who are fully trained and sufficiently knowledgeable and skilled in identifying problems or opportunities and to make appropriate interventions. (Vincent, 1995; Kapur, 2000; Carson & Bain, 2008). The Scottish Government (2008) further suggests that risk management should be understood as risk reduction and that collectively professionals should have confidence, through defensible decision making, that measures implemented will reduce risk sufficiently.

Taking these definitions into account, risk management suggest ways in which a decision may best be put into practice. What also should be included within a risk management strategy is the embracing of opportunities which could arise from any potential risk decisions. Another point which is important is that in order to make and manage a risk decision the quantity and quality of knowledge available to the social worker should meet the requirements needed to make a sound decision. Accordingly, before making a decision, consideration should be given to what is already known and its worth as well as reflection and contemplation of what is not known and any implications arising from this. Included in this should also be the consideration of any opportunities which may arise which may have the prospect of potential benefits. (Carson & Bain, 2008).

Littlechild & Blakeney (1996) further suggest that the management of risk should be adaptable. This refers to the notion that families and their lives do not stay stable and changes can take place in their ability to cope therefore the risks can change too. Monitoring, for these reasons are important as is communication with the family and other agencies who are involved. Littlechild & Blakeney go on to state that this is where the professional expertise of the social worker should be focused and not in an ineffective attempt to anticipate every potential risk. Consequently, the principles for risk management should be the need to ensure that the ongoing shared plan manages the risk, records decisions that shows how and why decisions were reached and ensures that decisions made have actions with named persons, clear timescales and review dates and also ensure that any agreed timescales may be reduced if new risks/needs become more apparent.

Beck (1992) suggests we are living in a ‘risk society’ in which he believes that late modernity, as a reflexive social order, ‘manufactures’ new risks and uncertainties. Furedi (1997) also determines that we live in a populace obsessed with risk and that safety has become the “fundamental value of our times.” (Furedi, 1997, p.1).

Furedi (1997) further suggests that the risk aversion culture we live in today is based on the way that risk and its negative effects are represented in the media and by politicians. Barry (2007) extends this claim by arguing that child protection work has become more reactive since the death of Maria Coldwell in 1973 which has resulted in a preoccupation with culpability, blame and retribution. This, has allowed social work practice to become

“…very defensive, overly proceduralised and narrowly concerned with assessing, managing and insuring against risk.”

(Parton & O’Byrne, 2000, p.1)

Green (2007) upholds this notion by suggesting that governments, and the excessive number of regulatory agencies, are anxious to control the identification and deployment of risks, particularly within the context of high-profile media stories such as reports of child abuse cases and deaths of children previously known to social work departments.

In retrospect, this socially acceptable requirement to minimise risk if not avoid taking risks altogether, has led to a social work profession that has become increasingly risk averse. (Scottish Executive, 2006). This approach to risk assessment and risk management has led to the introduction of more and more formal procedures to guide practice which could be argued is denying the freedom of the social worker to work in an empowering capacity. Working in an empowering capacity allows the professional practioner to focus on prevention and more centrally tackle issues of poverty and social inequality. What is also needed is a culture which is open for professional practioners to enable them to voice concerns and being able to discuss errors and therefore learn from mistakes. (Stalker, 2003; Barry, 2006; Ritchie & Woodward, 2009). However, the Changing Lives Report (2006) has signified that one of the key areas identified was the need to develop a new organisational culture and approach to risk management and risk assessment which would promote excellence.

Within risk decision making Macdonald & Macdonald (2010) argue that a focus on high-profile cases of low-probability events distorts decision making and this makes for a larger number of children taken into care after such cases. They advocate that decisions about children’s lives should be based on professional judgement rather than media vilification and political pressure.

When social workers make a professional judgement within risk decision making, the starting point must be the collection of information through professional observations and enquiries as well as from past information and information held by other professionals. It is that judgement that is carried forward into the decision making field. (Hollows 2003). However, the expression ‘error of judgment’ is offered as an explanation for most of the high-profile child cases as well as in other professional activities. It is for this reason that judgement making should be viewed as a serious task.

Hammond (1996) advocates that there are different kinds of judgements, made under different conditions. These different conditions are the time available, the kind of knowledge available and the judgement task itself. Hammond went on to develop a ‘cognitive continuum’ of judgement making. This recognises that there are different approaches to judgement making. Examples of these are: on the spot processing of information and knowledge, known as intuition; peer-aided judgements where two or more people will share their knowledge and discuss outcomes and likelihoods. Finally, there are system-aided judgements that are supervisor or manager aided. Accordingly, application of the Cognitive Continuum allows the practioner to utilise the highest knowledge available and further enables the practioner to ensure that the acknowledged goals of efficacy, accuracy and consistency can be promoted. (Hollows, 2003; Carson & Bain 2008).

However, risk decision making is also subject to personal values and subjective perceptions of risk and dilemmas which continue to challenge social workers. Low-probability events such as child abuse or extreme violence can make prediction difficult. In these circumstances social workers can be challenged by risks that are high profile but typically infrequent and therefore, have a tendency to either overestimate risks because of anxiety or to underestimate risks which they are unaccustomed to. (Kemshall, 2002). From this perspective it is crucial that reflection, continuous review and the opportunity for regular supervision is supported particularly when research by Janus & Mann (1977) found that stress generated a limited capacity to make a judgement as well as, and more crucially, an inability to make a decision.

BL was referred to the Children and Families Area Team by his school. This was after a meeting with his primary carers regarding BL’s increasingly emotional and angry outbursts and lack of attendance at school. The referral was made with agreement from his primary carers. BL is 12 years old and lives with his maternal grandmother, step-grandfather and his maternal aunt and has done since he was 18 months old. His step-grandfather is paraplegic as a result of an accident when BL was 3 years old. BL’s maternal aunt has Prader-Willi Syndrome, she is 40 years old. BL has to share a bedroom with his aunt as the house only has two bedrooms and is privately owned. BL maintains contact with his mother and her long-term partner on a fortnightly basis and also goes on holiday with her but he has no wish to live full-time with his mother as she lives approximately 50 miles away. BL stated both to his grandmother and to me that his home is with ‘Gran and Gramps’. Mrs. L independently confirmed that BL had no wish to move to the city as did Ms. L (Ben’s mother). Ms. L has no other children.

In order to understand Ben’s emotional frustration, I undertook some research on Prader-Willi Syndrome. I discovered that disordered night-time sleep patterns as well as emotional outbursts of rage were part of the symptoms. Coupled with this obsessive and/or compulsive behaviour including argumentative or oppositional behaviour were also predominant. (Clarke et al 1996). I also spoke with Mrs. L at length about her other caring commitments and discovered that she also drives to England on a monthly basis to visit her father, who is 90 years old, to make sure that his financial commitments are paid as well as making sure his carers are supporting him. Contact was also made with the social worker assigned to BL’s aunt whereby I was informed that his aunt was in the process of being allocated a home of her own. This would take at least three months as adaptations had to be made to the house and suitable care arrangements had to be put into place. The social worker realised that these circumstances were affecting BL and we arranged to contact each other on a weekly basis regarding exchange of information. This was agreed with the L family.

I placed my assessment and intervention practice within a developmental/ecological approach which has links with a strengths based approach. This allowed me to consider BL’s protective factors as well as risk factors. BL has a secure base and has close bonds with his grandparents. He also had two very close friends from primary school and who continue to good friends. BL admitted that he was frustrated he had to share a bedroom. This meant no privacy in his home and he found it difficult to complete his homework or even relax as carers for his aunt came in at different times to get her ready for bed. This meant that he had to go to bed when his aunt’s carers were getting her ready for bed. BL also admitted that he felt that he sometimes had to compete for his grandparents’ attention. His absences from school appeared to coincide with the times his grandmother returned from her visit to England.

After analysis of potential risk factors to BL such as possible self-harm, withdrawal from his family and friends, I made a referral to the local young carers group. This would allow him to spend time away from the family home with other young people who lived in similar circumstances as well as broaden his social network. This organisation would also be able to support him on a one-to-one and group work basis. Support was also made available to his primary carers, particularly his grandmother. Through the use of a personal diary I supported BL to talk to his grandparents about the frustration and emotional anger he felt which was relatively successful in the short term.

In conclusion, Kolb’s Reflective Cycle (1984) and Hammond’s Cognitive Continuum (1996) allowed me to take into consideration BL’s whole situation and promote protective factors and minimise risk. With reflection and supervisory discussion I believe I used my analytical skills and utilised my professional judgement to the best of my ability. However, as has been pointed out ‘uncertainty’ is an important element in any risk assessment and/or decision and has to be taken into account when managing risk. Taking all these concepts regarding risk and reflective practice into consideration when I start to practice should enable me to better support service users in the future.

2,995 words

Examine your own personal and professional development in relation to the values of social work.

Introduction

Social workers are usually motivated either by personal experience, something that has happened in their lives, or by a desire to see that people receive the kind of help that they need in times of crisis. I think that looking at these issues and trying to analyse what motivates you and what helps you to develop professionally are critical issues in social work training. This kind of examination spills over into a person’s professional practice because it helps the social worker to take more care when it comes to assessing a person’s need. This course has helped me to examine my own personal values as they relate to values issues during the course and also how this works out in my professional practice. In some respects values and ethics are interchangeable in this paper, in others values represent the more personal aspect and ethics the wider context. This need to think about my values and the values of social work, is making me into what Schon (1991) calls a reflective practitioner. Shon’s work demonstrates how important it is for social workers to be reflective, to think about what they are doing and to refine their later actions. This reflection is extremely important when it comes to values and how values impact on the way you look at the world and relate to other people.

This paper will look at my personal and professional development in relation to the values of social work. There will be an assessment of social values as they are found in the literature that I have looked at during the course. Finally I will evaluate the areas where I would like to develop both personally and professionally in relation to social work values.

Personal and Professional Development and Values Issues

I think that this course has helped me to assess what my personal values are, not just that they are inherited, but how they have become my own. I believe that this process is invaluable to my personal and professional development and to my understanding of issues to do with values. During my time on the course I have learned to think more deeply about what I do and to examine my own personal values and see how far they might be comparable to the values issues I have been studying. I have also learned that I constantly need to think about what I am doing and how far this agrees or conflicts with my basic values and the values of social work. Shon (1991) has argued that:

Professionals claim to contribute to social well-being, put their clients’ needs ahead of their own, and hold themselves accountable to standards of competence and morality. But both popular and scholarly critics accuse the professions of serving themselves at the expense of their clients, ignoring their obligation to public service, and failing to police themselves effectively (Schon, 1991:11-12).

The way in which social workers ‘police’ themselves is to think critically about what they are doing, why they are doing it, and what moral implications this may have. Certainly social work ethics does not lead me to believe that the social work profession should serve itself, rather the needs of the client should be most important. There should also be an early establishing of clear relationship boundaries as to great a personal involvement with a client is contrary to what the BASW has to say about social work ethics and values.

One of things that I have learned during the course is that in higher education attention always has to be paid to the question of knowledge and what it is that makes knowledge. Since the Enlightenment it has been said that knowledge is drawn from observable facts (as in science) and this has meant that knowledge based on experience is not so highly thought of. The objective, scientific view of knowledge has increasingly been challenged as a narrow view that maintains there is a specific response to situations that a practitioner can employ and thus solve a problem. The Enlightenment view is one which tends to forget that people (both social workers and their clients) are individuals and so there is not one size that fits all, rather each situation has to be responded to in a way that best suits the situation and the people involved. Schon (1991) maintains that this knowledge is acquired through process or doing. It is a key part of reflective practice which recognises the importance of non-rational knowledge. Arguably this type of knowledge is invaluable to social workers because they deal with people and have to think about their relationship with others on a daily basis.

Social workers are often faced with a conflict of values, on the one hand there is a particular client and situation and on the other there is an increasing need to satisfy bureaucracy by processing a case as quickly as possible. In a situation like this it is very easy to be governed by rules and procedures and particular theoretical approaches that may have little basis in reality. I am finding that good social work practice puts the needs of the client first and the rules and procedures second, particularly where they might contradict the values of social work. Social work, it would seem to me is based on a common sense of justice and on the basic worth of all human beings. Once this value is acknowledged and it is accepted that all human beings are valuable then the response has to be the one that best suits the situation and the people involved.

I have been brought up to have respect for myself and other people and to tell the truth. I have found that if I try to understand my work from this basis which in the literature, is a human rights perspective, then not only am I being true to the values of social work, but I am being true to my own values. Cemlyn and Briskman (2003) argue that social workers who base their practice on concepts of human rights and social justice need to be more aware of how the inequalities that they see in society might affect their practice. Sometimes society and its rules are not always just, society does not always operate in the best interests of the individual person, furthermore, the fact that social care is now based on how well it operates in the market, means that the legal framework within which a social worker has to act may also (however much it is unintended) work against individual rights. In these cases, Cemlyn and Briskman (2003) believe that the social worker has a duty to be prepared to go outside of the immediate context and be ready to operate at a personal level from an ethical sense and decision making process that is informed by the valuing of the human person and the concept of human rights. In a contemporary context the notion of human rights is all encompassing, however much the present Government might try to restrict it in many cases. In social work, it is arguably the case that the values of human rights and social justice are different from Enlightenment ideas of human rights and justice.. They are more inclusive in that the concept refers to all people and in this sense they are more true. Such values, it has to be said, should not be at the mercy of a system which is more concerned with rules that are governed by budgetary concerns. Ring (2001) explains this process when he says that:

The last two decades have seen an increasing emphasis on the performance of health and social services. This is attributable partly to central government’s concern to ensure value for money and contain expenditure, but variations in the range, quality, and costs of care, and failures to protect vulnerable individuals have also been significant concerns (Ring, 2001:1)..

Giving way to this means that those who actually need the social services, for instance the poor, or children at risk, or those with physical and mental disabilities, end up the losers and are pushed even further to the margins of society.

Reading and Values

Practical reflection Ruch (2002) contends makes a practitioner more open to new and different ways of coping with clients and their situations. Social workers also have to be aware of the more rational and theoretical approaches that underpin their work. I have learned from my reading about social values and social work that these things do not operate in isolation but are drawn together when I reflect critically on what I have read and what I am doing. I hope that the critical reflection which is a result of the above two processes means that I will work for the good of whatever client I may be dealing with and that I will be able to hold to the view that oppression is wrong. My reading on social values has taught me that as a social worker my practice should work against oppression. From an ethically informed perspective critical reflection should be a necessary part of social work training and practice because there is always a need to stop and think when you are dealing with people. In the same way, an emancipatory and anti-oppressive attitude is a critical component of ethical social work. When a practitioner is driven by target orientated structures then he/she does not have the time to think about what they are doing and to learn from the process. They can then, without meaning it, be drawn into unethical practice, or practice that works against the needs of the client. In this way they can end up violating their professional code of ethics if they are not careful. Social work practice that is based on heavily prescribed rules and actions is not equipped to deal with the complex nature of modern western society. In this way such practice is actually contrary to social work ethics as it neglects the fact that you are dealing with each client and situation on its on merits.

Reflective practice, on the other hand, acknowledges the uniqueness of each human being and each situation that arguably makes it much more compatible with social work ethics. Who a person is, their life history their culture, their race, and their gender all affect how they act and judge in a given situation. When I reflect on my work it is a way of noticing where and if I am biased about something and how this affects and influences my perception of a given person or situation. Holding to my personal values and to the values of social work means that I have to get to know myself well. Self-knowledge is, or should be a necessary component in a social worker’s continuing development. Papell (1996) contends that:

Social work learners must perceive the human situation which they confront in their practice and recognise that their perceptions are filtered through their own thinking and knowing processes, through their emotions and feeling processes and through the way they themselves integrate and regulate their own doing and behaving. Knowing the self is more than knowing how one feels. It is knowing how one thinks and acts (Papell, 1996:19).

How far then, is a social worker being guided by even general ethical principles and his/her own social values, let alone a specific code of practice. Ethics are moral principles on which our behaviour is based and in that sense they are interchangeable with values such as telling the truth and valuing people. Ethical codes on the other hand, while they may be based on moral principles, are not as generalisable in that they refer to particular professions and the way in which professional behaviour is governed. Butler (2000) maintains that such ethical codes cannot be said to be neutral or value free because they have arisen in a particular context for a particular purpose and as such are influenced by the ideologies held in that context. The ethical code or code of practice as it is outlined by the British Association of Social Workers defines social work and the values inherent within the profession in the following way:

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work (BASW,2001). ^[1]

The Association maintains that ethical practice must be centred on the needs of service users Social workers of necessity intervene in people’s lives and have an influence on situations, ethical decision making is therefore a vital component of social work practice (Osmo and Landau, 2001). The Association is there to give advice to social workers on what constitutes ethical decision making in different contexts. Decision making has to be grounded in the values of ethics of social work. Some of the issues that social workers have to deal with and that involve them in ethical decision making centre around balancing the rights of one individual against others, around public welfare and issues of institutional and structural oppression. This can make life difficult because the social worker has then to identify when institutions and structures are being oppressive and how the values of social work may be used to combat this.

Banks (2003) has argued that codes of practice and ethics are often idealistic that is to say that they are too far removed from the situation. Human rights for example might mean ensuring that someone has the right information to access the help they need, it is not always about large scale abuse. Codes of ethics can also encourage a false sense of security as they may be seen as providing a blueprint for how a social worker should act when it is impossible to legislate for every situation. Social workers need to be able to critically reflect on their own practice in order to act in an ethical manner in any given situation. Ethical codes are something that imposed from outside. This means that they do not have anything to say about a practitioner as a person and whether, and in what ways their personal values agree with or differ from the values of social work. It is here that reflection on practice is crucial. Without reflection on previous actions and how these might relate to the code of ethics the social worker could be at a considerable disadvantage in decision making and could either leave a child open to danger or infringe the rights of a possibly innocent client.

Social work intervention if it is based on real social values cannot be allowed to be target driven if it is to be truly ethical and based upon notions of social justice. In some respects organisational and managerial ethos does not always fit well with the ideals of social workers and their practice and some councils are not so inclined to recognise the rights of service users. This can leave social workers with a dilemma, do they operate within a human rights framework or don’t they? Moral engagement with clients takes place at a personal level and Husband (1995) maintains that social workers should not feel themselves limited by codes that does not operate within a framework that is informed by human rights and social justice. Ife (2001) argues that within the context of social work practice a framework, and working perspective of human rights:

…reinforces and validates the traditional understandings and practices of social work while in other cases it challenges some of the assumptions of the social work profession (Ife, 2001:1).

Social Work Values and Continuing Personal and Professional Development

While continuing professional development can tend to be outcome orientated in that the practitioner is attempting to reach a certain level of professionalism. This does not mean to say that reflective practice should be entirely forgotten and become totally process orientated. Rather, Postle et al. (2002) argue for a more inclusive approach of development where both outcomes and process are of equal value in the practitioner’s continuing development. This inclusive approach is achieved by reflecting on personal values and how far these can be said to be the same as social work values. I think my values are consistent with the values that underpin social work. I think that perhaps my understanding of how these values govern my behaviour and dictate how I deal with clients needs developing further. I also think that I need to pay more attention to what being reflective in my work really means and how this can be achieved.

Conclusion

Clearly social work values and social work practice have to be understood as two sides of the same coin. A social worker, I believe, cannot operate effectively without recognising how closely connected social values and the business of social work are. How we interpret those values, particularly if they appear to conflict with what is regarded as correct practice, needs careful thought and reflection. Our values may seem to remain constant but they do operate differently in response to different contexts and this is an area which I think needs further development. Adherence to a specific code of ethics and to social work values tends to imply that myself, and others learning to be social workers already possess a certain moral character and will thus act in accordance with specific values that take into account concern for the welfare of others whilst also having a concern for the self. I would hope that eventually this will truly be the case. Until such time, my values of truth and the worth of a person are very much in line with what I have understood about values in the course and what is contained in the literature. I hope that my engagement with social values during the course will lead me to develop into a more efficient, reflective, and ethically informed practitioner.

3000 words

Bibliography

Banks, S. 2003 From oaths to rulebooks: a critical examination of codes of ethics for the social professions European journal of Social Work Volume 6 No. 2 July 2003 p. 133-144

Barr, J and Steele, T. 2003 “Revaluing the Enlightenment: Reason and Imagination” Teaching in Higher Education 8 (4) October, 2003 pp.505-515

British Association of Social Workers (2002) The Code of Ethics for Social Work.http://www.basw.co.uk/.

Butler, I 2000. A Code of Ethics for Social Work and Social Work Research http://www.elsc.org.uk/socialcareresource/tswr/seminar6/butler.htm

Cremlyn, S and Briskman L. 2003 “Asylum, Children’s Rights and Social Work” Child and Family Social Work 8 (3) pp. 163-178

Gardner, F. 2001 “Social Work Students and Self-awareness: How does it happen” Reflective Practice 2 (1) 2001 pp.27-40

Husband, C. (1995) The morally active practitioner and the ethics of anti-racist social work. In: Ethical Issues in Social Work (eds R. Hugman & D. Smith), pp. 84–103. Routledge, London

Ife, J. (2001) Human Rights Social Work: Towards Rights-Based Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Papell, C. (1996) Reflection on issues in social work education in: N. Gould & I.

Taylor (Eds) Reflective Learning for Social Work (Aldershot, Arena).

Postle, K. Edwards , C. Moon, R. Rumsey, H. Thomas, T. 2002 “Continuing professional development after qualification–partnerships, pitfalls and potential” Social Work Education Volume 21. No. 2 1^st April 2002

Ring, C. 2001 “Quality assurance in mental-health care: A case study from social work” Health and Social Care in the Community 9(6) 2001 pp. 383-390

Ruch, G 2002 “From triangle to spiral: Reflective practice in social work education, practice and research” Social Work Education Volume 21 no. 2 2002

Ruch, G. 2000 “Self and social work: Towards an integrated model of learning” Journal of Social Work Practice Volume 14, no. 2 November 1^st 2000

1

Part I: Case Assessment Report

New Territories West Integrated Family Services Centre

Case Assessment Report

A. Basic Case Information

Name of Client: Madam CHAN

Sex/ Age of Client: F/36

Name of Worker: Dada Wong

Nature of case: Counseling

B. Presenting Problem

Madam CHAN reported that she has been suffering from low mood, loss of appetite, headaches and insomnia for over a month. She had also lost motivation in doing household chores and would cry sometimes without reasons.

C. Social History

1. Genogram

2. Family background

Case client, Madam CHAN, moved from Mainland China to Hong Kong 5 years ago. She married with her husband, Mr. LEE, in Mainland China. They have one son, two daughters in total, and living together. Son is 12 years old, will become F. 1 student in secondary school, and daughters are 8 years old and 3 months respectively. Madam Chan got pregnancy last year and Mr. Lee suggested Madam Chan to have abortion but she refused. She insisted to give birth of the youngest daughter because she thinks it belongs to her. She expressed husband does not put much cares, include physical and financial, on the youngest daughter. Madam CHAN reported their marital relationship was fine when lived in Mainland China, but conflicts increase when move to Hong Kong. Client complains Mr. LEE sends most of his income for his parents in Mainland China and does not give much money for their family. They have arguments about this issue always.

3. Emotional condition

Madam CHAN suffers from low mood, loss of appetite for over a month. She reported sometimes would cry without reasons and loss of motivation in doing housework at home. Emotional unstable when talking about her situation, she cried twice during the counseling process.

4. Health condition

Client expresses loss of appetite, headaches and insomnia for over a month. She feels tired and lack of energy when at home, but no problem at working.

5. Financial condition

Madam CHAN now works as a part-time waitress in restaurant, and responsible for taking orders and delivering dishes to customers. She earns around $5000 per month. Mr. LEE is an air-conditioner technician, earning around $12000 per month. Madam CHAN reports Mr. LEE does not contribute much income on own family, around $3000 per month, but gives most of money to his parents in Mainland China. She reported that most of the expenditures of family are supported by her own.

6. Supportive network

Madam CHAN pays around $1000 each month for her younger sister to take care the baby when she goes to work. She expressed the money also viewed as a help to sister’s family. Client mentioned that her younger sister and brother have their own financial difficulties, therefore, she also needs to take the responsibility of parents’ financial supporting. Madam CHAN said she only visited for her parents two times after move to Hong Kong in five recent years.

D. Case Analysis

1. Underlying problem

Based on the information collected from counseling Madam CHAN, it is believed that her headaches and insomnia symptoms are closely related to the stress on family financial situation.

Madam CHAN expressed worries of limited income from being part-time waitress, may not be sufficient for supporting the expenditure of whole family. She complained Mr. LEE giving most of the salaries for his parents in Mainland China but little for family expenditures and children. They argued for this issue many times after Madam CHAN moved from Mainland China to Hong Kong. She believes that family financial situation would be improved if Mr. LEE willing to share more monthly income to their family. She tried to ask for more financial supports from Mr. LEE but failed, and thought like begging from him. She feels angry about that and gives up trying anymore. For this reason, she believes she cannot reply on her husband. In addition, client complained Mr. LEE ignores the responsibilities of taking care of the children, especially the new born baby.

On the other hand, based on the information got from Mr. LEE during interview, the third child is not he expected and wished. He believed the third child is a real burden on family financial aspect. He expressed the major reason of argument with Madam Chan is money distribution.

2. Assessment

Counseling done. From the interviews, Madam CHAN presented the concern about the financial problem of family. She cried twice when talking about the issue of Mr. LEE sends most of the salaries to his family in Mainland China. She said, “Maybe our children are less valued than his family!”. That shows her anger about Mr. LEE behavior toward money distribution. She has expressed her worries about the maintenance of family income as one more child at home nowadays, expenses increase. She reported that feeling lack of energy when at home, suffering from low mood, headaches and insomnia for over a month, however, does not have these problems when working. It is believed that her physical discomfort symptoms like headaches and insomnia are due to the pressure and worries about family financial situation.

From the interview with Mr. LEE, he expressed the new born baby is unplanned. He believes family situation in general would be better if without the third child. Mr. LEE expressed he has the money saving plan for children before, likes saving for their future study. That shows Mr. LEE willing to plan about the future of family. However, the new born makes the plan collapsed. He suggested Madam CHAN to have abortion but she insisted to preserve the baby. He was angry about that. Mr. LEE stated that Madam CHAN always ask for more money during the conversation. He has implied the new born may not belongs to him during the interview, but he did not explain further on this point.

3. Intervention

It is believed that the emotional problem of Madam CHAN may due to the stresses on worrying about not able to take care of the children and maintain the family income at the same time. According to the information got from interview, Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) Approach would be appropriate to adopt in the intervention. CBT addresses the interactions between how we think, feel and behave (Somers, 2007). It believes that the peoples’ feelings, emotions, thoughts are the responses to the outside world. Therefore, one’s behaviors could be changed from changing their perception and cognition of the situation from the process of therapy (Somers, 2007). According to Hall & Iqbal (2010), CBT could reduce the stress and anxiety level, and the related symptoms would be relieved when go through the therapy or treatment. CBT states that behaviours could be changed by changing perception. Therefore, the stress related symptoms of Madam CHAN, such as headaches and feeling lack of energy, are expected be addressed if using CBT approach.

E. Recommendation for Follow-up

I would like to refer Madam CHAN for psychiatric consultation, to have medication treatments. It is necessary to relieve the physical discomfort of client immediately. Referral for psychiatric consultation was sent out.

After addressing the problem of physical discomfort syndromes, it is recommend Madam CHAN to join education group about stress management in centre after having individual counseling, in order to learn the skill of handle stress in life.

Counseling services in centre for Madam Chan keeps on for monitoring. CBT approach would be used on changing her perception about worrying the financial difficulties.

For long term goal, joint interview and counseling of Madam CHAN and Mr. LEE is suggested for them. As both of Madam CHAN and Mr. LEE have plans on family future, thus, the joint interview would focus on encourage effective communication between each other, to discuss how to do the better distribution of family income.

Signed by Intake Worker: _________Signed by Supervisor: _________

Date: _________ Date: _________

Reference

Hall, K. & Iqbal, F. (2010). The Problem with Cognitive Behavior Therapy. London: Karnac Book Company.

Somers, J. (2007). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy: Core information document. Vancouver: Centre for Applied Research in Mental Health and Addiction, Simon Fraser University. .

Part II: Self-evaluation

From the role-play practice, it was a good experience for me to feel the dynamic between worker and client. Within the practice, several communication and counseling skills have been used.

Several basic communication skills have been used in the counseling practice, such as Questioning, Reflection of feeling, and Paraphrasing and Clarifying. During the counseling process, open and closed also have been used. For the closed question, such as “Have you discussed with your wife about the income distribution of family?”, in order to know whether Mr. LEE and Madam Chan ever talked about the core problem. As Mr. LEE answer “No”, and following an open question of “Why?” to Mr. LEE, in order to know the reason and the dynamic between them. In addition, Reflection of feeling can let me to know the exact feelings of clients, to distinguish the feeling of disappointment or angry with Mr. LEE. The skill of Paraphrasing and Clarifying also help me to clarifying the meaning of Mr. LEE as he implied some wordings like he doubted about the baby is not belongs to him. I think it is important to clarify from him as it might be another core family issue in this case.

Empathy is also one of the important elements has been used during the counseling process because it can let me to engage with Madam CHAN. Once she feels I am a person who could understand her feelings, she becomes more willing to talk and share with me about real difficulties she is facing. Therefore, empathy is one of the core elements within the intervention process.

On the other hand, I had made a mistake in the intervention. I presumed the client emotion and attitude would be gradually better after each session. I anticipate Madam CHAN would turn to understand and appreciate Mr. LEE who has planned about their family future in last session. Therefore, I prepared a lot of suggestions based on Madam CHAN who is ready for consensus with Mr. LEE. However, my expectation failed. Madam CHAN does not want to agree with Mr. LEE, my suggestions were not suitable for client and seems I was not able to engage with her. It may due to I ignored the factors that they may have dynamic interaction during the week between sessions. From this mistake, I have learned that, as a worker, we should not presume the behavior and attitude of client. We could not include all the factors outside the intervention session. Also, behaviors are changeable. It was a good opportunity for me to learn, worker should prepare for changes every moment

Generally, I have urged client to change her mind and perception and ignore the emotional needs of client. As I would like to use CBT to be my intervention approach, to make client believes that the situation is not really bad and would like her to understand that Mr. LEE also planned for family future, I hope to change her mind as soon as possible. Thus, I may ignore the emotion needs of client, such as addressing her anger about feeling unresponsive of Mr. LEE. From this role-play, I have learned that, do not only focus on the intervention process but also need to cater and care about the feelings and emotions of client. It was a good experience for me to prepare the case work in the coming future.

1

REFLECTIVE COMMENTARY

This experience involved working with a group of 6 women with learning disabilities who live in an urban area of Wales. The group was set up to enable women with learning disabilities to improve their health and well-being. It provides equal opportunities by increasing their knowledge on how to be healthy and active like other women in Wales. The need for a healthy lifestyle is recognised in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1970) (Maclean & Harrison, 2008). The aims of the group are to increase the member’s confidence, promote healthy eating whilst developing and maintaining networks. Influencing personal, community and organisational problems which are consistent with The Fulfilled Lives and Supportive Community strategy introduced by the Welsh Assembly Government (2007)(Lindsey & Orton,2008). The main focus being social inclusion to achieve positive outcomes by working in partnership with other agencies (WG, 2007).

The women in the group were recognised as key contributors to the easy read leaflets/invite letters for all women in Wales, breaking down negative attitudes/stereotypes of people with learning disabilities. The group is peer led and provides support for members to learn from each other regarding women’s health and well-being. Payne (2000) suggests the purpose of multi-agency working is to plan, co-ordinate and deliver services the service user will benefit from. However, the Department of Health (Doh,1998) argues this system will fail the most vulnerable members of society including those with a learning disability. Within the Local Authority area in 2012/13 779 adults with learning disabilities live in the community and a further 113 live in a health service, local authority or private/voluntary residential setting (Welsh government, 2013).

Reaction to Event/Experience

I realised Group work would inform my practice although the forming stage had been carried out prior to my involvement. I felt I would need permission from the ladies to join the sessions for the following 6 weeks. This enabled me to gain the ladies trust and respect and allow them to feel safe and comfortable when discussing personal issues (Douglas, 1978) (CCW, 2002,). I felt quite comfortable introducing myself to the group having many years’ experience with adults with learning disabilities. Using the Johari window() enabled me to recognise I was not afraid of sharing personal information with the group as this would allow me to be accepted into the group and enable me to work in an anti-oppressive manner, (West & Turner, 2009).

Joining the group at the start of a 6 week intervention period I was able to identify the developments that needed to take place for the group to be successful. Tuckman (1965) suggest’s these are ; forming, storming, norming, performing and mourning. (Maclean & Harrison,2008).

The group participated in a storming session and were encouraged to make choices in activities they wish to join. Group work can be seen as a mutual aid to choice whereby all members of the group can benefit. Developing their knowledge through the support and interactions with each other (Lang, 1981).

I recognised System theory as an appropriate method of intervention as changes within a system can influence the application of this theory to practice (Vigars et al, 2008).

Maclean and Harrison (2008) suggest we operate within three systems; informal, formal and public systems. The group is a partnership initiative between social services, health and the voluntary sector and the ladies have forged links between Breast Awareness Wales, the police and education. I felt the women had come together to help inform practice and promote equality for all women with a learning disability. (CCW,2002, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 6.4, 6.7: CCW, 2003, 2.3, 3.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1).

I felt very proud of the ladies and being involved in the group. I could identify they have used the opportunity to build on their own friendships/networks as the group are now making arrangements to participate in community activities outside of the group. They have become concerned for each other and arrange to meet prior to the group, they show concern for each other and make enquires when a member does not attend the group.(CCW, 2002, 1.5).

I agree with Maclean and Harrison (2008) that we all rely on other people around us including family and friends making Systems theory a ‘human truth’ (Maclean & Harrison, 2008). However, Germain (1979) suggests it is too general and can be difficult to apply in certain circumstances which can be construed differently by different workers (Payne, 2005,b).

Identified learning & learning needs

I was able to reflect on the group in supervision and I could identify the group dynamics and behaviours that were taking place. This helped me to understand the need to not only present information to the group as a whole but to speak individually to the quieter members of the group to empower them and make their own choices.

I was able to identify my communication was a vital part of group work and Egan’s Skilled Helper approach enabled me to take into account the different levels of communication required within the group, taking into account the quieter members also had a voice and an opinion that needed to be heard (Egan,2010).

How might the learning needs be met?

Continuing to develop my knowledge of theories and how they can be put into practice to empower individuals. Using the Collingwood (2005) KIT framework will help me to understand the service users circumstances and enable me to identify the best form of interventions to provide the best form of intervention as using the wrong theory at the wrong tine could have a negative affect rather than a positive (Wright, et al, 2010).

Assessors signature of verification

Date

References

Care Council for Wales (CCW) (2002). The Code of Practice for Social Care Workers. Cardiff: Care Council for Wales.

Care Council for Wales (CCW) (2003). National Occupational Standards for Social Work. Cardiff: Care Council for Wales.

Douglas, T. (1978). Basic Group Work. London: Routledge

Department of Health (DoH, 1998). Partnership in Action: New opportunities for jointworking between health and social services –A discussion document. London: Department of Health

Healy, K. (2005). Social Work Theories in context: Creating frameworks for Practice. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Johnsson, E. & Svensson, K. (2005). Theory in social work – some reflections on understanding and explaining interventions. British Journal of Social Work. Vol 8 (4) pp. 419-433.

Maclean, S. & Harrison, R. (2008) Social Work Theory A straightforward Guide for Practice Assessors and Placement Supervisors. Staffordshire: Kirwin Maclean associates Ltd.

Payne, M. (2000,a). Team Work in Multi-Professional Care. Basingstoke: MacMillan.

Payne, M. (2005,b). Modern Social Work Theory 3rd Edition. Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan

Vigars et al. (2008). Faculty of Health and Social Care: Aids of Practice Cards. The Open University.

West & Turner (2009) Understanding interpersonal Communication 3^rd edition. USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Wright, S, et al. (2012). Evaluation of Early Parental Intervention Pilot Project. XXXXX. Welsh Assembly Government. Retrieved from: http://www.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/profile.asp?guid=13a77ca2-2f61-4dbc-a8b0-368ff694ffe1 [Accessed 23/10/2012].

Lindsey, T. & Orton, S. (2008). Group work Practice in Social Work: Transforming Social Work Practice. Exeter: Learning Matters

Lang (1981)

.Welsh Government. (2010). Fulfilled Lives Supportive Communities. Cardiff: Welsh Government

Welsh Government (2013) Stats Wales. Persons with learning disabilities by LA, service and age range. Retrieved 27/04/2014 from https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Health-and-Social-Care/Social-Services/Disability-Registers/PersonsWithLearningDisabilities-by-LocalAuthority-Service-AgeRange

I will demonstrate the role of the practitioner on Reflective Anti-oppressive practice. l will reflect upon the effect that my experiences had on me . In relation to supporting care housing will identify the underlying values of being a reflective practitioner.

In the essay, I will explore and draw upon a range of Models and theory’s themes as shown:

• Thompson -PCS model

• Tuckman theory (1983)

Banks (2001) explore oppression, discrimination and anti-oppressive practices are based on society that creates divisions and how people divide themselves. Conducting a session about sex education set targets to assess the young people is to treat people with respect and value each other, avoid negative discrimination(quote). Dalrymple et al, (1995) defines the anti-oppressive practice is about a process of change, ich leads service users from feeling powerless to powerful’ (Dalrymple andBurke, 1995). Empowerment links with anti-oppressive practice, in that the social worker can work with service users enables them to overcome barriers to solving problems.

Braye et al (1997) identify the challenges faced in practice, it is about positively working to myths and stereotypes speak out and act against the way professional practices and the law itself discriminate against certain groups of people (Braye andPreston-Shoot, 1997).

Case study: homeless pregnant young person

Young person 18 years old sharing at her friend’s home. She is 3 week pregnant; her boyfriend has left her and both arguing all the time. There are no support from home as her mother on benefits and living off her.

The organisation is run by supported housing is called Vincent de Paul ‘society SVP, which is an international charity Christian voluntary organisation. SVP aim to tackle poverty and disadvantages provides accommodation and support for clients through contact with supporting people between 16-25 years old(svp.org.uk, 2012).

The types of vulnerable group who are homeless are served females only Clients with learning disabilities and mental-health problems accommodated. SVP is a community based valued which is supported by the local authorities (svp.org.uk, 2012 ). Value based within the local community, especially in relation to the framework of occupation in supported housing these identified the service provided for young people. values of choice is to respects the rights from where they live as well as promote young people rights to make their own decisions choices.

The aim of forming is to identify the boundaries on both interpersonal and task behaviours (Tuckman,1965). I have applied Tuckman’s theory in the workplace because this has helped to identify leadership within a group stage development. The stages are the following; , Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing. Tuckman’s (1965) approach as a linear model was applying to the group.

The standards and norms of behaviour are establishing. Forming identified to work with group service users together. However not everyone does not want to engage

From storming to norming stages, working with client P is recoded by doing key sessions weekly Client P have to make the choice to conform with, she is awareness breach her contract . Asking open and closed questions are the key to build a good rapport with the service user.

The PCS modal identifies the levels of oppression;

Personal
Cultural
Structural
The PCS Model
Personal

Beliefs, attitudes and behaviour

How people regard or treat others

Cultural

Accepted values and codes of conduct

Consensus

Structure

Structural and institutions within society which act to perpetuate social divisions, prejudice and discrimination

Personal (P) level

Individual actions that I come into contact with, for example service user.

Cultural (C) Level

This analysis is related to the ‘shared values’ or ‘commonalties’. For example, shared beliefs about what is right and wrong, good or bad, can form a consensus.

Structural (S) Level

This analysis demonstrates how oppression is ‘sewn into the fabric’ of society through institutions that support both cultural norms and personal beliefs. Some institutions such as sections of the media, religion and the government can cement the beliefs.

Case study: homeless pregnant young person

P: Young person 18 years old sharing at her friend’s home. She is 3 week pregnant; her boyfriend has left her and both arguing all the time. There is no support from home as her mother is on benefits and living off her. There is argument with her new boyfriend for support.

C: being homeless within the community she is sharing her thoughts and feelings with different groups.

S: Network of divisions, social services, health, local authority

Practitioners will support with learning tools that transform to challenge oppression. Thompson, (2006) have identified the barriers in relating to ethical practice to identify form group- based approaches to anti-discriminatory practice to work together on issues of inequality, discrimination and oppression (Thompson, 2006). Challenging practice with young people engages them into ways at using wider policy objectives ia person centred base. Service users will openly discuss and debate issues within a safe environment amongst their peers and focus on building one’s confidence and reassurance within a group, as well as maintaining the learner’s concentration.

These principles are about being worthy of attention regardless what they can do and who they are as follows

• Respects and promote young people’s rights to make their decision or choices, unless the welfare of them as seriously threatened.

• Promote the welfare and safety while permitting them to learn through activities.

• Contributes towards the promotion of social justices for young people and encourages them to respect differences, diversity and challenging discrimination.

• Act with a profession integrity (Banks, 2001)

When assessing young people it is necessary to take into consideration that there are no right or wrong answers. By using open questions, this allow service user to engage with the practitioner to expand on their opinions and experiences..

Conclusion

Using the PCS model, I recognised the signs within groups to work together and support each other on their strengths and weakness. Thompson, (1994) identified the barriers in relating to ethical practice to identify form group- based approaches to anti-discriminatory practice is to work together on issues of inequality, discrimination and oppression. Tuckman’s theory in the workplace has helped to identify leadership within a group stage development. I identify the stages through tuckmans theory has helped to be non judegment al with clients as their strengths and weakness can be assesss to build up their esteem and confidence for them to rapport a good working relationship.

This assignment will critically reflect upon the learning that I have gained through group participation. It will also look at what knowledge I have learnt in relation to how I look at putting theory into practice. It will also explore how these theories interconnect and how I used elements of psychology and sociology to explain how I might work with individuals in future practice.

As a group we chose to analyse scenario two, the case of Fiona and mainly focused on her mental health issues, her lack of support as a result of family breakdown and her social isolation. To begin with we identified that Fiona seemed to have a lack of control in her life and as a group we felt that this was a huge area that needed to be addressed. To begin to support Fiona she needed to be ‘given meaningful choice and valuable options’ (Clark, 2000, p.57) in order for her to gain greater control over her life and her circumstances. As a social worker we promote ‘social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment of liberation of people to enhance well-being’. (IFSW, 2000, cited in Banks, p.3).This was an important aspect to remember when applying theory to Fiona.

Theory in social work is an attempt to explain situations and social relationships. So to be begin with as a group we began to look at theories that may help Fiona holistically such as Marxist theory and in particular conflict theory which seeks to examine structural inequality within society. This theory argues that society is structured along lines of inequality such as wealth, health and income thus providing people with different life chances which in turn can result in different life experiences. So whilst this theory could be linked to Fiona with her structural issues of deprivation and relative poverty and the issue of crime and deviancy in her neighbourhood, this was not the main focus that our group were concerned with and we wanted to concentrate more on her social isolation and her lack of a support network.

Systems theory was looked at by the group and I came to understand that this theory would fit perfectly with what we were focusing on. Although I did not do much research into this theory for the group work I did get a greater understanding of how this theory would link to Fiona. Systems theory is a functionalist perspective that takes into account how individuals relate to one another and society as a whole. It would seem that this theory is popular with social work texts and in practice as it has been suggested that it ‘can be attributed to the consistency with social work’s long-standing mission to understand and respond to people in their environment’ (Bartlett, 1970, cited in Healy, 2005, p.89). This theory seeks to provide ways to understand problems and issues and after perusing through some of the literature, I had to agree that this theory links closely to an empowerment approach which aims to seek social change at both an individual and a social level for a service user and as I already know, empowerment is a core component of social work practice.

From the start as a group we always knew that we were going to apply cognitive theory to Fiona. As part of my individual research I focused on cognitive theory and cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) as this was the perspective that we felt as a group would be most beneficial to Fiona. While researching this theory my understanding of it was that Fiona needed to address the distorted picture she had of herself as she was blaming herself for experiences not of her making. She had low self-esteem and low self-efficacy and as such she had developed faulty cognitions about herself. Wessler (1986, cited in Gross, 2005, p.286) suggests that CBT is ‘the attempt to change cognition and is always a means to an end, that end being lasting changes in target emotions and behaviour’. This I felt is exactly what Fiona needed to do. She needed to change the ways she thinks (her cognition) so she can change what she does (her behaviour) and as such this is the theory that we are a group used in our presentation. It became evident the more I researched CBT that this is a theory that could be applied to many service users as the struggles of daily life can be stressful and CBT could help them cope better in the future as it can be completed in a relatively short time.

I gained a vast amount of knowledge about why social workers use theory as we prepared for the group presentation. I understand now that theory helps to explain a situation and perhaps how that situation came about. I recognise that theory can be seen as helping to describe (what is happening), explain (why it is happening) and predict (what is likely to happen next). In practice, if I understand all the above I can help to control a situation and bring about change for the service user. I began to recognise that there is no one single theory that can explain everything. Theories have limitations too and will not work for everyone. I learnt that much of the theory that is used in social work is drawn from outside the profession and has its roots in psychology and sociology and that we should always apply the value base to theory. Theory can help to avoid discrimination and as social workers we are orientated towards anti-oppressive and empowerment practices which seek social change. Dominelli (2002 p.4) suggests that social workers can help ‘individuals to understand their situation, make connections between their personal plight and that of others, examine power relations and their impact on the specifics of their daily routines and acquire the knowledge and skills for taking control of their lives’. When theory is used in practice it can undo jumbled information and give the social worker more direction in their work with the service user. Using theory in practice can give an explanation about why an action resulted in a particular consequence and as such can help the social worker to review and possible change in an attempt to make the consequences more effective. It became clear to me as I researched that theory is important in practice both for the service user and for the social worker to be more valued in society.

At the heart of social work lies the fundamental belief in human rights, citizenship and social justice (Fook, 2002). Indeed, social workers are ordinarily duty-bound to advocate the principles of empowerment through anti-oppressive practice whilst placing the wishes and needs of clients at the centre of delivery (General Social Care Council (GSCC), 2004; Dalrymple and Burke, 2006). Yet practice is complex not least because the success of any intervention is entwined with the phenomenological attributes of both clients and practitioners (Prynn, 2008). Thus, social work practitioners face significant challenges such as identifying what they contribute to a relationship, how this impacts on decisions and what individual and structural power imbalances influence practice (Fook, 2002).

Critical practice is a conceptual tool which affords practitioners the opportunity to engage in transformational practice whilst recognising the value base and social justice agenda of social work (Fook, 2002). This paper will briefly provide a case study of an experience I encountered as a practitioner. This will then be explored through what Brechin (2000) identifies as the three interrelated domains of critical practice: critical analysis, critical reflexivity and critical action. In doing so it will demonstrate how I have engaged with my ‘self’ to identify what I took into practice and the implications this can have in being a transformational practitioner.

On commencing my role as a project worker within a residential home for young people with behavioural difficulties I was introduced to John (pseudonym). John was fourteen and had a history of anti-social behaviour and a criminal history for burglary and assault although all cases were at least two years prior. John was in care because of a request from his parents who no longer felt they could control his behaviour because his reaction to discipline was often non-compliance and violence. His file illustrated him as mischievous, yet comical, with recent signs of improved behaviour. He enjoyed partaking in various hobbies; however, these were often short-lived with him becoming disinterested very quickly.

I worked with John for several months and at a case-review meeting John’s parents informed the panel that he wished to take up boxing. His parents supported the idea, as did the Social Worker because it was thought it may inspire some discipline. I objected because of his criminal conviction of assault. However, the Social Worker dismissed this by indicating that John’s wishes were important and that our role was to empower him. Despite my objections it was agreed that John could attend. John soon attended a boxing club organised and operated by two retired policemen. Approximately one year later John was convicted of aggravated burglary with the victim being an elderly woman.

The first domain of critical practice, critical analysis, is concerned with how practitioners evaluate evidence, policies, and knowledge to influence decisions (Brechin, 2000; Glaister, 2008). Furthermore, the practitioner becomes conscious of multiple perspectives and the contextual nature of them (Brechin, 2000; Fook, 2002). Chalmers (2003:22) claims that practitioners who intervene in people’s lives have a responsibility to be informed by ‘rigorous, transparent, up-to-date evaluations’. Yet Sheldon and MacDonald (2009) note the reliance on robust evidence being available and the practitioners having the time, resources and skill-base to adequately evaluate evidence. Indeed, Fook (2002) argues that it is often in the interests of agencies to prevent such approaches as it may lead to increased responsibilities and higher costs.

Placing this experience in the context of critical analysis it is unsure at this point what informed the Social Workers knowledge; however, it was clear that he wished to respect John’s voice. The Social Worker believed John had personal agency and a fundamental right to choose his own life direction. The GSCC (2004) concurs with the Social Worker in-so-far as practitioners should promote independence and respect the client’s right to take risks. The Social Worker, as an agent of the state, was further supported by policies such as article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990:4) which stipulates that any child ‘capable of forming his or her own views has the right to express those views…[and this be] given due weight’. Indeed, his employer has signed up to this convention (Somerset County Council, 2009).

However, practitioners also have an obligation to ensure that these risks are managed and necessary steps are taken to minimise the risk of harm to service users or others (GSCC, 2010). I held an alternative view to protect John, and others, from harm. It is clear that both the Social Worker and I had valid points, thus, being guided by knowledge, policies and theories on their own may result in conflicts about what actions to follow (Banks, 2006).

The second domain of critical practice, critical reflexivity, originates from reflective practice and the concept that practitioners learn through experience (Schon, 1983). However, because reflective practice has limited criticalness (Fook and Askeland, 2006) it often fails to acknowledge deeper processes which impact practice (Fook, 2002). Furthermore, reflective practice can result in negative outcomes such as self-doubt or an acceptance of status quo’s (Eby, 2000). Critical reflexivity refers to a practitioner who engages in ‘self-criticism’ whilst being reflective. The practitioner becomes reflexive in questioning pre-established values, assumptions and prejudices (Taylor and White, 2001) and gains an understanding on how this influences negotiated understandings and interventions whilst working across difference (Glaister, 2008; Fook, 2002). Because critical reflexivity permits the practitioner to acknowledge the complex nature of the client’s circumstances and their perspectives there is an organic acknowledgement of cultural and social disparities (Fook, 2002). Indeed, Allport (1978:437) concurs and states how practitioners who engage in inwardness are generally less prejudice, are more tolerant in understanding others, and exhibit a ‘desire for personal autonomy rather than for external, institutional anchorage’.

Critical reflexivity affords me the opportunity to contemplate on how my preformed values and assumptions influenced my perspective. Thus, I needed to consider the opposition I held to John’s participation. As a pre-adolescent child I was bullied in school with a particular individual being prevalent in my memory. This individual attended martial arts which he duly practised on me. Ultimately, this had a significant impact on my belief that violence is wrong. Indeed, in relation to John my assumption was that everyone who attended a power sport had the potential to bully. This was hyperbolised by John’s past and thus my opposition to his partaking. Adams (2009) supports my exploration by indicating how our experiences can have an implicit impact on our decisions and in this instance I can identify how my negotiated understanding had become manipulated by my self.

The Social Worker adopted a Kantianistic approach by wanting to empower John to make his own life choices. Indeed, the Social Worker wanted to advocate Johns rights rather than impose carers perspectives which is understandable considering the current agenda toward person-centred planning (GSCC, 20100; Kellett, 2009). However, I felt that as professionals there was a justification in adopting utilitarianistic values because the risk of re-engaging in criminal activities was too high. Yet evidently apparent is neither the Social Worker or I respected each other’s perspective. However, notably the issues of the Social Workers claims that he wanted to empower John also become apparent. The very notion that the Social Worker wanted to empower John indicates that the Social Worker was actually the one with the power. Yet, the Social Worker has duties and responsibilities beyond the value of empowerment because of his legislated duty to protect John, and others, from harm (Banks, 2006).

The final domain, critical action, is concerned with practitioners having a robust skill-base whilst being conscious of its contextual nature. A critical practitioner works across difference to promote empowerment whilst confronting structural oppressions (Brechin, 2000; Eby, 2000). A primary principle of critical practice is the notion that practitioners should be research-minded in understanding the contextual basis of empirical evidence (Shemmings and Shemmings, 2003). Utilisation of the best available evidence is essential to contemporary practice (Sheldon and MacDonald, 2009) and yet despite being a ‘self-evidently a good idea’ (Trinder, 2000:3), evidence-based practice has faced fierce opposition because there is a risk that practitioners may abandon reflexivity and personal agency for technical rationality (Taylor and White, 2006; Webb, 2001). However, this view has been adequately challenged by commentators who state that evidence-based practice, which actually means evidence-informed practice (MacDonald, 2003; Chalmers, 2003) has, when scrutinised, the potential to minimise the risk of harm to service users (Chalmers, 2003). Indeed, evidence-informed practice is the critically appraised synthesis of empirical and experiential evidence (Fook, 2002; Sheldon and MacDonald, 2009).

In linking this to my experience with John, it becomes clear that I could not knowingly offer any definitive empirical evidence to support my perspective. However, neither could the Social Worker. In this sense both the Social Worker and I failed to be research-minded. Thus, in opposition to anti-evidence-based advocates, this experience indicates how practitioners can make mistakes when acting on instinct alone. Indeed, a brief search for empirical evidence found a longitudinal study by Endersen and Olweus (2005) which identified how participation in power sports for adolescents with a previous history of anti-social behaviours is likely to result in re-engagement. As John had a previous history of theft, this evidence may well have helped me, the Social Worker, and even John, come to a different decision.

Critical action also involves the practitioner developing a consciousness of the often hidden imbalances of power between themselves, agencies and the client (Payne, 2005). Critical practice occurs within the context of theory and consideration of critical theories permits me to understand my construction of power and how this influenced my action, or inaction. For example, Foucault was concerned with language and how discourse can assist professionals to create ‘natural and unchallengeable’ situations because they are deemed to have knowledge and thus power (Finlay, 2000:85). Indeed, the Social Worker established, chaired and controlled the case-review meeting. Fook (2002) concurs and argues that professionals utilise societal structures in order to suppress service users. Taking my earlier point regarding the construction of the case-meeting further it is clear that it was designed by adults with no real consideration about what John wanted. Indeed it is hard to understand why John, or an advocate, was not at the meeting. Yet, even if John was permitted to attend, it is highly likely he would have faced oppression by being forced to engage with the hegemonic language of adults which he would not have understood, thus he would ultimately been oppressed and possibly disempowered (Kehily, 2009). However, Cocker and Allain (2008) contend that service users have the right to take a pro-active role in decision making processes and suggest that the role of the practitioner is to ensure that service users are fully informed through the provision of concise information. This clearly did not transpire and thus true empowerment was never apparent.

In concluding it is evident a professionals self can impact on the everyday lives of service users and practitioners. As practitioners we all have multiple identities which we take into practice. Not only do these derive from our previous experiences, but also our responsibilities as professionals, agents of the states, as employees and of course as statutory creation created to fulfil a role. Indeed, critical practice assists practitioners highlight how their self has been impacted upon from each of these identities and permits the us to make decisions, along with the service user, that are more likely to produce a more productive, and effective, outcome for all.

In engaging in critical practice I have been able to identify significant factors which may have contributed to a better outcome. Whether John’s participation in boxing contributed to his re-engagement in criminal activities cannot be realistically measured. However, what is certain is John was disempowered in-so-far as he should have been fully informed. It is clear that none of the three domains of critical practice isolated can work independently, however, the careful and intentional synthesis of values, experiences, evidence and knowledge along with an awareness of structural disadvantage caused by agencies can all have a positive impact on the self and ultimately a practitioner’s power to challenge practice.

I misplaced my power as a morally active practitioner and permitted the Social Worker to make a judgement based on instinct. I could have researched the potential issues of boxing and provided John with more in-depth information in a format he would understand. However, as practitioners we have an obligation to learn from our experiences because a critical practitioner who is engaged with their self is more likely to succeed in becoming a transformational practitioner.