Author: Andre Coleman

1. Introduction

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the UK. In accordance with VisitBritain (2009a) which is Britain’s national tourism agency, the economic contribution of tourism was worth ?114.4 billion to the UK economy in 2009 which is equivalent to 8.2 % of UK GDP. On the other hand, VisitBritain (2009a) also comments that, “The 31.9 million overseas visitors who came in 2008 spent ?16.3 billion in the UK, the figures represent a 2.7% decline in volume and 2.3% increase in value compared with 2007”. Apparently, there are some opportunities and challenges for a new comer in this industry. Therefore, if the company do not has effective scenarios to manage the uncertainty issues in future, the company will in danger, even can not survive. By research secondary data, and some analysis methods namely PSET and Impact/Uncertainty Model, this essay tries to seek the effective scenarios for AirFreedom Travel Agent which is first venture in British inbound tourism. Moreover, this essay will beginning with PEST analysis in order to examining the external factors. Secondly, Impact/Uncertainty model will undertake for finding the most important issues. Then, Scenarios will design for AirFreedom Travel. Lastly, the essay is going to analyse the impact of those scenario on the organisation.

AirFreedom Travel Agent is a company first involved in British inbound tourism market, which provide variable services related to tourism, such as ticket booking and hotel reservation. OECD (2001) indicates that “inbound tourism is the tourism of non-resident visitors within economy territory of the country of reference.” The 31.9 million overseas visitors who came in 2008 spent ?16.3 billion in the U.K. (VisitBritain, 2009a). Moreover, according to a study undertaken by Deloitte (2008), the tourism sector created more than 2.75 million jobs, and the number of direct industry employment was 1.32 million. Unfortunately, both number of inbound visits and inbound visitor spending suffered from decline during the period from October, 2008 to September, 2009 by 9.2% and 0.7% respectively (VisitBritain, 2009b). The importances of U.K inbound tourism is not only the contribution to economy but also benefits other industry, namely retail industry and transportation.

2. Environmental Analysis (PEST)

PEST Analysis stands for Political, Economic, Social and Technological Analysis, and it is a framework of macro-environmental factors for strategic factors. However, the company is involved in tourism and environmental issues are vital important for tourism. So this essay will examine those factors from five segments and appendix 9.1 shows the factors will assessed.

2.1 Political

Political environment of U.K. is quite stable. It has positive impact on potential customers.

U.K.’s transportation infrastructure is both effective and efficient; London Heathrow Airport for example is the airport which the most international passengers landed in 2007 (ACI, 2007) and government plan to expand this airport for more landing capacity. The red double-decker bus is also a symbol of London.

In addition, Border policy is another factor, entry fee is the direct result of it. According to UKBA (2008), “To encourage even more tourist a new shorter three-month group visa is being proposed at a possible reduced cost of ?44”. Apparently, the new visa fee policy is a positive factor.

Due to growing awareness of the green issues, U.K. Government is planning to declare some policies to protect environment. For instance, on one hand, the main road fuel duty rate in the U.K. was ?0.5035 per litre in from 1 October, 2007 (OPSI, 2008). However, the latest increase to ?0.5619 per litre from 1 September, 2009 (HMRC, 2009). As a result, tourists will pay more for the transportation system in U.K. On the other hand, VAT on the airline ticket is also adds cost to travelling, namely Member states of E.U have a minimum standard rate of VAT of 15% (EU, 2006).

Adversely, terrorism is always a significant negative factor influence on tourism. 52 people died in 7/7 London tube and bus bombings (BBC, 2008) and Shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes (Guardian, 2009) are two setbacks for British tourism which were happened in 7 July 2005 and 22 July 2005 respectively.

2.2 Economic

Most countries of the world suffered from recession by Credit Crisis, except some nations namely China. Baily and Elliott (2009) comment that the GDP at annual rates for the first quarter of 2009 declined 14.4% for Germany, 15.2% for Japan, 7.4% for the U.K., 9.8% for the Euro area and 21.5% for Mexico. Recession resulted in less people travelling because of purchasing power is decreasing.

Exchange rate of pound to foreign currency is not strong recently, so foreign traveller can spend less money than before for travelling U.K. For example, one Euro was equal to 0.68675 British Pounds in 21 November, 2005 (ECB, 2009) and one Euro was equal to 0.89915 British Pounds in 20 November, 2009 (ECB, 2009).

Inflation is arising in the level of price of goods and services in an economy in a period time. For example, the inflation rate of U.K. year over year was 1.5455% which compared to 1.0879% for the pervious month (RI, 2009). It means you need to pay more money for the same commodity than last month, and it leads to increasing cost for travelling U.K.

Seasonality is another issue need discussion because of holidays is the busiest time for tourism market. It also is a problem for this industry, after the peak season tourism companies do not have many deals. According to Visitbritain (2009c), the number of U.K. inbound tourists in 2008 was approximately 7.20million, 8.41million, 9.36million and 6.93million by quarter. The percentage of spending of travellers who visit U.K. was 19% and 32% in January-March and July-September in 2008 respectively.

2.3 Social

As a result of the increasing concerned on environmental issues on tourism linked to such as carbon footprint. People who focus on the green issues will refuse to travel in order to reduce the CO2 emission.

Spread of disease is vitally important for a country’s inbound tourism. People do not want to travel to places which spread serious disease such as SARS. In accordance with NHS (2009), ‘There were an estimated 53,000 new infections in the past week, down from 64,000 the week before.’ It is a negative symbol for U.K. inbounds tourism industry.

Safe nations are more attractive than insecurity. Travellers do not want to be involved in crime during their journey. Home office (2009) points out U.K. experienced a 45% down of all BCS crime from 1995 to 2008/09 which is favourable.

On the other hand, social event is another positive factor for tourism, such as FIFA World Cup. The examples in Britain are the activities of Royal Family and 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. For example, Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia host the 1998 commonwealth games, and about 60,000 tourists visited Kuala Lumpur in 1988 (FCO, 2009).

2.4 Technological

On-line booking is a method booking ticket of plane or other type transportation which is the result from rapid development of technology. It saves time and money of both companies and consumers.

Furthermore, hospitality network system is another example for tourism industry. It is useful to the travelling agencies provide package service including flight ticket and hotel booking.

Moreover, the technology development is also affecting the manufacture. Aircraft become more efficient, for instance new aircraft are 70% more fuel efficient than 40 years ago and 20% better than 10 years ago (IATA, 2009). It is not only saves the cost of aircraft operators but also reduces CO2 emissions. The efficient airplane resulted in lower price of ticket and lower air pollution. It attracts more tourists which is including people who are concern on green issues.

2.5 Environmental

In the first place, the average total annual sunshine from 1971 to 2000 in U.K. was only 1354.9 hours (Met Office, n.d.). Secondly, the high latitude and close to a large ocean of the west caused U.K. experiences strong winds. After that, the average days of rainfall?1mm were 154.4 days during 1971 to 2000 (Met Office, n.d.). Lastly, U.K. some times suffered from flood which is negative factor to tourism (Environment Agency, 2009).

Graceful environment of the travel destinations is attractive. Environment of U.K. is pretty clean. According to EEA (2009), the measurement stations of air quality of U.K are slight.

3. Impact/Uncertainty Model

Impact/Uncertainty model is an effective tool for examining the factors which are impact on British tourism. The chart below is the Impact/Uncertainty model for U.K. inbounds tourism.

Terrorism always has negative impact on the destinations, especially, tourism. People travel to other countries in holidays for fun, and they do not the trip make their life in danger. For instance, the al-Gama’a al-Islamiya’s attack happened in Eygpt resulted in 62 deaths, and 58 of which were overseas tourists (Essner, 2003). Essner (2003) is also cites that international tourists avoided came to Egypt owing to 13% decline in arrivals. On the other hand, it is difficult to predict.

Meanwhile, exchange rate is direct related to the purchasing power of overseas tourists. Moreover, it is unpredictable because of the exchange rate fluctuates everyday. For example, recently, GBP is weak for exchange to Euro. It is a positive factor for attracting the tourists to U.K. from countries which use Euro.

Another unpredictable factor is spread diseases, it influences not only the border policy which is resulted in more difficult to obtain visa but also the security of the destination. Additionally, people do not want go to the place which is possible infected diseases.

Overseas travellers come to U.K. by several transportation methods, namely, aircraft, train and ship. All those transportation methods use fuel as energy. Therefore, the price of fuel is directly related to the cost of trip.

Purchasing power of overseas travellers is another factor impacts on the British inbound tourism. Many factors have negative impact on purchasing power, such as recession, inflation and financial crisis.

Extreme weather is not usually happened in U.K and the advanced weather forecast system helps government predict it. It is also resulted in the seasonality of British inbound tourists’ number. However, it still a negative factor to tourism, namely winds of up to 100mph have hit parts of the UK which was caused damage of property (BBC, 2009).

Social events hold by Britain is also attracts tourists to travelling U.K. In future, 2012 London Olympic Games is a brilliant opportunity to encourage U.K. inbounds tourism. Most of the social events are applied by government, so the level of uncertainty is low, but high impact on tourism. For instance, in the last quarter of 1999, international visitor arrivals Australia increased by 15 per cent compared to the same time in 1999 (ATC, 2001).

Environment pollution is not in the high impact and high uncertainty quadrant. Although environment is essential of tourism, and tourists put pressure on the area, namely overusing water resources in hotels and increasing plastic pollution. Consequently, new environmental legislations will regulate the market, but the impact and uncertainty level are low.

4. Scenario Planning

There are four scenarios below designed for AirFreedom based on the findings of Impact/Uncertainty model above. Appendix 9.2 shows the developing of the four scenarios. The four scenarios will describe below.

Scenario A: Crusades, it arises in the situation which U.K. suffers from terrorism and GBP is weak to other currency. It will leads to the demand of U.K. inbound tourism decrease in long-term and government will restrict overseas tourist enter to certain places. On the other hand, the infrastructure and environment will damage by terrorism. However, the travelling cost will reduce, and it will attract customers who take advantage of price.

Scenario B: Pandora’s Box happens when U.K. with terrorism and GBP is strong to other currency. It resulted in demand of U.K. inbound tourism dropping sharply in long-term and significant financial losses. Some problem namely rising unemployment rate and crime rate will increase. On the other hand, the government will declare entry regulation owing to terrorism.

The situation of Scenario C: Heavenly Love is similar to the present which U.K. inbound tourism is a “sunset industry” without terrorism and GBP is weak to other currency. Due to the circumstance, the travelling cost will decline and U.K. government will encourage inbound tourism for example, overseas tourists easy to obtain entry clearance.

Scenario D: Seraphim occurring when GBP is strong to other currency and without terrorism. As a result, the demand of U.K. inbound travel reduce in short-term due to the costly tourism spending. Instead, overseas travellers will go to alternative destinations and possibly U.K. government will encourage this industry by entry policy.

5. Analysis

AirFreedom as a new player in British inbound market, those scenarios are vitally important for the company, because of the trend of British tourism is directly related to not only the external competition but also the internal operation of AirFreedom. The table in appendix 9.4 shows the implications of each scenario on the company.

Crusades: the market share will rapidly decrease in long-term and the company need to afford extra expense to hire security staff. On the other hand, AirFreedom will focus on the tourists who take advantage of price under this circumstance by penetration pricing strategy. Moreover, the company should consider about reduce the price of service by cooperation.

Pandora’s Box: the U.K. inbound tourism market will suffer significant decline, and the company need to reduce cost by downsizing. Then, company need also hire security staff. Furthermore, the company should consider venture the U.K. outbound tourism service market.

Heavenly Love: U.K. inbound tourism will as a “sunset industry” resulted in potential growth in market share of AirFreedom. The company however should focus on the competitive market with market-oriented pricing strategy and hire more staff for expanding.

Seraphim: the market share will stagnate or slight decline and people with strong purchasing power will become the main potential customers. In addition, The company need to dismiss some staff for reduce cost and it should also consider enter the U.K. domestic tourism service. The price strategy is also market-oriented pricing.

6. Adopt Strategy

In according to Mckinsey (2001), 86% of the biggest business winners followed market-shaping strategies between 1985 – 1995. However, AirFreedom as a new comer, the company is not powerful enough to influence or determine the structure of U.K. inbound industry. Therefore, AirFreedom should to follow Adopt strategy which is the company follow the existing structure and then developing with speed in order to capture opportunities in future. For instance, AirFreedom could launch “Olympic-Travel Package” for expanding which contains the air ticket, two weeks hotel and tickets of several Olympic Games during the 2012 London Olympic Games.

7. Conclusions

In conclusion this essay has argued that the future developments in British inbound tourism for AirFreedom which is first venture in the industry by several methods, namely PSET analysis and scenario. The question posed at the outset was to evaluate and discuss the future development trend of British tourism. It has been seen that the two most impactful and uncertainly issues for the industry are terrorism and spread of serious diseases. One can therefore conclude from the proceeding discussion that the scenarios influence not only the profitability of the company but also the operation strategies. More primary is required for this topic in further research. How much 2012 London Olympic Games will impact on the development in U.K. inbounds tourism under global recession is a key question still not solved. Given the current economic climate, AirFreedom should face both challenges and opportunities in this industry.

Tourism is fragile,the 7/11 tragedy had a very severe,almost devastating effect on the industry.Climate conditions are able to influence visitor arrivals for the Mediterranean beaches.Sometimes it is political and economic instability that is the determining factor (e.g.Argentina) almost ruining a traditional and established industry.Tourism can have both positive and negative effects.Positively it creates employment and economically enables the conservation of valuable space;restrains a migratory tendency within the home population improving their socio-cultural education.It encourages support of local commercialisation resulting in the free interchange of ideas,customs and sensitization of issues concerning the eco-environment.The reduction of working hours,the ever present threat of unemployment because of technological advancement and the globalisation process enables the tourism industry to provide an interesting and stimulating intensive alternative Just as significant as the positive effects is the rising cost of natural resources,water,energy.The spoiling of landscapes with land reclamation;rising levels of waste disposal;alterations to ecosystems;the extinction of rare species of animals and plants;the loss of traditional values and rising levels of prostitution,that is sex tourism.There is the narcotics trade,forest fires,together with the rising cost of housing.

Rising levels of carbon dioxide and other contaminating gases from increasing frequencies of airflights with ozone erosion and acid rain.All kinds of ecosystems are becoming affected.Thailand is littered with golf courses that consume large amounts of pesticides and water.There is hardly anywhere in the world not affected by tourism impact.From the Antarctic to Mount Everest visited with huge amounts of garbage the reminder of previous expeditions.Tourism is an aspect of globalisation most sensitive to any repercussion.In the eastern region of Spain,Benidorm has a great concentration of hotels,accommodating nearly half a million tourists in August within an area of little more than 12 kilometres.There is a large proportion of the population of many countries who do not participate in tourist flows but who nevertheless will become part of such flows with the emergence of new markets in Latin-America and Asia.

The level of impact relates to the class of tourism. A family hiking trip in the Alps cannot make the same impact as a collection of caravan vehicles situated in the same area,or a vast Mediterranean hotel complex.It is therefore prudent to analyse the main categories of tourism and their effects the solutions to such problems.Business tourism has little impact except for the consumption of aircraft fuel.Beach tourism,very popular but quite dangerous for the environment as there is a large congregation of people within a relatively small zone.There is a high turn-over of resources,increased waste,escalating house prices as impact factors.Adventure tourism is the most harmful;usually visiting virgin zones with a rapid degradation because of high consumption of resources.Matters escalate with the waywardness of track vehicles who go off the beaten track.Rural tourism or mountain tourism consists of small hotels serving a small percentage of tourists.Reorganisation of these areas is gaining momentum with a redirection of flow from the cities to such zones.Eco-tourism contributes in the effort of sustainable tourism possessing an awareness for nature and attempts to reduce any impact.Agricultural tourism is concerned with sustainable tourism.The tourist takes part in activities on the farm and like places.Tourists are introduced to aspects of the life and empathy with the animals and plants.This injects a life into such environments and agrees with the immediate habitat.The other varieties of tourism are minority,seasonal and impacts are therefore diverse,dependent upon type.In this category there is that of the religious,gastronomy,events,cultural etc.

All the above have common factorial problems.Ever increasing usage of natural resources,generally unrecyclable.Raw materials and combustibles originating from elsewhere,that is non local.The problem of water,energy.Consuming of territory from agriculture to infrastructure.The generating of contamination.Residual wastes.The factor of residual waters and the pollution of subterranean reserves.Atmospheric pollution.Noise contamination and the loss of biodiversity.

Future development must become sustainable in the long term and economically viable.Efforts should be made to channel such mass flows to reduce transport emissions that develop into global repercussions with local cooperation to support sustainability against loss of biodiversity and depletion of natural resources.But the word sustainable has many definitions when applied to tourism.

Although respect of the environment is meant there are some principles involved.There would be three aspects.Ecological,Social and cultural and economic sustainability.Ecological sustainability means the tourism must respect maintenance of the essential biological process,of biodiversity and of biological resources.Social and cultural sustainability entails respect of local culture with the local population’s values and the retention of the community’s identity.Economic sustainability means that there must be economic efficiency present.

There is no one clearly acknowledged method of analysing the impacts of tourism and there are a number of different criteria for its measurement.The factor of economic costs based on indicators lends itself to compactness needing no previous knowledge of ecology or sociology.Most studies are able to display the benefits generated and contributive to the balance of payments to income contributed by the government and its deployment.Yet few have included the analysis of negative effects.Negative economic impact has an effect on the local scale.Destinations that suffer economically when dependent on tourism.Diversification if applied to the local economy is able to positively revert such consequences with the development of tourist goods and services replacing the previous gains of traditional activities.The way is open to instability due to alteration of tourist routes,ineffective publicity,the influence of ever changing tourist fashions in response to seasonal variation of production.Before such situations develop the small economies decide whether to resort to dependency within the sector or proceed with a duality strategy.Here they will try to balance two sources of income,the traditional with economic activities.This involves a more rational choice of possibilities.If there is no duality then it frequently becomes an inflationary situation.This inflationary aspect is sublimative with prices and taxes affecting the local population.It has no regard for anything existant before and it becomes patently obvious in the escalation of food prices and that of goods etc.Those who are directly involved in the industry experience improved benefit but not the local population.In the areas of tourist development,capital destinations there is disruption of traditional production sectors.Foreign capital is not limited to a local effect as it leaves the receiving country contributing to a loss of currency.Some authors assert that for the long term,low potential productivity from a tourist company has a depressive effect on local economic growth.Clarifying we have possible inflation from such tourist activity,purchasing potential being greater than that of the resident population leading to escalating prices for food and services.The loss of potential economic benefits with a high dependency on foreign capital.Distortions of local economy.Concentration of economic activity into one type of activity.Impact on employment produces fluctuating levels.

Social impacts again consist of both positive and negative effects.Positively there is the recovery and conservation of cultural values that but for the visiting tourists would have disappeared.Funds as a result are made available for preservation of artefacts and restoration of forgotten historical monuments.Local communities would be unable to provide such resources.Yet various tactics are applied in such privileged places of tourist interest.Many local customs have been revitalized and tourist resources are being made available for the reappearance of folklore,festivals,craft pursuits and gastronomy.There has occurred marked improvement in facilities and services such as sanitary,modes of transport,parks etc.

Nevertheless again negative impacts exist.The immediate negative factor is that of the social disparities between the indigenous population and that of the visitors.For some destinations essentially those to be found in the underprivileged countries their is a kind of imperialistic relationship with the inhabitants becoming servants of the tourists.Inevitably there arises social tension and resentment.A new kind of colonialism appears with dependency upon the foreign currency.Outside workers obtain contracts possessing better qualifications.With such clear indications of the socio-economic differences the negative impact takes effect.Gaming,increasing prostitution,drugs appear previously non-existent and all related to the arrival of tourists.Such negative impacts lead to loss of culturization.The local population observes the tourists and then seeks to adapt to their customs paving the way for the destruction and disappearance of the very thing that the tourists originally arrived for.

The tourism impact to the environment is the most negative aspect.Wholesale damage has been caused to large areas that will be very difficult indeed to reclaim.Tourism,tourist activity as a phenomenon of mass flows requires substantial infrastructure supported by intricate service networks.Careful planning has not always been applied with a resulting deterioration of the natural and social environments.There has been a transformation of infected zones with the destruction of ecosystems;diminution in the quality and quantity of water;soil contamination;the extinction of many species of fauna;severe infection of flora,fishing depletion and the contamination of the sea.

Destruction of ecosystems arises with a massive presence of visitors.Originally the mass influx promised a get-rich-quick attitude.Nature was defenceless.Those destinations with an image of a tourist paradise have become victims to ecosystem destruction.Natural clean water has been severly affected and reduced with tourist arrivals.In many instances the amount of tourists arriving has been unsustainable to local resources.The many many golf courses and residential swimming pools all affect agricultural development and the zonal ecological balance.

Soil contamination arises in many instances with substances derived from human activity that alter the chemical environment and reduces crop yield.

Many species of fauna are becoming extinct.The effect upon tree populations,unregulated city-planning,hunting present ever present and overwhelming danger to endangered species.The mighty ocean’s yield of fish is becoming seriously affected.Population along the coasts has mushroomed together with second residences.To prevent an ecological disaster careful and superior planning is necessary;beyond local expertise.An overwhelming presence in the natural zones is affecting/impacting the flora in the same way.The presence of tourists in natural zones with a deluge of sporting activity such as motorbikes,mountain bikes,all land vehicles causes severe erosion of surface land inevitably affecting the flora.

Are there solutions to such problems and is sustainable tourism attainable?Or is tourism an impact generator advancing to disaster.

A global entity that is attaching attention to such a problem and attempting to fulfil objectives for a sustainable tourism is the European Union.The rest of the world has economic problems of its own as in Africa.The EU with its agenda 21 has invited the local administrations to act.It recommends the following:Promotion of local production,offering ecological foods of the region containing no additives.Reduction of waste garbage and separation of the various categories for possible recycling.Usage of various technologies to saver water.Purification of residual waters for irrigation and agriculture.The saving of energy with efficient washing machines,heat insulation.Respecting the environment and landscape.Promotion of public transport and bicycling.To establish pedestrian zones in areas of historic value.The promotion of local tourism and to reduce air schedules of the flight industry thereby reducing carbon emissions.Planning to facilitate contact between the visiting tourists and the local inhabitants but to deter the formation of any tourism ghettos.Planning to benefit all the local population.

It therefore appears from the previous account that the main aims concerning tourism management are to maximise economic,environmental and socio-cultural benefits of tourism but to minimise costs associated with such a strategy.The contemporary theme that has been introduced above is sustainable tourism.According to the Brundtland Commission(1987) development is sustainable when “it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.Another definition was offered in Vancouver at the Globe Conference. “Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfil economic,social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity,essential ecological processes,biological diversity and the support systems”.

Three objectives should be achieved concerning tourism development.To increase the economic value of tourism.Improving the quality of life for the people and the protection and responsible usage of natural resources.

It appears that tourism development within a country relates to an assumption of economic gain.Only tourism management with its application of various methods and principals can determine whether any economical gain will outweight the cost factor.There are staffing costs,overheads and utilities to take into account.To reduce costs to a minimum might involve improved staffing rotas,energy saving.

There can be a number of positive impacts of tourism such as an improvement in the balance of payments,easier access to foreign exchange,the contribution to GNP and the multiplier effect.Also job creation and increased revenues for the government.Direct taxation with revenues.There are negative impacts including costs for infrastructure development;an over-dependence of the destination on tourists.The aspect of low skilled work.Again repeating here that is seems clear there is a simple principle involved.Namely that of minimising costs and maximising profits.High leakage is most likely to occur with NMEs(multi national enterprises)where there is the need to promote tourism but in order to do so there is import of food and beverages,capital technology,repatriation of staff and therefore a capital outflow,investment of capital infrastructure by the host government.It may be argued that with restriction/control of such NMEs there will be reduced capital outflow,reduced repatriation,together with switching on of a multiplier effect stimulating more spending by the tourists in the local economy.Again debatable,there is the hiring of as many local residents as staff,ensuring proper salary levels with provision of training to support promotion opportunities.With the resulting reduction of staff repatriation there will occur an increase in the levels of local staff remuneration and so immediately contributing to a multiplier effect with the possibility of enhancing the destination socio-cultural aspect.Economics entails making and providing for the making of choices with influence and guidance being preferably applied.There is a need for professional marketing expertise at destinations to increase the average length of stay,the daily expenditure per head,with the diminishment of seasonality.Yet very searching evaluation is required here for these actions while producing economic benefits may in fact harm the environmental,socio-cultural aspects of the destination causing indirect costs.

It is claimed by some sources that tourism development can be identified as the cause of environmental degradation in every case where there is tourism present.Such damage consists of air and water pollution,the accumulation of garbage on the streets and beaches;biodiversity damage,congestion of traffic,decline of wildlife.A number of these effects are irreversible harming not only the tourist destination industry but contributing to the cumulative effect of global pollution itself.

The physical and cultural environments comprise the essential attractions for the visiting tourist to the destination.It is the responsibility of tourism management to minimize environmental damage and so ensuring future business.There are a number of methods that may be applied to diminish environmental impacts.Energy saving measures eg light bulbs,toilet flushes,cleaning detergents that are environmentally friendly.The limiting of visas thereby reducing immediately the number of visitors.Educational programmes of awareness both for the visiting tourists and the locals.An increase in profit may result with the reduction of costs,applied to utilities.Yet even if the limitation of visas does significantly affect profit it may be considered a better option so that there is still existant the possibility of future gains with the preservation of the destination’s natural resources that are there to attract the tourists in the first place.

To conclude one of the main ingredients for success of environmental policies is government involvement itself.Again it may be arguable there should be laws on land usage and the extent of building construction for the destination.The necessary infrastructure should be installed to meet anticipated volume of tourist flow with protection of natural heritages.

The socio-cultural impacts can be measured with resort to crime rate statistics,the ratio of tourist to locals etc.A management method used to measure the level of socio-cultural impact is Doxey’ Irridex Model.The model has a four stage process wherein there are diminishing returns in the local inhabitants attitude towards the visitors.Firstly there is the exploration stage where contact between both parties is of frequent occurrence and here the attitude is referred to as euphoria.There is a welcoming of contact with the outside world and there is the possibility of supplementing the household income as a result of such inflow.With increasing flow there occurs diminishing contact with the early arrivals.The tourists become part of everyday business concerns that transforms the initial attitude into one that seeks contact and liaison for personal gain.Those residents of such a destination develop an apathetic attitude to such matters.

A further development of the model presents annoyance.The significant inflow of tourism disrupts everyday life with developing queues experienced in the local shops,traffic jams.Local business accommodates to souvenir promotion emanating a sense of alienation to the local population.A subtle inbalance is occurring subconsciously activating antagonism towards the tourists.There is a loss of control within the community because they have now become dependent upon such tourist inflows.Destination facilities as a result of increasing volume deteriorate and contribute to the attraction of a down-market visitor.The tourists now become the focus of blame for such developments.The increasing deterioration in attitude becomes a mirror of reflection and comparison of the effect of such tourism influx.

Tourism management methods applied to assist in maximizing positives and minimising negatives of impact for the socio-culture consist of educating about tourism;promotion of cross-cultural exchange;imposition of visitor codes;ensuring that locals have access to cultural facilities;preservation of local architecture;maintenance of authenticity;providing for the more sensitive cultural tourist with appropriate marketing;limitation of tourist numbers.

One principal that has gained attention is the carrying capacity assessment.It may be used to control and implement frontline sustainable tourism.There is a variety of applications such as the determination of a tourism development limit for a particular place and the limitation of actual visitor numbers.It attempts to balance economic goals for physical and facility capacity of the destination.The social goal for social carrying capacity of the destination,and environmental goals with the ecological carrying capacity of the destination.Hopefully to achieve sustainable tourism development as a working reality.It has not met with the anticipated success because of unrealistic expectations,faulty assumptions and misplaced value judgment with an inadequate legal support system.

Efforts of management to achieve a sustainable tourism system consist of a number of principles consisting of environmental impact assessment,limits for acceptable change,visitor impact management,visitor experience and resource management.

It perhaps has become clear to the reader that tourism management should not function alone in these matters,but work together with local government and public bodies.Legal implementation is a central issue because if there is to be a restriction of visas for example there has to be assistance from such a quarter.Success breeds success and so tourism management and government will hum the same tune.

The methods referred to above all have the same principal;that of protection for the host destination rather than a focus upon tourism demand.Obviously the demand has to be considered but it is the design of the tourist product that should be the main focus.Application of such principals referred to in the foregoing discussion will hopefully result in sustainable tourism for the future.

Tourism is a travel for recreational, business and leisure purpose. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four (24) hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.” Now a day’s tourism has become one of the very popular global leisure activities (World Tourism Organisation. 1995).

According to Davidson & Arculus (2006), in the last 20 years visiting friends and relatives and for travelling for business purpose has become a biggest growth area in global tourism. Its growth has increased respectively by 249% and 219 5 during the last 20 years. Business tourism is very popular in UK and accounts for ?9.3bn spend in England on 29.6m trips. As compared to leisure visitors the business visitors and conference delegates spend on average 2.5 times more. Out of all 40% of the visitors gives the feelings of visiting the place again if it appeals them.

According to Van and Hinch (1996), many countries needs tourism because of many different reasons such as some needs because of economic strength, some for employment creating etc. Egypt, Spain, Greece, Thailand, Lebanon and many island nations, such as The Bahamas, Maldives and the Seychelles, due to the intake of money for the business of their goods and services. This is also for the purpose of employment creation.

2. Urban Tourism

According to Ruetsche (2006), the consumption of city landmarks (such as architecture, monuments, and parks) and culture by visitors is called urban tourism. Tourism has assumed a large place in urban areas due to recent developments and technological changes and advancement in the recent decades. Entertainment plays a major role in the for industrial cities economies. People need to get relaxed after the hard routine. Others can get work and profit as well due to the leisure and consumption of some people. In this way tourism is helpful in creating employment opportunities. One of the main concerns for the private as well as public city elites is the attraction and accommodation of the visitors. According to Law (2002), international tourism has become a global phenomenon. Now a day’s large city has become the most important tourist destinations all over the world. In most of the metropolitan areas urban tourism is one of the main sources of employment and income. Success of urban tourism is mainly because of globalization.

One of the important aspects of the urban areas destination is a sense of place, unique environment or atmosphere or overall look that is created by people, locations, history, famous icons, buildings and nightlife.

Trend of urban tourism

For a long time there was trend of urban citizens to go to the countryside or seaside for a holiday or tour Ashworth and Dietvorst (1995). During 1980s the concept of urban tourism entered into the research agendas with the feeling of development of cities into important destinations to attract and appeal the visitors. There are always business tours and city trips around the world, but now a day’s leisure motive become a major part of travelling. The number of urban visitors is increasing day by day. The things which make urban places more attractive and appealed to the people are first of all the setting of a place (heritage, waterfronts and green spaces etc) and different type of facilities for different activities which includes cultural resources, sport facilities, festivals and different type of occasional events. These attractions are backed by many other facilities available in the urban areas includes hospitality sector, shopping facilities and street markets. This backed up group of facilities added to the value of the urban tourist experience. In many cities shopping is considered as a main reason for the tourism as the opportunities are immense there. In USA the Mall of America in Minneapolis gained a main position and become one of the markets of shopping tourism.

Some cities contain historical material which could be used as an opportunity to develop the tourism based on cultural grounds. The city trip market for the cultural and shopping tourism is on the growth and is linked together. Learning about the history and seeing of landmarks and discovering of interesting architecture has become of the main reason for the tourists attractions and cities are full of these type if things so there is a growing trend of tourism in the urban areas.

Attraction for tourists to the urban areas

There many reasons why tourists gets attracted to a destination. Most popular among the number of the reasons are as under (Ruetsche, Judith. 2006):-

Landmarks

When a visitor planes to visit a place the first thing comes in mind is the speciality and trade mark of that place. Now days with advanced technology and technique there are many wonders in the urban areas which attract many people around the world. These lank marks include monuments, beaches or seafronts, bridges like London Bridge, London wheel, Eiffel Tower etc. A popular tourist’s attraction in Paris, France is the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. Almost 7 million visit the tower each year. So there are many landmarks available in urban areas for tourists.

b. High media profile

Media plays an important role to attract people to a particular destination. A tourism destination that is popular in the media is attracted by the tourists. As Bahamas, Bangkok, Hawaii, Brighton has good media coverage and popular destinations among the tourists.

c. Hotels and resorts

One of the main concerns for the tourist is the accommodation during the trip. In this manner cities have many high quality options. Urban areas are full of attractive, smart and comfortable accommodations. Hotels, rests houses and resorts of different category are available in cities which one can choose according to his/her financial strength. For residence urban areas offer many recreational and leisure opportunities.

d. Transport

For deciding a tourism destination it is important to find the mean of transport. Tourist prefers that destination with easy air, rail and road transportation facilities. Urban areas have good air, rail and transports links and good roads to drive own transport. That’s why urban areas are popular among the tourists.

e. Entertainment

More entertainment is available in urban areas. Seasonal festivals, concerts, events such as cycle race, marathons and exhibitions are some of the very popular reason why tourists chose urban areas to visit. Tourist choose London to visit as they celebrate New Year night on London Bridge, Exhibitions at Olympia etc

f. Shopping

There are more shipping centres and variety available in the urban areas. All big brands are based in the urban areas. It attracts tourism as they love to do expensive shopping when they are travelling. It also make continent for them if their required stuff is easily available. In London Oxford street and Regent’s street are worldwide famous for shopping.

Business Tourism

Convention is a type of meeting where people gathered to discuss the common interests as said by Nagle (1999). One of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism industry is the national and local level business tourism which has become an important market. This section of tourism industry includes incentives, conventions, exhibitions and meetings. Business is not like business travel. Business tourism consists of the trips taken for the purpose of attending meetings, conferences and events etc. mostly business travel is conducted by the individual businesses which is difficult to track (Jafari, 1974).

Business tourists’ area much more interested in the new experiences. The UK business tourism is becoming very important and successful. Similarly South Africa is also a place where business tourism is on height and rowing with the passage of time.

The city of Brighton

Brighton situated on the south coast of England as a unitary authority area. This city was established when two towns were joined together. Brighton forms part of the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation, the 12th largest conurbation in the United Kingdom. On south coast there is very little or no gap between these two large towns (Carder, 1990).

Brighton is one of the most exciting, extraordinary and enchanting seaside city in Britain. It is an important commercial, educational, tourist, residential and conference centre on the coast of Sussex. It is serving as a conference destination from over 30 years. For the purpose of the meeting destination it depends on the repeat business. During 2007 90% of the business was the repeat business and most of which was of conference.

According to Mawer and Stenton (2006), Brighton information enquirers are likely to be female, aged between 25 and 55 with no children. They came out mostly for relaxing, having fun and getting away and usually come in couples and groups. Number of younger people is more in peak season whereas it greater among older visitor in the off-peak. The reason for coming in off peak season could be for specific attractions and events..

Landmarks

Brighton and Hove have many landmarks as recognition. Some of them are as follows. Birdcage’ Bandstand,Brighton Pier, Chattri memorial, Devil’s Dyke, Mazda fountain, Peace Statue, Preston Manor, Queen Victoria Memorial, Royal Pavilion, Royal Pavilion Indian Gate, Sea Life Centre, Victoria Fountain, Old Steine, Volks Electric Railway, War Memorial, Old Steine, West Pier (BBC, 2006).

Churches and places of worship

Religion is one of the important factors for any type of activity. Tourists are also so much concern about this. According to Jedi census phenomenon, 2.6 per cent people claimed that their religion was Jedi Knight (Office for national statistics, 2001). In this regard Brighton has many historical churches and buildings for tourist’s attractions. The “Mother Church” is one of the oldest buildings of the 11th century also known as St Nicholas Church. The two main churches are large brick-built St Bartholomew’s, and St Peter’s which located in the heart of Brighton and hove on an island between the Lewes Road and the London Road.

Beaches

Brighton’s beach is one of the famous beach of UK and has been awarded a blue flag. The seafront has lot many attract for the tourists. In Brighton the seafront has many restaurants, bars, amusement arcades and nightclubs. Being near to the London it become a very popular destination for the tourists. There is also Ohso Social which is now transformed into bar and restaurant (Selwyn, 2006).

Cultural cornucopia of Brighton arts and entertainment

Brighton is considered as one of the most cultural cities in the Europe. Brighton offers a lot of entertainment through festivals, galleries, film, theatre, museum and nightlife etc. a unique choice of drama, music, opera, dance, literature and outdoor activities make a Brighton a cultural cornucopia for the tourists (Andrews and Crisfield, 2006).

Opera and ballet at the Brighton Dome and many art exhibitions at galleries and Museums offer an extraordinary type of cultural attractions. So Brighton is full of cultural goodies which have a strong attraction for the tourists and many tourists came here to observe the cultural events of the Brighton.

Festivals

There are many festivals occurred at Brighton and they are occasionally such as the May is considered as one of the time of festival in the Brighton. This is the month of the festivals, funfairs and truly a festival fever. One should not miss this month and it has a great deal of attractions for the tourists.

There are number of festivals some are as follows:

Brighton Festival (1-23 May) is a festival has a great deal of attraction for the tourists. The festivals includes dance, music, debate, outdoor events, theatre which has a great deal of attractions for the tourists (Browne, 2007). There are 77 million paintings, an exclusive sound installation in various public places around the city.

Brighton Festival fringe (1-23 May 2010) offers mind blowing events. Its has a variety of events in it such as classical, dance, comedy, theatre, film, kids, literature, events, music, visual arts nightlife, tours, and many free events. One should not miss the mix of music, animation, dance and physical comedy as it is worth to see all this (McPherson, 2001).

The Great Escape (13, 14, 15 May 2010) is the festival which offers access to 300 new local and international artists in 34 venues over 3 days. It is one of the Europe’s leading festivals for new music. The festival also offers afternoon shows, after parties, talks and music industry seminars and over 300 of the world’s best new bands perform here (Quinn, B. 2005).

Theatre

One of the great buildings of Grade II in the heart of cultural quarter is the Brighton Theatre Royal. It offers the brilliant programs and theatre shows throughout the year. Brighton Theatre Royal offers the best theatrical line-up along the South Coast (Nagle, 1999).

Brighton Komedia and Pavilion Theatre are also the great theatre of the Brighton and among this Brighton Komedia is the award winning. It gives entertainment to all taste of the people.

Tourist information
History and heritage

According to Bate (1983), Prince Regent (Late King George IV) had his first trip to Brighton in 1783, from that time, the wonderful seaside palace, the royal spectator area having Indian domes and mosque towers and its Chinese style interior in it that becomes a mile stone which cannot be missed by the people. And because of prince influence, some of the Regency architecture can be found in Brighton.

The dazzling view of sea side can be given by Palmeira squares, Adelaide Crescent and the Beautiful Brunswick which open elegantly against the still lawns of Hove. When the people visit the Regency town house or elegant Preston Manor, it gives you the cultured atmosphere of an Edwardian gentry’s home, which make the tourist to enjoy some traditional and modern seaside entertainment on the Victorian Palace Pier (Andrews and Crisfield, 2006).

If the tourist wants to have a pleasant walk along the new-look beachfront, they can have this pleasant time with the town called fishing town which has the resort’s celebration history with Artists’ Quarter and Fishing Museum.

Accommodation

According to Ruetsche (2006), Brighton has variety of places to stay. Following are the famous place for accommodation in Brighton those attract the tourist.

Colson House

In the Colson house, the tourist can find that it is the centre of Brighton and it is walk able to everywhere. Colson house has eight rooms which are all themed around movie icons. In these rooms, there are four posters and they have the wonderful balcony. These all are en-suite.

The Claremont

Instinctive and prudent level of customer service with wonderful, comfortable, graceful and stylish rooms can give the tourist a superior experience of stay. This hotel has awarded by Visit Britain for city’s first 5 star grading for its great accommodation for its guest. Moreover, this hotel has the license for civil partnership and weddings. They have extra offers for the families even like kids can go free and they do not charge extra for extra beds or extra breakfasts.

Brighton House

Brighton is famous for its friendly atmosphere, where the customers comfort comes first for them. It is situated in the heart of Brighton and its fully non smoking. It is about 200 year old and listed on Regency hotel of character as 4 Star grade II star. It is in the Regency Square, which is one of the Brighton’s main seafront square facing towards the west pier. This hotel is only on the three minute walk from the main conference centre, shopping centre and main attractions. There is NCP underground car park in the square as well. This hotel has highly refurbished double, single, twin and triple rooms which has all the luxury facilities with original fireplaces and elaborated moulding in many rooms. Most of the rooms are having antique furniture to maintain its former beauty. This hotel is recently been awarded as 4 Red Star which makes this hotel as 10% of the 4 Star hotel of the country.

Transportation

Public transport started from 1840. In Brighton there are some railway stations, bus services, taxis and coach services. From last few years, rapid transport system is under consideration, in the past Brighton has trolley busses, hydrofoil services, ferries and trams (Carder, 1990).

There are regular trains operating from Brighton station towards London. Many people travel from Brighton to London so they have the destinations like London Bridge, London Victoria and Gatwick Airport; it also has the trains to Bedford. Worthing, Portsmouth and Southampton in the west are the stations which are served by the lines west and via Lewes to Newhaven, Eastbourne, Hastings and Ashford, Kent in the east are served by the lines east from Brighton station. A wider range of long distance destinations was closed by 2007-2008 because of the rationalization which made the services end via Kensington Olympia and Reading and beyond to Milton Keynes, Birmingham and Manchester. There is service on the line west to Bristol which operates twice a day.

Shopping

The main and popular activity of the tourist is shopping in the Brighton and Hove. Like Brighton is multinational, it is the same with the shopping; the tourist can call it cosmopolitan city. Brighton has around 2000 shops which has the variety which the tourist can match with the largest cities; specialists shops are near old town and north Laine areas which are the main part of the attractions for the tourists. Half of the shops are located in the main centre around Western road and the outdated Churchill Square (Ashworth and Dietvorst 1995).

The romantic charm of the Lanes and the excitement of North Laine to the New Churchill Square have the stylish indoor shopping mall in the city centre. High street stores is mix of animated stuff and specialist are having the shops selling the stunning array of interesting. With the shopping centres there are many cafes, bars pubs and restaurants also. There are wonderful selection of theatres, cinemas, concerts and cabaret which are in the one square mile only. The tourist can cover all this in one day (Ruetsche, 2006).

Sport and leisure

If the tourist is fond of sports, there are some of the sports places as well like windsurfing, hire a Jet Ski or water slides at King Alfred’s Leisure centre. There is county cricket, horse, football and greyhound racing and world class windsurfing championships which can be enjoyed as spectators. The tourists can go mountain biking and walking also.

Seafront

There is lots of experience for the tourists, as this area has the different character as it is different to the central seafront of Brighton. The open Hove lawns, the wide promenade and small number of outdoor cafes and well preserves beach huts symbolize the seafront of Brighton. But this section is less commercialised as compared to the central Brighton section, as it has less facilities and less cafes around the seafront for the tourists. Main cafes of this area are on actual seafront Promenade and on the backdrop to the seafront has the stunning Brunswick Terrace which is well known.

Current and future business prospective for Brighton

SWOT analysis is done to study examine the key facts both internal and external. Internal includes strengths and weaknesses while external includes opportunities and threats. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Kotler, 1996). It is very helpful in identifying the critical areas.

Here are some of the City’s key strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. SWOT analysis provides the baseline for the explicit actions must be taken care during the formulation of Strategy.

Strengths:

Its world-class architecture and heritage which includes Royal Pavilion and outstanding culture are one of the key strengths of the city. Quality accommodation, shopping, dining, successful conferences and business tourism market are also its key strengths. Its new and liberal culture also benefits it in this regard. The closeness of sea and so much attraction in its Sussex hinterland is also one of the tourist’s attractions.

Weaknesses:

There are many times when the supply of hotel and restaurants exceeds its demand. This is because of the lack of ability of local business man who are not able to invest in the maintenance and improvement of their business and staff. It is a big challenge for the city to remain attractive for the visitors who came there for business purpose. The engineering work sometimes becomes problematic for the visitors who are unaware of the work. Visitors often complain for parking.

Opportunities:

The established and growing overseas markets are the reason of the increased interests of the people in the cities and there is enough room for the Brighton to make arrangement to attract more and more visitors. There are number of developments could be done in Brighton to attract people during the Olympics 2010.

The building of Downs the future national park close to the city is an advantage for Brighton. The heritage of a city as a spa should be used as a medium to attract more and more visitors.

Threats:

The destination has its official website (www.visitbrighton.com) which is working successfully and attracting many visitors. However the competition is too much and there are many more destination websites available on net for the visitors and that can spoil these efforts to attract the targeting prospective visitors. Some of the competitors of Brighton are larger in scale and have a large private investment. So it is a great threat for the destination to attract the visitors.

This industry is highly dependent on the economic condition and the discretionary spending habits of the people. There is another threat for the development of this sector that is local skilled worker. During the Brighton Centre re-development this must be kept in mind that the tourism business of the city should be maintained as before.

Conclusion

Tourism has become an industry on which many countries are dependent. Now a day’s tourism has changed its dimension from rural to urban side. The number of urban visitors is increasing day by day. There are many things in urban areas which attract the people to the cities. Brighton is the city has so many attractions for the tourists and it offers number of events, places, festivals and many different occasions to the tourists. It has a great deal of attractions such as historical places, seafront, and theatre etc. Brighton is a treasure trove of things to do and places to go. It is really a unique place to visit, its vibrant, fun and free and colourful, also offers the energy of the city and the freedom of the sea. In this competitive world there is a need of highlighting the things that make the city unique and there is need to develop specific experiences for the visitor. There is need to improve the current perception of the city. In spite of these challenges the Brighton is a great tourist spot for the visitors and has lot to visit this place.

One of the most crucial areas within the literature is how power plays a part in the development of tourism. The specific balances of power determine how tourism can be developed in a region, and whether this is an indigenously motivated process or part of a neo-colonialist agenda. Butler and Hinch (2007:308-309) point out that power is usually not evenly distributed within most regions, and that political power and economic power determine how tourism develops. For example, in Australia the Aboriginal people are encouraged to engage in tourism development, yet they have little say in how this development occurs, and they have few means to access their specific cultural images or representations. Whilst this shows the inequality in power, the work does not show what the consequences of this are. It shows that non-indigenous people do not often have control over tourism development, but not what the agenda of the non-indigenous culture is. Also, this is a specific case involving indigenous and non-indigenous peoples in one country, rather than one region lacking control over their tourism strategies in light of influence from foreign organisations.

However, this argument is a good starting point because it is from such economic and political inequalities that tourism as neo-colonialism occurs. From the 1960’s onwards, tourism was seen as a great moderniser that could improve the prospects of developing countries. However, because these developing countries often did not have the means to develop this industry themselves, the resources and expertise of developed countries made it possible. This also meant the developed countries set the agenda for development, focusing on what would be a good model for a developed country in Europe, for instance. This, as stated by Hughes (in Lew, Hall and Williams, 2004:498-499) can be used as a way for developed countries to maintain control over developing nations and maintain the need for their dependency on developed countries. However, this does not adequately explain whether this type of neo-colonial development was short-lived, or whether it still continues today. Also, it looks at the problem only from whether tourism itself in this form is useful for the destination region, rather than the intertwined relationship of all regions involved tourism activities.

The point being missed here is that it is logical for many tourism initiatives to be influenced and determined by the needs of those outside the destination region. Whilst local tourism is one concern, it is a small concern when compared to the possible economic advantages of attracting tourists from developed countries. As Akama (in Hall and Tucker, 2004:140-141) points out, this is certainly the case in the development of safari tourism in Africa. It was initially created during the colonial era, and is still influenced by the power structures that existed at this time. This was certainly necessary in terms of the development of tourism as foreign investment was required. However, what is crucial here is that this neo-colonial influence means that whilst tourism meets the needs of those from developed countries, so the revenues generated often do not remain within the destination market, and so no development past this tourism is easily possible whilst there is such a reliance on the developed countries.

How this is interpreted really depends on the specific levels of empowerment being discussed. Church and Coles (2007:205) say there are three types of empowerment – national, local and personal. If we are talking about national empowerment, then tourism does suffer from neo-colonial influence. This is because national economies in many developing countries remain dependent on specifically Western-centric forms of tourism and its development. However, the influence is perhaps less obvious at local and personal level. Tourism provides work and jobs, which can help individuals move away from previous levels of poverty. It can also revitalise an area and provide new facilities for locals. However, this is very much dependent on the type of tourism being developed and the specific economic level of locals versus the facilities being created. What is clear here is that even though tourism at a national level can be deemed neo-colonial in many areas, this does not mean the neo-colonial influence reaches down to create negative consequences at the local or personal levels.

However, according to Richards and Hall (2003:27) it is likely that negative neo-colonial influence can extend to the local or personal level, particularly if the type of tourism pays little attention to traditional culture and its values. Also, where tourism occurs in only some regions within a country, it adversely affects other regions. As money is invested in one region, another region can suffer and gain more power. This leads to unequal development, and also could leave locals with a choice between living in an area where their traditional cultures are eroded but money is available, or living where traditions are maintained but investment is not forthcoming. However, this still does not examine whether current tourism practices are specifically neo-colonial. It only shows that in its most extreme form, neo-colonial tourism can have a negative impact at all levels and can maintain power inequalities, despite the seeming economic advantages on the surface.

This idea of pervasive neo-colonialism in tourism is reinforced by Mowforth and Munt (2008:56-57). They explain that countries such as Fiji, despite political independence, remain neo-colonialist economies because their continued stability and prosperity depend upon tourism from Western countries. This means further development has to take into account these needs, and also helps to maintain previous colonial spatial structures because they are best suited for the needs of the market that remains so important to the country. Whilst this certainly seems to the consensus when it comes to many developing countries that depend on tourism, the focus is perhaps too much just on the economic impacts rather than the potential impacts that neo-colonialism through tourism could have on race, culture and class.

For example, Crick (1994:65) points out a study by Mendis (1981) that suggests the nature of tourism in Sri Lanka has led to a culture of servility that risks creating a generation of butlers. This wipes away cultural traditions and places racial inequalities between the tourists who are ‘served’ and the locals who ‘serve’ them. In order to continue bringing in tourists, these countries have to hide other inequalities and poverty, thereby potentially making these problems worse down the line and tacitly helping to maintain the stereotypes and inequalities between developed countries and the destination region. This again shows that neo-colonial tourism has, at least in the past and possibly still now, occurred. However, what is the overall level of tourism as neo-colonialism, and are there different approaches to tourism than the neo-colonialist approach?

One area that could be described as a response or antidote to neo-colonial tourism is the increasing growth of the independent traveller. These are people who do not tend to visit regular tourist destinations, and do not seek out established tourist structures. These individuals believe they are not contributing to the inequalities that are seen through major tourist development, but in fact such inequalities are often inescapable. As tourists move away from one tourist area to independently travel, new lines of tourism are inevitably formed. Also, by attempting to control or decide exposure to tourist facilities, the traveller is inadvertently contributing to decisions about the development of certain areas. For example, some boatmen and guides in India have licenses that restrict the areas they can go with tourists. This means tourists have greater access and mobility within the destination environment than the local guides – another example of inequality, even when it is merely an effort to potentially allow a less neo-colonial tourist experience. Furthermore, it is this idea of First World tourist determining the agenda to the Third World that contributes to inequalities, no matter the form of tourism being developed (Lozanski, 2008:31-33).

This is perhaps the biggest problem -that the entire debate is only focused on the flow of mobility, education, economics and decision-making in one direction. For example, the tourist situation in Jamaica is often looked at from the negative neo-colonial standpoint, where large foreign hotel chains such as RIU Hotels mean that much of the money generated through tourism leaves Jamaica and ends up back in Western countries (Dei, 2006: 200). Even though this is a valid criticism, it only looks at the situation from one side. It does not take into account the desires and needs of the Jamaican people, and whether or not having these hotels that remove revenue from the economy is any worse than having no industry at all. It is not specifically that revenue is removed, but how this decision is made. If it is developed as part of an indigenously-led tourism model, then it cannot be seen to be totally negative. This is not studied enough in the literature, and the literature does not look at the underlying decision-making processes of countries in terms of tourism development.

For example, it should not be assumed that just because an area is developed to meet tourists’ needs and some elements of traditional culture removed that this is going to have a negative impact on the local population or that it is unwanted. This is only our perception from the Western-centric perspective that it is unwanted. Maintenance of traditional culture is not always desired by locals, and in fact its maintenance may be antithetical to other types of growth. For example, in Beijing, China, many of the traditional hutong streets and residences are being replaced with newer high-rise buildings and commercial buildings. Whilst some bemoan the loss of this culture, it can provide better accommodation and facilities to locals who lived in these old areas, and can provide much-needed jobs and activities for a growing middle class (Kuhn, 2006).

Not all tourism is controlled by international corporations and their influence over the destination region. Local and nationally-controlled tourism initiatives perform differently to neo-colonial tourism, and can potentially empower and help a nation to grow. This is of course shown in developed countries most readily, where locally controlled tourism helps preserve aspects of culture that are deemed locally important, as well as helping regions to develop and move closer together. However, it is less obvious and prevalent in developing countries. More research is required here, outside of the few specific examples that are generally cited to show how local tourism initiatives in developing countries are providing an alternative to the neo-colonial model (Theobald, 1998:69).

The issue is that any adverse effect from tourism or any specifically capitalist market-driven decision in tourism is often seen as neo-colonialism in practice, but in fact the deeper roots of the decision need to be looked at rather than merely the outcomes. Local tourism initiatives may take advantage of capitalist structures for tourism development and specifically cater development to the needs of those from developed countries as well as their own people. It is therefore important to focus on the specific underlying influence of certain power structures on tourist decisions around the world, and this will give a clearer picture as to the true prevalence of neo-colonialism within tourism (Sharma, 2004:66-67).

It must not be seen that changes within a country due to tourism are specifically because of neo-colonialism, or that tourism is merely the yoke that replaces colonialism in many countries. Whilst this is certainly true is some areas, it is also true that change occurs naturally and that tourism, whether influenced by foreign corporations or not, is a lucrative business (Mowforth and Munt, 2008:49).

However, the real test for neo-colonial influence is whether these changes from tourism and the way tourism has developed is down to local needs and wishes, or whether it is purely created by undue influence from large foreign corporations. It could well be argued though that there is a thin line between the inequalities that inevitably emerge from a neo-liberal market due to the economic and political inequalities between the developing and developed world and the direct influence of neo-colonialism on tourism. Both can lead to negative consequences for developing countries, even though the decision-making processes might be quite different (Jamal and Robinson, 2009:154-155).

In conclusion, the literature review shows that tourism has and continues to be a neo-colonial activity in at least some areas of the world, and that this has likely led to negative effects for developing countries. However, there are certainly gaps in the literature in terms of how much of tourism is based on neo-colonial ideals, and no real mention of tourism in developed countries, which contributes a lot to tourism and obviously is generally not seen as neo-colonial in nature. However, even if merely focusing on developing countries, there is a lack of information about the root causes for decisions in these areas, and too much of a focus on negative outcomes that perhaps have more to do with general economic inequalities rather than the prevalence of neo-colonialism in tourism.

The next section will attempt to look at ways in which theoretical frameworks and research methods can be used to fill the gaps in this research and come to a conclusion about the extent to which tourism is a neo-colonial activity.

Methodology

For this paper, primary research was initially considered as a method, but was dismissed because of the difficulty of access to potential participants. Much of the focus of tourism as neo-colonialism has to be on developing countries, which immediately makes data collection more difficult. Also, in light of potential conflicts of interest between workers within tourism industries in these developing countries and those that employ them makes primary research not viable for this specific topic.

Therefore, secondary research is the most logical design for this paper. This also follows on from the findings of the literature review, which identified a number of gaps in the research as well as areas of research that can be examined in greater detail using various theoretical frameworks. This methodology section will outline the various secondary research methods that will be used, how these fit in with the literature review findings and what they can bring to the discussion on the prevalence of tourism as a neo-colonial activity.

The first important thing to remember is to avoid misreading the extent of neo-colonialism by being stuck within the perspective of neo-colonialism as the entire framework for the research. The study must not merely be conducted from the viewpoint of the First World, and must look at how both roots of decision-making within tourism and outcomes are perceived from the perspective of developing countries. We must also look at the way in which those tourists from developing countries flow into other developing countries and developed countries, as this will help us to understand the bigger picture when it comes to tourism and its activities. In order to avoid making snap judgements about the nature of tourism, the scope of analysis needs to be broadened and a multi-perspective approach adopted. This is of course challenging, and it is difficult to avoid Western-centric thinking at times. However, it is only by using this method that the true motivations for tourism activity around the world can be understood. As Ateljevic, Pritchard and Morgan (2007:24-26) explain, this is known as ‘de-centrising the tourism universe’.

This is important as a methodological basis for the further research, because the literature review identifies the fact that many sources focus only on the problem from a Western perspective, particularly when espousing the problems of neo-colonialism. For example, many of the definitions or examples of neo-colonialism focus on the way in which Western countries such as the US took advantage of countries such as Cuba as their ‘playground’, and that this was detrimental to the country. This does not take into account the perspective of Cuba, and also the other political aspects that led to negative outcomes in the region – reasons that are far wider than merely the Western influence on the tourism industry (Jafari, 2003:122).

However, taking a broader approach does not mean ignoring specific case studies and examples that could shed light on the nature of tourism in developing countries, particularly as it stands now. Whilst it should be left to those in these countries to decide what aspects of their culture are authentic or changeable, it can clearly be seen in areas such as the Caribbean that, economically at least, tourism is still dominated by the predominantly white and Western corporate influence. For example, most hotel managers in the region are still expatriates, with only lower positions being held by locals. This may not be a deliberate example of neo-colonialism as it may genuinely be that this is the best way to make the business successful. However, it is surely an area that needs exploring and greater understanding given to how these unequal structures arise – and if they are indeed only a small problem or part of a larger problem of Western dominance over these industries (Bennett, 2005:15-17).

This is why case study methodology is important in this paper. There are many existing case studies already evident, but as mentioned many of them do not take forward this multi-perspective approach to understand the decision-making within tourism and how this reduces or increases potential inequalities, and whether or not these inequalities are directly part of neo-colonial practice or for other reasons. Tourism is a process, which unless there is an obviously dominant hegemony at work, requires a look at the complex flow of global ideas, people and capital. As global trends change, so case studies must look at the current situation and not merely stick to preconceived notions of inequality (Salazar, in Richards and Munsters, 2010:188).

The case study approach can be an initial entry into understanding some specific examples of tourism activity in various countries, and then different trends or patterns can be identified in order to start forming a more general and overall understanding of the pervasiveness of neo-colonialism within tourism. The case study is useful here as well because it is less important to understand the outcomes of decision-making, because these can be negative or positive no matter the influence. Instead, it is important, through a multi-perspective approach, to understand the root decision-making within tourism around the world, and this will determine whether tourism is merely serving a neo-colonial agenda or whether it is actually a complex global process that is influenced by foreign and local actors in different ways, leading to different outcomes in different areas rather a definite neo-colonial dominance (Beeton, in Ritchie, Burns and Palmer, 2005:37-40).

There are many good examples of potential case studies that can be analysed and used to build up this wider picture that do not necessarily just fit into the traditional model of viewing a tourist area from the position of Western dominance and developing world dependency. For example, Wearing and McDonald (2002:191) look at the role that intermediaries play in isolated rural communities in Papua New Guinea. This is not focusing on the outcomes of tourism, but looking at how different groups interact, and that it is possible through intermediaries for the tourist to be an equal part of a system rather than at its centre. This would suggest the potential for a power shift away from neo-colonialism, even if inequalities and certain negative outcomes may continue and wider issues of economic neo-colonialism continue. This means that tourism does not have to be specifically neo-colonial in nature, even if other inequalities persist for now.

Another good example is a study by Hasty (2002:47) that looks at tourism across Africa and the promotion of Pan-Africanism. This study focuses on tourism in Ghana that is controlled by those within the country and developed to promote more unity within Africa. The problem here is that various different agendas mean that tourist events to promote Pan-Africanism remove discussion of potential differences and contradictions. In this sense it is not merely a problem of neo-colonialism, but wider concerns between a variety of actors and the careful balancing act between culture, politics and economic interests.

Finally, for tourism as neo-colonial activity and its extent to be understood, current research should be understood in light of the global post-colonial landscape. This fits in with the multi-perspective approach previously mentioned, as it goes beyond the initial attempts to ‘correct’ neo-colonialism that themselves could lead to colonial inequalities. For example, appealing to sustainable tourism as a means to combat neo-colonialism could exacerbate the problem because the agenda and demands for sustainability would be set by the developed countries once again, and did not necessarily take into account the needs to the destination regions. The post-colonial framework goes beyond this to look at the situation from all perspectives rather than the previous ideal of trying to solve the inequalities created from neo-colonialism and colonialism before this (Carrigan, 2010:202-203).

For example, if we look at the case of tourism in the West Indies in a post-colonial sense, we can see many of the previous inequalities that may have been associated with neo-colonialism. These inequalities could be viewed as part of neo-colonialism if viewed from one perspective or not adequately analysed. Rich West Indian minority elites have taken charge of some parts of the tourism industry, and are exhibiting similar dominance and influence to previous neo-colonial influence. However, as the inequalities in this sense shift and neo-colonialism becomes less of an issue, the negative effects on many of the local population remain. Further, these new leaders within the market can move into the international market, and therefore a greater interactive phase of tourism begins where flows of money and influence come from developing countries as well as to developing countries (Laws, Faulkner and Moscado, 1998:231-232).

It is also likely that the definition of neo-colonialism will need to alter as globalisation continues and companies become more global in their outreach and ideals. Multinationals may then be as entwined in the destination region as their previous region of origin, or the multinational may indeed originate in the destination region. This alters how these companies are able to influence tourism, and also how they positively or negatively influence tourism. What was previously a one-way relationship will develop into a complex dialogue between consumers, employees, companies and both local and national governments to determine how tourism develops and where its interests lie (Page and Connell, 2006:467).

It may be that neo-colonialism only exists in its most extreme form in specific types of tourism that are already of an exploitative nature, such as sex tourism. These forms of tourism are unequal because of the very nature of the activity, but these forms of tourism are slowly being removed and reduced in the post-colonial world as all actors within the tourist industry begin to deem them unacceptable. However, it is hard to completely remove these problems due to greater issues of economic inequality outside of the tourist industry (Bauer and Holowinska, 2009:6).

Overall, the approach to the research needs to be multi-perspective, focused on a wide variety of case studies in order to build up a picture of the current status of tourism. Most importantly, it needs to be set within the post-colonial context and the questions to be answered determined by the subjects rather than the researcher. This will give a view of tourism as neo-colonialism that is not already mired in neo-colonialist thought (Belsky, in Phillimore and Goodson, 2004:286).

The discussion section of the dissertation will use these methods to analyse the topic, and then the following conclusion section will summarise these findings and further recommendations for research.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the main findings in this paper are:

There is still a clear economic imbalance between the First World and Third World, which is caused by a variety of factors including First World hegemony and the effects of colonialism and neo-colonialism.

The Western, developed nations still dominate the tourist market, mainly due to their economic superiority. Cultural changes are less of an issue than they were during the colonial era, but economic dominance can still undermine destination cultures. Developing countries still need the money in the form of investment to build up tourist markets, and this allows Western countries to dictate terms, including the flow of money back to developed countries through multinational companies and the use of expatriate staff over local staff. This is not simply a matter for tourism however, and is a problem in almost all economic sectors. In tourism the problem is no worse, and in fact in many ways it is more of a closed system. The benefits of tourism often go to Western countries, but in general these are the countries that fuel demand. Sometimes this neo-colonialism shows itself within the tourist industry, leading to inequalities and negative outcomes for developing countries.

Not all negative outcomes within tourism are due to neo-colonialist factors, and not all neo-colonialist factors within tourism lead to negative outcomes, particularly when looked upon from national, local and personal levels.

Tourism as neo-colonialism does keep developing countries dependent on developed countries, particularly if tourism is a large part of their GDP. However, not all factors should be considered negative, because it is not just tourism that keeps developing countries dependent on developed countries. Overall economic and political inequalities also contribute, as do internal problems within developing countries such as poor management, lack of resources, wars and political instabilities. Tourism, even when dominated by foreign companies, does provide much-needed jobs that may not otherwise be available, and can help to maintain political stability in countries because of the needed revenues from tourism.

Also, not all tourism that is locally influenced is positive. It can still be exploitative between different regions or ethnic groups, and can do as much damage to culture and the environment as neo-colonial tourism.

Much of the research is too focused on outcomes and the potential ways to ‘solve’ neo-colonialist problems within tourism.

Outcomes are not the main focus here. The focus should be on the initial decision-making process, because this is where influence and inequalities are most keenly felt. Currently, the research that condemns neo-colonialism only further imbeds it because it is too Western-centric and does not understand the differences between what might reverse foreign influence and what is actually wanted and accepted by the destination countries.

Instead, a post-colonial, multi-perspective approach shows that whilst neo-colonialism in tourism still persists, global flows of money and information are changing, and with it so is tourism.

The world has changed in the last fifteen years or more with the rapid development of technology and the internet. This has globalised society to some extent and has allowed information flows to go in different directions for the first time. For instance, the Chinese are a growing influence on world tourism, both in terms of China as a destination and its growing wealthy class as tourists travelling around the world. These sorts of developments therefore need to be looked at from different perspectives, and not just from the previously established perspective of tourism as a neo-colonialist activity. Whilst economic inequalities allow developed-country dominance to continue, this does not mean that tourism flows are not altering or that First-World businesses that are involved in other countries are unwelcome or having a negative impact.

Tourism, whilst still showing the inequalities within the rest of society, is slowing beginning to move away from neo-colonial practices.

Global inequalities will continue, but tourism is seeing some change. As citizens from developed countries become more aware of other cultures their demands for tourism change. Also, as developing countries continue to change and develop and their cultures alter, their own capabilities and needs change. The flow of money and information is no longer one-way, and this means that not only will developing countries have a say in their own tourism markets, but they will become the future patrons of other tourist markets in both developed and developing countries. This will all move tourism further away from being a solely neo-colonial practice.

In relation to conclusion 3, further research should move away from outcomes-based examinations of the tourist industry when looking at influences on tourism, and instead focus on decision-based analyses. It is in the area of decision-making that influence and inequalities most likely come out. If negative or positive outcomes arise from these decisions is certainly important, but if the decision is not heavily influenced by multinational corporations under the guise of neo-colonialism, then regardless of the outcomes these tourist activities cannot be said to be neo-colonialist. Furthermore, analyses that focus on the roots of decision-making will give a better understanding of how tourist industries develop and change over time in the modern global society.

Based upon conclusion 4, further research should move away from the neo-colonial base as the start for analysis. Globalisation and the rise of larger developing countries such as China have created a truly post-colonial landscape where traditional measures of colonialism and neo-colonialism are less useful. Whilst rich-poor and 1st/3rd world inequalities still predominate, flows of tourism, influence and money are changing and becoming more complex. Merely trying to solve the previous neo-colonialist bias of tourism is not enough, because any analysis that starts on this basis will not take into account the status of the modern global society and the inevitable cultural changes in developing countries. It is important to conduct research from many perspectives, rather than the futile effort of trying to solve neo-colonialism by starting from a Western-centric perspective that is decidedly neo-colonialist in nature because it does not take into account the actual views and needs of those who supposedly need ‘saving’ from the dominance of Western society. We should not assume that they need saving, or that indeed if they do that we can be the ones to bring about this salvation.

Finally, based on conclusion 5, it is important for further research to conduct more in-depth studies of the global tourist market, and the flows of culture, influence and money that occur. Taking one country at a time is a good start to understand the basics of these flows, but it requires a global study, looking at the ways in which different actors interact with each other, in order to truly understand how the power balance currently sits and where it is likely to move towards in the coming decades.

Saudi Arabia is known to the world as the center of Islam and one of the very few countries in the world to have maintained Islamic law the sharia. According to the U.S department of state (2010) Saudi Arabia remained as an absolute monarchy until 1992, at which time the Saud royal family introduced the country’s first constitution based on the sharia. With an area of about 865,000 square miles, Saudi Arabia is roughly one-third the size of the continental United States, and the same size as all of Western Europe.

Saudi Arabia’s oil region and main source of wealth lies along the Persian Gulf. This oil-derived wealth allowed the country to provide free health care and education while not collecting any taxes from its people. At the time of World War II Saudi Arabia had one-third of all known oil reserves, but falling demand and rising production outside the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) endangered the country with domestic unrest and undermining its influence in the Gulf area. However, they swiftly recovered with a blossoming economy.

Standard of living is calculated by ranks, such as real income per person and poverty ranks. Measures such as access and quality of health care, income growth inequality and educational standards are also used. The best statistic for measuring standard of living is the same one the UN uses to measure the level of development of a nation. The human development index (HDI) which is used as an alternative to measuring GDP in order to determine the country’s well-being. The HDI provides a measure of the average three aspects of human development, living a long and healthy life, education and having a decent standard of living. According to the latest U.N human development report (2007) Saudi Arabia’s HDI value is .843. This denotes that Saudi Arabia ranks high on the human development index.

Other aspects taken into consideration when measuring the kingdom’s HDI are life expectancy rates, under 5 mortality rates, and literacy rate. According to the latest U.N human development report (2007) Saudi Arabia’s life expectancy rate is 72.7 years old. The under 5 mortality rate in Saudi Arabia is 21.27 deaths per 1,000 according to the World Bank (2008). In terms of literacy rate only 85% of Saudi Arabians are literate. The Saudi government is working on improving the literacy rate in Saudi Arabia. According to the latest U.N human development report (2009) Saudi Arabia’s GDP rank minus HDI rank is at -19 a negative number indicates that the HDI rank is lower than the GDP per capita (PPP US$) and that poverty is low in that country.

Gender inequality occurs on a daily bases in Saudi Arabia. According to Abdella (2010) the kingdom allows men to twice the inheritance that women are allowed. Women are required to have a guardian escort them for many of life’s daily tasks. Without the presence of a guardian, a woman cannot study, access health services, marry, travel abroad, have a business or even access an ambulance in an emergency. Saudi women do not have the right to drive. It is illegal for a woman to be in the company of a man who is not in her immediate family. Young women are still not allowed to study certain subjects, such as geology however it is indicated that women can travel abroad alone for studies .On the subject of polygamy, men are permitted by law to have up to four wives. Women do not have equal access to the courts or an equal opportunity to obtain justice. Abdella (2010) acknowledged that the government ought to evaluate laws and policies and revise basic Laws in order to ensure gender equality and exclude the discrimination of women.

In Saudi Arabia population growth is outpacing the economic growth and availability of services and infrastructure in the country. The CIA world fact book (2010) proved that by contrast to the U.S, Saudi Arabia experiences a high population growth rate of 1.85%. Saudi Arabia’s growth rate is lower than average developing countries, which is typically around 2.5%; but higher than the U.S 1% population growth rate. Due to its population Growth Issues Saudi Arabia is facing difficulties in providing jobs, water, food and energy to its indigenous young population and there is a widening gap between the ability of the economy to create jobs and the population growth rate.

A major difference between economic growth and human development is that economic growth focuses on the enlargement of income, while Human development focuses on enlarging all human options. According to United Nations human Development Program (2010) education, health, clean environment and material well being do not necessarily depend on income. Thus, the options available for improving people’s lives are inclined to the quality of economic growth in its wider sense, and the impact is by no means confined to quantitative aspects of such growth. The end goal of investment in human capital, in terms of health, education, nutrition and training, is to boost production and generate additional income.

Investments in physical infrastructure are a crucial attribute of Saudi Arabia’s current economic development drive. According to Hayward (2009) the kingdom seeks to reduce its reliance on the oil industry. Saudi Arabia announced a huge economic stimulus budget for 2009, allocating more money for education and an increase in public spending by 15.8 per cent. The Saudi Government plans to spend a tremendous amount of money on infrastructure projects in the next five years as the kingdom seeks to benefit from lower construction costs amid the global financial crunch.

The construction division will be motivated by the launch of six economic cities to be completed by 2020. According to Hayward (2009) these six new industrialized cities will diversify Saudi Arabia’s economy and are expected to amplify GDP. Projects currently underway in the Kingdom include two huge railway initiatives, which will boost trade and tourism networks. Work continues to expand in Saudi Arabia’s port network as the country contests with other Gulf States to offer a gateway to Middle East markets. With the expanding population growth issues the pressure is being put forth on the country’s utilities.

The Saudi agricultural sector is the second largest industry in the Kingdom. Saudi Arabia has achieved immense agricultural development, conquering the difficulties of scarce rain, meager subterranean water, limited local manpower and widely dispersed cultivatable lands. According to the CIA world fact book (2010) many individuals migrate to Saudi Arabia for employment. In 2009 only 6.75% of the population was employed in agriculture and 21.40% employed in the services. Agriculture has grown at an average annual rate of 8.7 percent since 1970 and accounts for more than 9.4 percent of Saudi Arabia’s GDP.

According to The Saudi network (2010) in order to maintain agriculture, the Saudi Government has built more than 200 dams to preserve rainwater, with storage capacity of 689 million cubic meters. In order to finance this development, the Saudi Agricultural Bank was established in 1964. It is a specialized agricultural bank; it extends long-term, interest-free loans to farmers and agricultural companies. According to The Saudi network (2010) the Saudi Government has also supplied seeds and saplings at nominal prices. It has afforded veterinary and agricultural guidance and plant protection services. Other measures include the purchase of strategic agricultural crops, such as wheat and barley at high prices, through the General Organization for Grain Silos and Flour Mills.

Public discussion about environmental issues has increased significantly throughout Saudi Arabia, Following a series of floods in the Kingdom. According to the Saudi network (2010) the most important environmental issue facing Jeddah is sewage. The estimates on the area of the city that is currently connected to the sewer pipes vary from 8-14%, with around 80% of houses using septic tanks. In recent years, the waste from the city’s septic tanks has been discarded in the Briman Sewage Lake, better known as Musk Lake centre. However, environmental and health anxiety following last year’s floods, coupled with a royal decree ordering the emptying of the lake, have prompted city officials to find alternate solutions. The use of percolating pits – septic tanks without a concrete bottom that allow sewage to drain into the ground led to soil and underground water contamination as well as a rise in the water table. The lack of a proper sewer system has created an ecological calamity. Global warming has also affected Saudi Arabia more than any other country recently. The temperature in Saudi Arabia has never allowed it to snow in Saudi Arabia. However, due to global warming it recently snowed in Saudi Arabia. Due to political conflict resulting from the wiki leaks incident the Saudi government is hesitant towards implementing environmental policies.

No country in the world will be spared from the effects of the financial crisis and resulting in a global recession. According to Bourland (2008) For Saudi Arabia, it has completely shifted the focus of economic policy from controlling inflation to restoring confidence in the financial sector. We see the following key implications for the Saudi economy. Oil prices will be significantly lower than previously anticipated and reduced production will exacerbate the impact on oil revenues. Finance for local and foreign companies doing business in the Kingdom will be less easily available and more expensive. According to Bourland (2008) economic growth will slow as problems accessing suitably priced financing and lower oil revenues delay project implementation and impair confidence. Lower oil revenues will mean the end to the huge budget and current account surpluses of recent years. Sharply lower commodity prices and a strengthening of the riyal will cause inflation to fall back rapidly over the next 12 months.

Due to corruption in Saudi Arabia, the Public choice theory would help improve Saudi Arabia. The Public choice theory is most effective when government agents are self interested and will not do things in the public interest and in situations where the government is corrupt. Public choice theory encourages minimized Government and maximized market in development strategies. Government policies in Saudi Arabia encourage gender, social, and educational inequality.

Corruption is perceived as significant. According to the index of economic freedom (2010) Saudi Arabia ranks 80th out of 179 countries in transparency. International’s Corruption Perceptions Index for 2008. The absence of transparency in government accounts and decision-making encourages a perception of corruption on the part of some members of the royal family and in the executive branch. Government procurement is an area of concern. Bribes, often disguised as commissions, are allegedly commonplace. Corruption is currently preventing Saudi Arabia from reaching its full economic potential. The less fortunate population of Saudi Arabia relies on paying off officials to get things done. Those without money are always left behind. Even wealthy citizens are affected by corruption due to the fact that they are unable to invest and expand their wealth.

Crime rates are very low in Saudi Arabia due to their extreme punishments set by sharia laws. Consequently, crime does not have a significant impact on Saudi Arabia’s economic development. The main problem pertaining to crime in Saudi Arabia is its transnational trafficking Issues. According to the result of the Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (2002) Saudi Arabia has become a destination country for workers from South and Southeast Asia who are allegedly subjected to involuntary servitude physical and sexual abuse, non-payment of wages, confinement, and withholding of passports as a restriction on their movement. Domestic workers are predominantly vulnerable because they are restricted to the house in which they work, without being able to seek help. According to the result of the Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (2002) Saudi Arabia is also a destination country for Nigerian, Yemeni, Pakistani, Afghan, Somali, Malian, and Sudanese children trafficked for forced begging and involuntary servitude as street vendors; some Nigerian women were reportedly trafficked into Saudi Arabia for commercial sexual exploitation

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. The national government consists of a Council of Ministers, headed by the King, who holds the post of the Prime Minister. Its absolute monocracy regime has helped increase corruption within Saudi Arabia. The kingdom would be a very poor country without its oil revenues. There is a definite need for economic diversification for economic diversification is Saudi Arabia. Inequality and corruption are also major economic setbacks for Saudi Arabia. Gender inequality and human right violations occur on a daily bases in Saudi Arabia. Unfortunately, the government uses whatever interpretation of the Quran that is convenient for them in order to justify their greed and human Right Violations.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 2 presents an outline of the tourism industry while emphasizing on the growing importance of the sector in the global economy to postulate the potential of the tourism industry. It emphasizes on country identity and country image. Hence, literature review is formulated to foster a theoretical framework for the premises of answering the research question.

A global perspective on the Tourism Industry

“Shorter working hours, greater individual prosperity, faster and less expensive travel, and the impact of advanced technology has all helped to make the leisure and tourism industry the fastest growing industry in the world” (Edgell, Sr., 1990).

Tourism has become a flourishing industry in the twentieth century, where destinations rely massively on their natural and manmade resources to build their tourism industry. Nowadays, it is viewed as a major element for economic development and growth. The tourism industry is seen as the most highly significant and integral part of any economy. It is also an industry which generates employment and foreign exchange earnings, Lim (1997) and Crouch (1996).

World Tourism Organization projected the international arrival by the year 2020 to be around 1.56 billion. Out of the projected number, intraregional number is expected to rise to 1,2 billion. Therefore, the projection for long haul travellers alone is estimated to reach 0.4 billion. Notably, statistics indicates that long haul travelers will increase at a rate of 5.4 percent yearly, between 1995 – 2020. This prediction for increase in long haul opens an avenue for distant destinations as Mauritius and others WTO (2006).

The figures above indicate that the tourism industry is a very promising one. However, to attract tourists to the destination, it is important to understand their psychology and buying attitudes so as to have a more precise marketing campaign that will attract them in the first instance itself. The literature that follows gives more insight on the topic.

Tourism in Mauritius

Mauritius is a subtropical island in the Indian Ocean, strategically positioned at the intersection of Africa and Asia, at 855 km east of Madagascar.

According to statistics Mauritius, Mauritius has welcomed 786,963 visitors from January to October 2013 against 765,578 travelers for the same calendar period in 2012.

The Bank of Mauritius, state that Gross tourism receipts for the first nine months of 2013 were at Rs 41,500 million. For 2014, tourism receipt is estimated to be Rs. 44,500 million.

Mauritius is a renowned destination for Quality Tourism- along with being exotic, safe, beautiful and peaceful; it has a unique combination of diverse cultures, well run hotels. All these have enable Mauritius to develop from nothing to become one among its main pillars.

Mauritius has a well established reputation for its tourism industry in the international tourism market. The next five most popular destinations for holidays, according to Travel and Leisure magazine, are Mauritius, New Zealand, Spain, South Africa and Norway. Mauritius is the only resort destination in this set. In addition, during the International Tourism Conclave & Travel Awards (ITCTA) held in Jaipur Rajasthan, on October 2013, Mauritius has also received the award for Best Destination Country.

Country identity versus country image

Since country identity is at the core of this dissertation, it is worthwhile to give an overview of the literature thereof. A destination has unique characteristics that enable it to differentiate itself in the international market. These unique features are called the country identity. Hence country image is formed by country identity.

Therefore, this section addresses and country identity cues and country image. It starts with an introduction of the theory of country image and country identity followed by the significant elements that build up a country’s image and ends by a discussion on the causes of image and tourist destination.

A good image and a positive reputation are probably the most valuable assets a country can possess. (Papadopoulos& Heslop, 2002:295)

Country Identity

According to Nworah (2004), Building the image of a country is the way through which a country is actively seeking to build a unique and competitive identity with the intention of positioning the country internally and externally as a good destination for trade, tourism and investment.

This identity is created based on the combination of exceptional factors of attractiveness that will enable it to be ahead of competitors, Moilanan and Rainisto, (2009). According to Buhalis (2000), these exceptional factors can characterize in the six A’s framework illustrated in the table below:

Table 1: Six A’s Framework for the analysis of tourism destinations

Source: (Buhalis (2000)

Main Components of Tourism Destinations

Attractions
Natural, man-made, artificial, purpose built, heritage, special events

Accessibility
transportation system, including routes, terminals and vehicles

Amenities
Accommodation, food and beverages facilities, retailing, and other tourists services

Available Packages
pre-arranged and tailor made holiday packages by intermediaries

Activities
all activities available at the destination and how tourists will keep themselves busy during their holiday

Ancillary Services
Services like banks, telecommunications, post, hospitals, etc

Elements of country identity

Elements of country identity are predominant and are stated to influence an individual’s `opinion of a country image that cannot be changed or manipulated for the purpose of place marketing.

The various aspects of country image that directly influences its image are discussed therein. However, for the purpose of this research, only few aspects of country identity, that directly impact on a destination’s image, are analyzed.

Country main factors

Country main factors describes various attributes of country identity, which are predominant and which are cited to impact on an individual’s perception of a country image and it cannot be changed or manipulated for the purpose of place marketing. The works within the theory are adopted from diverse sources like Beerli & Martin (2004), Kotler & Gerner (2002) Kotler et al. 1993, 121 – 135). Destinations– specific elements and their image significance are relatively obvious, because of the limitation of this research only few features of the country specific are addressed.

Personal factors

The image of a country is form based on the stereotypes that people hold on that place. Stereotypes of place or an image, develops over time and space and spread from the premises of the familiarity with illustrations of renowned people and knowledge of the products of a given country, etc. Because image is more of a personal interpretation, image that people have of a country differs from stereotypes. Hence, the image(s) that people have about the same place may vary depending on the individual’s own, wants, enthusiasm, prior knowledge and fondness (Beerli & Martin 2004, 653).

Personal factors can be classified as, psychological and social. Psychological factors have already been discussed in the consumer behavior section. Personal unique motivations, beliefs and personality, social aspects comprise of individual, educational achievements, age background and other social factors (Balogu & McCleary 1999, 870). Therefore, the attributes enumerated above, are said to affect a person’s assessment on any product, service and for the purpose of this research, a destination.

Geographical Location

When dealing with country image, the geographical location of the destination cannot be neglected. Geographical location refers to the accessibility of the destination, and it therefore influences the travelling costs to a given place (country). This aspect is important because it knowingly impacts on consumer’s choice to a long haul country (Vuoristo 2003, 55; Oppermann 2000, 99). Outstandingly, recently, most European tourists have been attracted to travel to closer destinations that meet their needs like “sun and shores” as Spain and Asia rather than opting for distant destinations. To respond to the demands of the European market, Asian countries have orchestrated their destinations because of its closeness to Europe and thus compete with low-priced packages compared to long distance locations like as Mauritius or Seychelles or even Australia.

From the point of view of European or American travelers, when considering time factor to travel to a distant destination and the cost of travelling as criteria, Mauritius in this instance is viewed as a distant location. To support this argument the number of European travelers visiting Mauritius has decreased from 51,529 in 2013 to 50,548 in 2014, for the month of January. (CSO, 2014).

Geopolitics

As far as geopolitics is concerned, the political atmosphere can influence the accessibility of the destination and the overall image of the said country. For example, during the period of Mao of China, his politics and opinions made tourists less keen to visit the destination. WTO has projected the future of China as being a leader in the world by being the first world class destination that will charm greatest number of tourists by the year 2020. Therefore, to cater for this market new China is determined to converting its politics, protocols and evolving infrastructures which now interest international investors, and tourists towards its destination (Weaver & Oppermann 2000). Political accessibility is the regulations, policies, concerning mainly immigration conditions under which a tourist is regulated to have access to that country. Complicated country accessibility in terms of tourist visas procedures, levying costly visas, complicated procedures contributes largely leads in demoralizing a destination image.

Climate and Culture

The attributes of climate and nature, impacts on the formation of country image to a great extent depending on the background of the individual in question. Furthermore, the necessity and wish for a change is among the most dominant factors in tourism decision-making. As a result, individuals coming from very cold climate are more likely to opt for warmer and exotic destinations. Persons coming from developed and urban background might be charmed by nature and adventure (Vuoristo 2003, 29). In instance, the rise in globalization is believed to fuel homogenous culture and tourists are highly interested in revisiting outstanding heritage locations so as to re-capture the lost culture and practices. For instance countries like Egypt, Istanbul and Italy are well appreciated by their profound heritage spots and rich history.

Distance – Decay

Distance decay indicates the tendency of inbound tourism moves to decline as areas become more distant from the destination (Weaver & Oppermann 2000, 98). Gallarza et al (2002, 61), suggest that distance plays an important role in the image formation process. It is also mentioned that the country’s size and global power regarding its economy and politics primarily impacts on the distance – decay effects. Luostarinen (2002) also shares this opinion, in his study he found out that the distance between country of origin and the target market impacts on the international market policy. Even if these studies have been dedicated towards organizations, however the same rules are appropriate with regard of tourist destination.

Travel Intermediaries

Travel intermediaries refer to travel agents and tour operators and they are considered as essential information facilitators. They are strategically positioned at the frontier and having direct contact with travelers or future travelers making them in a solid position to impose destination images to travelers based on the information that they have. Andreu et al. (2002) stated that travel intermediaries are important “protagonist” who spread information to tourists or possible tourists and thereby impact on, image and choices of travel. Therefore, tour operators or travel agents have the art of painting the picture of any tourist destination based on how they want to sell that destination.

Travel operators sell a destination with simple information retrieved from the countries they represent. The marketing material that is, brochures, web pages, personal experience, and so on are at their disposal and are significant in designing an unreal destination to the potential customers. The amount of information available on the internet has allowed travelers with a wealth of information at their disposals. With click of a mouse anyone can easily retrieve essential information about any destination. Therefore customers cannot be fooled easily. However, most travelers rely greatly on information given by those travel intermediaries whose trade is to deal directly on travel destinations.

Balogu & Mangaloglu (2001) have argued that images that travel intermediaries have of a destination is the same as those held by customers in general. Konecnik ( ibid) stated “ mainly for international destinations, the role of travel intermediaries in promoting and framing images of the destination is enhanced, because of tourists who are more apt to consider travel intermediaries in their selections of destination”

It can be said that travel intermediaries has an important role in image formation of a destination. (Ashwoth & Voogd (1994, 49)

Stimulus Factors

Concerning information source, Balogu and Mac Cleary (1999, 892) concluded that the variety and the quantity of information sources adds positively to a cognitive assessment of a destination. Hence, destinations need to encourage everyone to make use of several information sources available. In instance, Media has mainly arranged in painting US facade with image features perceived today (super power and wealth). Thus common media vehicles includes, television, radio, movie to internet has proved significant in dissemination of information to the general public. According to WTO (2006) “it is significant for marketers to tracking of new stories for necessary action. Instance, rapid response to erroneous information news stories affecting the tourism industry” World media leaders like as BBC, CNN acknowledge the role of media and its effects.

Identify the economic, social, and environmental impacts of tourism on Thailand

Thailand is a very popular tourist destination. Nowadays, the world is experiencing a shift away from traditional patterns of international tourism because of increased wealth and access to travel and as a result and as TEFLAsia illustrates, Thailand is now in fact Southeast Asia’s biggest tourist destination. The reasons for its popularity as written by STA Travel (2003) include the ancient architecture, warm hospitality, savoury cuisine and overall natural beauty. Amongst computer parts, garments, rice and jewellery, tourism is one of the major industries of Thailand and is heavily relied upon.

Thailand also receives higher levels of tourists as demographics change; older people travel more, more leisure time is available for individuals and because travel has become more sophisticated. Although, this has led to the development of more infrastructure and only now are governments and individuals alike becoming more aware of Thailand’s environmental, social and economic situations. This essay will establish the different impacts and effects that tourism has on Thailand.

There are numerous positive and negative effects of tourism on Thailand’s environmental, social and economical situation. The most recent and obvious impact on Thailand’s economy has been the Tsunami disaster on 26^th December 2004. The result of this disaster, according to Thadani, M (2005), will see the decline in the number of tourists who will visit Thailand in the coming years. Other negative impacts of tourism include the possibility of raised inflation so it is essential that the Thai government ensures that local people are employed to keep the money and skill within Thailand. Tourism accounts for 12.2% of Thailand’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and nearly, nine per cent of the population is employed within the tourism industry, a higher proportion of people to be affected if Thailand’s tourism industry collapses. Although, tourism in Thailand creates many jobs, these jobs are often poorly paid with little job security and have low career status. However, on a positive stance, tourism supports other industries such as agriculture because individuals are paid to supply extra food to accommodate tourist needs. This confirms that tourism is an essential industry for Thailand and in order for the country to prosper they need to attract the tourists, to avoid economic downturn. Further, without tourists Thailand would be significantly different and the more remote areas would suffer because tourists act as an economic catalyst for other areas of Thailand as well as the more popular resorts such as Phuket. Tourism can also be used as a tool for Thailand’s economic growth through improved conditions for the host community and will raise the profile of the country which will improve the level of service that can be provided.

However, the Tsunami is not the only disaster/ event to affect Thailand in recent years. The country has also had to deal with the indirect effects of the September 11^th 2001 crisis, followed by the SARS outbreak and also the Bali bombing attacks in 2003. All of which has reduced the number of tourists to Thailand. The effects of September 11th lead to a decline in outbound travel to Thailand, mainly from America and the SARS virus reduced all tourism to Asia except essential travel. After these events 2004 was showing signs of increased travel to Thailand until the Tsunami. As said by Thadani, (2005) the Thai Government were making efforts to invite tourists back to the country weeks after the disaster in a bid to prevent economic disaster.

On a more positive note for tourism and the Thai economy, the country appears to be working towards recovery despite having lost nearly 10,000 people (unofficial estimates), many of who were international tourists. Thadani (2005) suggests that the government is keeping the actual death toll low so that tourists are not deterred from travelling to Thailand, which heavily relies upon the income from tourism. Thailand is estimated to lose US$260 million a month as a result of this disaster, which could destroy the economy and create irreversible effects to the local community. However, it must be noted that although popular destinations such as Phuket and Krabi were badly effected, other hotspots like Bangkok, Samui Island and Chiang Mai, Pattaya remain completely booked.

Tourism brings many negative social impacts to Thailand as a host country of tourism. Firstly, tourism brings a change in characteristics of the host community. For example, many locals sell drugs to tourists as a way of earning money. The World Bank Office of Thailand recognises that, drug pushing creates problems such as anti-social behaviour, increased crime and reduced safety. This has an effect on tourist numbers as many will not travel to countries which are deemed unsafe. Further, as tourism grows in Thailand many businesses have moved from being run locally to being owned by national or international companies which creates leakages in the Thai government with less spending money going back into the Thai economy. Moreover, Thailand has seen an increase in staged authenticity for the tourists; local traditions have become a product for the tourist, which is slowly destroying the original culture in Thailand. Another, negative affect on tourism, according to Graham (2003) is the demonstration effect which creates a long term effect on the local community by being exposed to different cultures and wealth. This changes locals’ behaviour and needs and may for example encourage the Thai people to dress differently or abandon their religion.

However, tourism in Thailand has enabled the locals to earn money from the chores they initially completed in the home, such as cooking and cleaning. This has increased the living potential of many in the host community. Further, locals have a chance to mix with wealthier individuals which can give them an insight into what can be achieved if tourism is a success in Thailand.

As Thailand relies so heavily on the income from tourism, the tourists’ needs outweigh those of the hosts. Therefore, Thailand is creating facilities at a fast rate to cope with visitor numbers. However, the locals and the government must realise that Thailand’s environment forms the attraction for people to visit the country. According to STA Travel (2003), over-development on Ko Phi Phi is starving the coral reefs of sunlight and smothering the surface in pollutants: the destruction of the reef is a small example of the problems occurring throughout Thailand and blamed on tourism. If Thailand’s natural beauty is not preserved tourist will likely travel to other destinations in the future. Other negative impacts include the deterioration in air and water quality, mainly due to air traffic and the urbanisation of natural areas. A good example of this is Krabi; it was fairly undiscovered but now hotel resorts are quickly being erected which is diminishing much of the natural environment that pre-existed. However, these newly developed areas do have a proper sewage disposal facility which earlier tourism developments did not which illustrates the Thai’s awareness of the need for environmental protection due to the impacts of tourism. The following example further shows peoples’ awareness of Thailand’s environment being affected by tourism because in May 1999, STA Travel describes how protestors packed the beach where the filming of ‘The Beach’ was taking place. Environmentalists were concerned that filming would destroy the delicate eco-balance of the beach. These areas of natural beauty could well be conserved if awareness is created about the need for their protection due to increased tourism. This would create positive environmental impacts as Thailand can control and maintain its environment. An example of this is the Golden Temple which is located in Bangkok, Thailand’s capital. Through a visit I discovered that donations and government money are set aside to restore this building, which would otherwise be neglected.

In essence it seems that Thailand is aware of the increasing number of tourists over the years and is therefore trying to facilitate this by increasing the country’s infrastructure. The government should ensure they regulate developments to ensure that every new hotel, business and attraction is built in keeping with the local style otherwise tourist will lose interest in Thailand.

In accordance with Holden, (2000) Thailand needs to comply with four main requirements in order to ensure tourism is sustained. Firstly, it is essential that Thailand remains prosperous and maintains its original culture. This is likely to reduce the negative effects from tourism because and secondly, tourists will continue to demand trips and be attracted to Thailand. Thirdly, nothing must be done to the ecology; it must be protected in order for the natural beauty to remain and lastly, Thailand must ensure that it has an effective political framework in place. The abovementioned categories are used to establish issues and indicate if tourism has a positive or negative effect on the area in question. Holden describes that the impacts of tourism on Thailand can be identified by establishing the relationship between the natural environment, the local economy and tourism. To further explain the Thai economy is dependent upon tourism, if the country builds sufficiently and maintains environmental quality the country will likely benefit from a well balanced tourism industry.

If the tourism factors which affect Thailand are better managed, it will create sustainable tourism in Thailand. According to the UNEP (2002), managing tourism destinations is an important part of controlling tourism’s environmental impacts. As written by OurWorld, the tourism boom has had a negative effect on the Thai environment and as a result the government now manages ecotourism. Better management of tourism impacts will allow the Thai Government to better plan the use of their land, implement effective environmental regulations and rejuvenate buildings. Every environment in any country cannot be preserved intact, therefore it is necessary for the Thai government to use its resources sparingly within its limits of regeneration and natural growth. Furthermore, according to UNEP, the Thai government should establish licence fees for fishing and use these funds to maintain the forests and wildlife in Thailand. Better management of tourism facilities, especially hotels, will allow Thailand to preserve its buildings and natural beauty. I agree with the UNEP that by Thailand planning early for tourism development, damaging and expensive mistakes can be prevented, avoiding the gradual deterioration of environmental assets significant to tourism. In every respect, tourism has the opportunity to increase public appreciation of the environment in Thailand and spread awareness of environmental, social and economical problems.

As already mentioned tourism has a massive impact on the host community. It is also possible to better understand the impact of tourism on the tourist. Tourism in Thailand is becoming mass tourism and thus will become a greater income generator for the host community allowing them to improve their lifestyles. However, Buddhism is strongly indented into the Thai culture and tourism has not effected or changed the religion, which shows signs of a strong culture. The influence of tourism on the host community has however taken its toll as Thailand’s economy, amongst other aspects, has become too dependent on tourism and according to OurWorld people feel that change and development due to increased tourism is happening too fast. Moreover, the rapid change is due to the tourists’ increase need for tourism and their demand for better facilities and long haul holidays. These negative impacts have led the Thai government to introduce proper legislation to protect the poor Thai people and prevent tourists from destroying Thailand. According to ThaiTour, the government is looking to establish a ‘multi-agency’ task force to stop the confusion among the many different tourism departments in Thailand.

In all it is evident that many tourism factors are contributing to both positive and negative impacts upon Thailand. It is important that the country realises the problems and take steps to sustain tourism. The key is to find a balance to manage the effects of tourism on the country. The type and volume of tourists that Thailand attracts and their activities and behaviour in the country will influence the nature of their impacts. Effective planning, development, management and marketing of tourism are essential to optimise the positive impacts and control and reduce the negatives. Further, the more we educate the tourists and the local community about the effects of tourism the better chance of Thailand succeeding in sustainable tourism, a stable economy and protected environment.

Bibliography

The aim of the literature review chapter is to assess existing literature with relation to the study in order to know what researchers have told about tourism developments and perceptions. This chapter comprises an overview of the tourism industry globally, the tourism industry in Mauritius, tourism development in Mauritius, Integrated resort scheme and related literature review, perception and theoretical model, factors influence perception and empirical review.

According by the world tourism organisation, Fact and Finding Section; the significant growth of the tourism activity evidently shows that tourism industry is one of the most incredible economic and social phenomena of the past century. The quantity of international arrivals shows a progress from a mere 25 million international arrivals in 1950 to an approximated 806 million in 2005, equivalent to an average arrival growth rate of 6.5%.

Development was principally intense in Asian and pacific during this period for e.g.; 13% on average a year and in Middle East 10% while at a slower pace and slightly below world’s average growth. Market share of emerging destinations are gradually growing compare to establish regions such as Europe and the Americas. Europe’s world share declined by over 10 percentage point since 1950 whereas the Americas lost 13 percentage points. The market share of Europe has decreased by over 10% point since 1950 while the Americas lost 13% point. Europe and the Americas were two of the main regions which were receiving tourists between 1950 and 200. But with the credit crunch in 2008, figures have dropped as people have less money to spend and companies are unable to expand as rapidly.

However, although the evolution of tourism in the last few years has been irregular, UNWTO maintain its long-term forecast for the moment. UNWTO’S tourism vision forecasts that international arrivals are expected to reach nearly 1.6 billion by the year 2020. Of these worldwide arrivals in 2020, 1.2 billion will be intraregional and 378 million will be long-haul travellers.

Sources: http://www.tourismtravelasia.com/2008 03 01 archive.html

Background of tourism in Mauritius

The term “Tourism” is of recent origin. In other words it is of relatively modern origin. It is distinguishable by its mass character from the travel undertaken in the past.

Today tourism occupies an important role in our society. Like other industry tourism have attractive features. Due to its attractive features, various study has been undertake by some researchers and finally each one has their own perception of tourism and definition of it. Many definitions and explanations have been given by many writers and scholars in their own fashion for the term tourism. Let us see some of the definitions here to have a fair idea of tourism.

According to the great Austrian economist, Hermann V. Schullard says that “the sum total of operators, mainly of an economic nature, which directly relate to the entry, stay and movement of foreigners inside and outside a certain country city or region”. It is considered as one of the earliest definitions of tourism. He gave this definition in the year 1910.

The above definition of Swiss Professors Hunziker and Krapf was subsequently adopted by the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST).

The AIEST definition brings out the following three district elements of tourism:

Involvement of travel by non-residents.

Stay of temporary nature in the area visited.

Stay not connected with any activity involving earnings.

Tourism is, therefore, a composite phenomenon which embraces the incidence of a mobile population of travellers who are strangers to the places they visit. The above definition of various scholars and explanations of different writers obviously indicate the concept of tourism.

In Mauritius the tourism industry has been divided into eight different sectors or areas. For example;

Accommodation

Adventure tourism and recreation

Attractions

Events and conferences

Food and beverage

Tourism services

Transportation

Travel trade

Tourism industry in Mauritius has traditionally targeted a higher echelon clientele. Nowadays there have been new policies with the arrival of a new minister of tourism such as promotion of Mauritius by the MTPA in new market for e.g. china, Russia and India, creation new brand image such as “les iles vanilles” and duty free shopping. The clientele of the Mauritius tourism industry mainly come from Europe and in 2010 there has been particularly no change in tourist arrivals patterns compared to previous years. This can be illustrated in figure 1 in the appendix; tourist arrivals by region. Furthermore according to the central statistical office (CSO) and the bank of Mauritius (BOM), both arrival and tourism receipts recovered remarkably in 2010. As illustrated in appendix figure 2. The BOM’S official receipts for 2010 amount to RS 39.5 bn which are calculated based on “inward and outward remittances”.

Tourism in Mauritius is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas of the islands. In the budget 2011, the Ministry of Finance indicated that the state of Mauritius will invest Rs 1 billion over the next five years for the consolidation to the tourism industry and thereby boost the arrivals outside the Euro zone. Rs 2 billion are earmarked for the sector as a whole during the same period. In relation to tourist arrivals, the tourism statistics committee of Mauritius states that, there will be a 5.5% growth in tourist arrivals in this year and a strong growth of 8.7% was recorded in tourist arrivals for the month of September in Mauritius. This growth in September represents 65,404 visitors compared to 60,144 last year from the same period.

Nature of tourism in Mauritius

Mauritius is a small island found in the Indian Ocean. Tourism in Mauritius is mainly base on the 3’s that is sea, sun and sand. This resulted in tourists being kept within the four walls of the luxurious hotels. Mauritius put great emphasis on the mass tourism. Therefore in order to support this nature of tourism, it needs to be able to provide accommodation, attractions, hospitality and branding.

Accommodation such as hotels, form one of the most important factors that influence tourists to a country. Hotels in Mauritius are found within those of the world’s leading hotels. The major group in Mauritius concerning hotels are Taj brand, the oberoi, sun international group of hotels, group appavoo and beachcomber. The nature of tourism in Mauritius consists also of Attractions. First of all, it’s beautiful beaches and lagoons form part of the attractions that Mauritius propose, then we have also man-made park attractions like casela brid park and SSR Botanical gardens. Hospitality also plays an important role in the nature of tourism in Mauritius. Mauritius is well know and reputed for its legendary hospitality which is considered as one of the best in the world.

So in order to market effectively the nature of tourism in Mauritius, we had the slogan “Mauritius- No problem” and in 2009 the Mauritian government has come up with a new slogan such as ” Mauritius, c’est un plaisir”.

Tourism development in Mauritius:

Mauritius is becoming an important tourist destination in the Indian Ocean. In 1980, tourists spending were around $ 110 million (bank of Mauritius statistics, 2000). So in order to satisfy the needs and wants of visitors, the government of Mauritius has undertaken development, mainly hotel development. Hotel development in Mauritius was one of the main priorities due to the nature of tourism in Mauritius that is the concept of the 3’s (sea, sun and sand). Hotel development in the island has been subject to a rapid growth that is from 43 in 1980 to 95 hotels in 2000, (tourism authority 2010) with an overall rate of 182 per cent. Hotel development is also a way for the government of obtaining taxes from investors and to create employment. Hotel development in Mauritius has also contributed in promoting Mauritius as a tourist destination by embracing the ideas of “quality management” and initiating various programmes to improve the quality of services to meet international hotel standards (Nield and kozak, 1999; Ministry of tourism, 1998). Some hotels in Mauritius as already been accredited by certificate such as ISO 9000 (Sun Resorts, 1196).Furthermore in order to meet international standard, groups such as Beach Comber Group, has redesigned and reinvigorated in the new Trou Aux Biches hotel which will open after a complete reconstruction in November 2010. In relation to the hotel industry in Mauritius the previous Minister of the Ministry of tourism, Xvier Luc Duval announced that he liked to introduced as quickly as possible a new classification of the Mauritian hotels in comparison with their impact on environment.

On the other hand tourism developments in Mauritius are not limited to hotels but there exist also tourism development in the form of attractions and shopping and leisure areas. One of the main shopping and leisure areas is the Caudan Waterfont which faced the Port Louis harbour, Mauritius. It is one of the most popular places in the Mauritian capital due to the many ways through which people can spend their time. Others leisure development of this type are coming soon such as the project of ” Mall of Mauritius a Bagatelle”.

Diversification of tourism development

In Mauritius, tourism is one of the most important pillars of the economy. Mauritius is predominately a holiday’s destination for beach-resort tourists. It possesses a wide range of natural and man-made attractions. The Mauritius government expects 2 million tourist arrivals per annum by 2015. So, a new strategy of development has been defined called “opening of the sky” marketing action plan to develop new markets. In order to achieve the target of 2 million tourists in 2015, the government of Mauritius and investors are involving in the diversification of tourism products. Resent trends in the tourism industry is the introduction and promotion of Integrated Resort Scheme (IRS). The board of investment in Mauritius announced the launch of IRS in 2002. This is a program planned to make easy the possession of resort and residential property by non-citizens on the island. By buying an IRS villa, international buyers can become Mauritian residents as soon as they take possession of a luxury property on the island,” states the website of the Board of Investment. However a limit of less than 5000 such homes has been set to ensure the island does not become a new “costa del sol” in term of over development. Examples of this resent type of tourism product are Tamarina Golf Estate and Beach Club, Villa Valrich at Bel-Ombre and Anahita the Resort. These IRS are already in a position to welcome residents. Following this kind of development other project such as La Balise Marina will not take too much time to be in operation (gazette of lexpress; 26/10/2007).IRS villas are not only a way of having a lovely lifestyle and environment; but they can also be an investment for owners.

Literature Review
Related literature review on tourism development such as IRS

The intent of this research is to analyze the perceptions of the local people toward tourism development in Mauritius such as Integrated Resort Scheme (IRS). Integrated Resort Scheme is the new trends in the tourism and hospitality industry. “IRS projects will growth in the next ten years as its offer attractive package. The difference between luxury villas and IRS villas is that, “Many promoters agreed that the main differentiation between these two, is the fact that it makes it possible for foreigners to purchase a property in Mauritius and have the residential permit. In other words Integrated Resort Scheme is a way to facilitate the ownership of resort and residential property to non-citizen on the island”, according to Pauline Etienne. (2007). Title; “Private bungalows with hotel services”. L’express. Tuesday 26th October, p. 6. In relationship with what the article state about IRS programs, the board of investment’s website states that; “through the IRS, foreigners can become Mauritian resident as soon as they take possession of a luxury property on the island”. In the same article mentioned above, Shyma Soondor, the communication manager of Villas Valriche confirms that: “IRS villas are like a secure way for foreigners and their dependents to obtain residential permits”. In fact the IRS programs also represent a form of investment for the foreigners , David Martial, communication manager of Ciel Corporate Services point out that; ” if the owner chooses to spend only one month’s holiday in Mauritius, for instance he can chose to rent his villas so that he obtains a source of revenue from his villas. Moreover according to David Martial these villas can offer a “quality guarantee thanks to the international and local architectural.

In an interview of Alec Bates, partner in South Africa cities Valriche; ” who argued that tourism development such as IRS is an opportunity to foreigners to invest in the country and that IRS projects occurred primarily in developing country”, interview made by Deepa Bhookun. (2010). Title; ” Serait-ce les Mauriciens qui creent des problems”. L’express. Saturday, 6th June, p. 9. This therefore supports what David martial, communication manager of ciel has said with regard to the IRS projects.

In an article of Gilles Ribouet. (2006). Title; ” Entre enclaves de luxe et action social”. L’express. 7th May, which state that; “Villas of Tamarina from the group of “Medine” and Anahita from the group of “ciel” are the first two IRS in Mauritius. Tamarina Golf, Spa & Beach Club was the first to be into operation. The Tamarina Villas is from the Medine group which has adopted an integrated development plan”. Laurence Desvaux, Marketing Manager of Tamarina said that, “we have adopted a horizontal approach to land development in the long term”. Villas of Tamarin of different features such as private pool, 24hr security, air conditioning, a phone line and such services as landscaping, gardening, housekeeping, driver, cooks and babysister on request. In another article written by Pierrick Piedel in 2010, title; “Interview of Gilbert Espitalier-Noel chief executive officer of ENL property. L’express. Wednesday, 21th April, p. 9, this article talks about the large investment that IRS projects required. For example, Mr Gilbert Espitalier-Noel, Chief Executive Officer of ENL property states that; “he has invested Rs 10 billion in the construction of different projects”. He also mentioned that the investment cost for the Villas Valriche was Rs 4 milliards. In relation with the project of “La Balise Marina” an article has been published in the L’express newspaper by Fidele Honvou in 2009 in which he mentioned that the project of Balise marina is committed to contribute Rs 24 million to a fund for the socioeconomic integration of the local people of the region, of which Rs 10 million will be fund for training. The Balise Marina is the only IRS project based on a marina concept.

The IRS nowadays represent a different form of tourism which bring with it positive impact as well as negative impacts.

Projects under the Integrated Resort Scheme:

According to the Guidelines of Integrated Resort Scheme from the Board of Investment (2007), there is a list of projects under the Integrated Resort Scheme. This list is as follows:

Tamarina Golf Estate Ltd, which is locate in a village called Tamarin in the west of the island.

Anahita World Class Sanctuary, which is located in a village called Beau champ.

La Reserve leisure Resorts Ltd, Location; Flic en flac.

Belle Riviere Promotion Ltd, Location; A village called Bel Ombre

Villas Valriche, Location; Bel Ombre

Club med Villas IRS, Location; Albion

Dolphin Coast Marina Estate Ltd, Location; Riviere Noir

Barachois Villas, Location; Tamarin Village.

Matala Properties, Location; Riviere Noir Village.

Cliff of Maconder, Location; Maconder, Baie du Cap

These are therefore the ten projects under the Integrated resort scheme according to the guidelines of IRS from the board of Investment (2007).

Importance and relevance of considering the perception of local people for the tourism sector.

Local people perception about tourism development is an important element that investors need to take into consideration when developing tourism project for example such as IRS. It is advisable by some researchers such as Ap, 1992 to consider perception of local people while planning and marketing tourism development, because it might ensure the success of the project. Considering perception of local people toward tourism development could also be a valuable element in identifying and measuring tourism impacts (Getz, 1994). On the other hand Dyer et al 2007, has also found in his research that tourism perceptions by host community residents have gained academic attention during the last decades, and their importance issues, in terms of sustainable development, has been acknowledged. We can see that the findings of Ap., 1992 and Dyer et al 2007 have some similarities. Perception of the host community concerning tourism development is definitely affected by the impact of tourism in general. It is why that some authors have analyzed the perception of local people by taking into account the economic, social and environmental impact. For example considerable number of studies have been developed by taking into consideration the perceptions and attitudes towards sociocultural impacts (wall and athieson, 2006).

Therefore according to some studies such as; ( Ap,1992; Dyer et al 2007; Getz, 1994), they have found the importance of considering host community perception on the planning and marketing of tourism development. Due to that it is therefore vital that investors and promoters of IRS take into consideration the perception of local people before and when operating this type of tourism development. One method, by which investors can do it, is by conducting Social Marketing. This is a way by which the promoters can gather information concerning local’s resident perception on tourism development such as IRS in Mauritius. Finally many authors such as; Andereck and Vogt 2000; Ap 1992; Davis and Morais 2004; Ko and Stewart 2002, found that community need to support the tourism development, because it play an important role to the success of the development.

Theoretical models to study resident’s perception

There are different model that has been used to study the resident perception of a community and also to analyze the relationship that resident perception and tourism development might have. Undoubtedly, one of the most significant and earliest models is Doxey (1975) that is the Index of Tourist Irritation or ” Irridex”. This model comprises of four stages, which attempt to explain host community responses to tourism development. This model agreed that negative impact of tourism development can lead to irritation in the community. Therefore according to Doxey (1975) such irritation will determine by the degree of relation between residents and tourists. Under this model the residents’ perception vary from euphoria, to apathy, to annoyance and finally to antagonism. On the other hand, by supposing that communities are not necessarily homogeneous, a former model suggested by Butler in 1974, were used to explain the host attitudinal/behavioural responses to tourist activity. Compared to the Doxey’s model, Butler’s matrix argued that a large amount of opinions may be found within the host community and that opinions can indeed change in any one of the four direction derived from the matrix. According to Ryan (2003), the doxey’s models represent the general tendency of opinions and views of the community. Thirdly compared to Doxey’s and Butler models, Dogan (1989) has create a framework by taking into consideration the impact of tourism development and the behavioural responses adopted by residents. It focuses on response to tourism impacts rather than attitudes. Dogan (1989) proposes six strategies in order to cope with the effects of tourism. Such strategies are; Resistance, Retreatism, Boundary maintenance, Revitalization and Adoption. Similarities that Dogan’s models and Butler’s matrix have is that they both recognises that the heterogeneity of host population implies that several responses, which will vary considerably depending on the relationship between tourist and residents. Another framework that can be used to help us to understand the perception of local people is the Ap and Crompton framework (1993), according to this framework residents’ reaction to tourism could be placed on a continuum comprised of four strategies: Embracement, Tolerance, Adjustment, and Withdrawal. Social exchange theory suggests that people evaluate an exchange based on the costs and benefits that are going to be involved in the exchange. Residents are willing to exchange with tourists if they receive more benefits thancosts (Jurowski, Uysal & Williams, 1997). An exchange process must satisfied four conditions which are need satisfaction, exchange relation, consequences of exchange and no-exchange outcome (Ap, 1992). Three main

elements that can be found in the exchange process are economic, socio-cultural and environmental effects. Using social exchange theory, Jurowski, Uysal, and Williams (1997) developed a model that integrated factors likely to influence reactions towards tourism. In their model, they proposed that perceived potential for economic gain, use of resource base, attachment to one’s community, and attitudes towards the preservation of the natural environment will influence how residents perceived the economic, social, and environmental impacts. Gursoy, Jurowski, and Uysal (2002) criticized model by Jurowski, Uysal, and Williams (1997) for aggregating the costs and benefits into three categories, and further breaking down the perceived impact into five areas that are economic benefits, social benefits, social costs, cultural benefits and cultural costs. Perdue, Long, and Allen (1990) used social exchange theory as foundation to test the validity of the argument that the individual who gains benefit from tourism will more likely to support tourism development Therefore, these are some models that are used to understand the perception of local resident toward tourism developments. So the government of Mauritius might used these models in order to analyzed the perception of local residents toward tourism development in Mauritius and thus introduce policies based on what they have found through these models.

Factors influencing perception of local residents towards tourism development such as Integrated Resort Scheme (IRS)

It is hard to understand that there are actually countries that still want to increase their arrivals of tourist rather that setting policies such as maximum capacity to maintain competitiveness and sustainability (Loannides and Holcomb, 2003:42). Factors that influence the perception of local resident can be classified as follows: Socio-cultural, Economic and Environmental impact of tourism.

Socio-cultural Factors

Socio-cultural factors play an important role on the perception of people toward tourism development such as IRS. For example in an article (Title: “La balise Marina se concretise”) published in the l’express newspaper by Fidele Honvou on 2009, in which he mentioned that the project “La Balise Marina” is committed to contribute Rs 24 million to a fund for social integration and of which 10 million will be for training of the local people to help them to obtain a job in the tourism industry. Therefore based on this argument, the perception of local people toward this project will be more or less positive as they will also benefits. In relation to this article, there has been another article (Title: ” Entre enclaves de luxe et action social) published in the l’express newpaper by Gilles Ribouet on 2007, in which we can read that, Medine group has established a learning centre in order to train people living in the locality and then give them a job mainly in the IRS project of Tamarina. Here also this will positively influence the perception of local people toward that IRS project ( Tamarina Villas). Beside the various facilities that these investors are provide to the region in which they developed their project, there are also various socio-demographic variables that will influence the perception of local people. These variables are gender, age, birthplace and level of community attachment, ethnicity, education level and length of residence. Some studies have shown that these variables could have an impact on the perception of local people. For example; Braunfels, Texas, Um and Crompton (1987) Found that German ethnicity was a factor in attitudes toward tourism development. Discovering that the more attached an individual was to the community in regards to their length of residence; the less positively they were towards tourism development. Thus according to what these researchers have said we can assume that local people that lived on the littoral since their birth will have a negative perception on IRS projects.

However, to support the results of Lui and Var’s 1986 on the Hawaiian residents who did not find any significant differences in attitudes and perception based on ethnicity and length of residence, Allen et al’s (1993) study of 10 rural Colorado communities found no significant influence of length of residence on attitudes toward tourism development.

Economic Factors:

Another factor that will have an influence on the perception of host community is the economic impact. For example in an article (Title: “Il y a une mauvaise perception des IRS a Maurice”) published in the l’express newspaper which is based on the interview of Nicolas Vaudin, General Manager of Ciel Properties by Akilesh Roopun in 2006. In that article, according to Mr Nicolas Vaudin, Anahita Project will help to create jobs directly and indirectly. Therefore this argument has obviously a positive impact on the perception of the local resident. To support what Mr Nicolas Vaudin has told about the IRS in term of economic impacts, in an article published in 2007 by Gilles Ribouet which title is, “Entre enclaves de luxe et action sociale” in which it was said that, the IRS project is a component of a comprehensive integrated development plan that will benefits people in term of employment. In IRS project we much recognized that the jobs created by tourism are mainly in the area of personal services such as housekeeper, cook, landscaping and gardening. So job creation is the most important economic impact associated with tourism development. As tourism developments create jobs, people will have a chance to increase their income and thus have a better standard of living (Cattarinch 2001; Lewis 1998; Quinn & Strickland 1994; Wilson et al.2001; Wyss 2003). For example, in the small Caribbean island of Barbados, the percentage of job creation by tourism industry is 30%. In Mauritius, tourism provided employment directly for a provisional 21,100 people in March 2002 (Africa South of the Sahara 2004 by Europa Publications p. 725). Therefore, we can say that people who are involved directly in the tourism industry have a positive perception toward tourism development. For example, a local resident who gain a wages from the tourism industry may tolerate tourism-induced traffic congestion as he or she is obtaining a personal economic benefits (Pearce, Moscardo, and Ross 1996). On the other hand, Smith and Krannich 1998 has found that local people who depend on tourism to obtain a salary prefer less tourism development and perceive the impacts of tourism as more negative than the residents of communities that depend less on this activity.

Environmental Impact:

Another impact of tourism that might have an influence on the perception of local people is the environmental impact of tourism. As we know the tourism industry does not only create jobs and enhance the cultural knowledge but it also have a positive and negative impact on the environment and its biodiversity. For example tourism researchers such as; Liu & var; 1986; Liuat al, 1987) suggest in their studies that host community resident’s may view tourism as having both positive and negative physical and environmental impacts. The positive impact that tourism development can have on the environment are; tourism can encourage country to protect their natural beauties such as in Mauritius where we have Black River Gorge, chamarel and so on. Tourism can also encourage countries to create park such as in countries in Africa where they can practice safari as a tourist activities. In relation to the positive impact of tourism on the environment, Mc Cool & Martin, 1994; Matheison & wall, 1982 suggest that tourism creates opportunities for the conservation and preservation of natural areas. The environment is an important element in the tourism industry. Therefore to support what Mc Coll & Martin, 1994; Matheison & wall, 1982 has found, Cohen, 1978 argued in his study that tourism provides a reason to preserve the natural scenery and man-mad historic sites, traditional towns and neighbourhoods, villages, lighthouses, harbours and fishing piers. Positive impact of tourism development on the environment will definitely influence positively the perception of local resident. However, tourism development has also negative impacts on the environment. Liu et al, 1987 argued in their studies that the negative environmental impacts which emerged frequently are littering, overcrowding, traffic congestion as well as pollution of water and soil along with the deterioration of natural resources as a result of the construction of tourism development such as hotel. For example in the Caribbean island, 70000 tons of waste water is release in the sea, these solid waste and littering can damage the physical appearance of the water and shoreline and cause the death of marine animals. Another example of the negative impact of tourism on the environment is in Mediterranean where intensive tourism development such as hotel has caused three- quarters of the sand dunes on the Mediterranean coastline from Spain to Sicily to disappear. Thus due to these negative impact, local resident perception toward tourism development may change negatively. In order to ensure that tourism development will be socially and environmentally responsible we can involved the local people in the planning and operational stages of the development in order to take into consideration their opinion and feeling.

Another way to prevent negative environmental impacts is that, the number of visitors should be limited, regarding the carrying capacity, to prevent pollution and other types of destruction of the natural resources (Burke et al 2000; Pattulo 1996).

Empirical Evidence:

There is some Empirical Evidence that supports this research of local perception. These empirical evidences include studies such as; Robin Nunkoo (2010), senior lecturer at the University of Mauritius, who have investigate on local perceptions toward Integrated Resort Scheme (IRS). From his investigation he has found that the problem with IRS is that they’re a form of enclave tourism, which is completely detached from local communities. Furthermore in relation to local perception, there are some Empirical Evidence that shows the relationship between tourism impacts that is Economic, socio-cultural and environment and local perceptions. These Empirical Evidences includes studies such as; Pizam, 1978; Pearce at al, 1996; Belise E Hoy, 1980; Husbands, 1989; Lankford and Howard, 1994 have

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

TABLE OF CONTENT

TOPIC PAGE(S)

Project background

Objectives

Literature review

Methodology

Understanding the rationale for planning in the travel and tourism industry

Benefits of planning of tourism development to stakeholders

Advantages and disadvantages of public private sector tourism planning partnership

Understand the different approaches to tourism planning and development

Features of tourism development planning at different levels

Significance of interactive planning systems and processes in tourism development

Different methods to measures tourist impacts

Understanding the need for planning for sustainable tourism

Introduction concept of sustainability in tourism development

Factors that may prevent/hinder sustainable tourism

Different stages in planning for sustainability

Understand current issues related to tourism development planning

Methods of resolving a conflict of interest to ensure the future well being of a developing tourism destination

Implication of balancing supply and demand

Moral and ethical issues of enclave tourism

Understand the socio-cultural, environmental and economic impacts of tourism in developing countries and emerging destinations

Comparison of current issues associated with tourism and development in a developing country and an emerging destination where the impacts of tourism are different

Recommendation

Conclusion

References

Appendices

PROJECT BACKGROUND

Tourism has been a major contribution to the Jamaican economy; however tourism in Jamaica needs sustainable development. The aim of this project is to give an understanding of sustainable tourism from a Jamaican framework. Sustainable tourism is tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the environment and host communities defined by (WTO 2014).

In this project a scenario was given where the ministry of tourism contracts a consultant to develop and plan tourism due to the fact that Jamaica is heading to become unsustainable. In this project you will have analysis, recommendation and solution to the tourism industry in Jamaica.

The importance of this project is to give an understanding of the planning in the travel and tourism development and how it can benefit stakeholders. It is important for stakeholders to understand the tourism planning and development at different levels along with their significance. Since it is said that the Jamaican tourism is heading in an unsustainable direction, therefore it is of great interest to know what it is of great interest to know how to become sustainable different stages and how we can prevent it. Information is shown of how important public private sectors are in the tourism industry and their disadvantages. The public private sector must understand the socio-cultural, environmental and economic impacts of tourism in Jamaica. All of these impacts are what causes the Jamaican tourism industry to be heading in an unsustainable direction so the private and public sector can partner to help mitigate these issues.

OBJECTIVES

There are five objectives of this project as followed:

To assess the importance of planning and development in the tourism industry
Identify the benefits of planning and development to each stakeholder in the tourism industry
To determine the sustainability of the Jamaica tourism and how it can be maintained
To identify the impacts of tourism in Jamaica.

LITERTURE REVIEW

(WTO 2014) defined sustainable tourism as tourism that takes full account of its current and further economic, social and environmental impacts and addressing the needs to visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities. The Jamaican tourism is having failures and heading to an unsustainable market however it has some great attraction (sun, sand & beach). (JTB 2014) analyzes the element of tourism products which includes accommodation, transportation, attractions and tours, dining and entertainment (inclusive of festivals & events) and the support service.

According to (Edward 2009) tourism does not benefit the people of Jamaica because 80% of traveler’s expenses go to airlines, hotels and other international companies and not local businesses or workers. (Edward 2009) also gave market failures of the tourism in Jamaica such as low skilled employment are provided, unplanned settlements and squatters communities that are established close to resort areas that causes solid waste, inadequate sewage treatment, and tourism entities that are currently gaining all of the rent are also not accounting for the negative and external effect of their activities. (Ringo & Martin 2013) analyze the benefits of tourism such as the gaining of foreign exchange, providing jobs (directly and indirectly), developing income and developing infrastructure.

There are five reasons why the Jamaica’s tourism is stated as unsustainable. (TPDCO 2014) summarize the five reasons such as growth rate, competitive advantage of the industry, the wider product outside the hotels is poor, the degrading of the national environment and the view of Jamaican is that the industry is not beneficial. However (JTB 2014) recommended ways to shift from unsustainable to sustainability through five objectives such as enhancing the visitors experience, growth based on sustainable market position, community based development, inclusive and industry and environmental sustainability.

METHODOLOGY

UNDERSTANDING THE RATIONALE FOR PLANNING IN THETRAVEL AND TOURISM INDUSTRY

BENEFITS OF PLANNING OF THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT TO STAKEHOLDERS

Stakeholders are the person or group who has interest in an organization. Planning of the tourism development is putting things together actions such as infrastructure, co-operate plans etc. stakeholders involve in the planning of tourism in Jamaica are JTB, TPDCo, Ministry of Tourism, Jampro, JHTA etc. Other stakeholders who benefit from the planning of tourism developments are the communities, visitors and non-government organizations.

Ringo & Martin (2014) wrote an article about how important is tourism to Jamaica, which gave ways that tourism, benefits the stakeholders of Jamaica. The planning of tourism development is beneficial to the government and its agencies because for the past years tourism has generated the highest level of foreign exchange (approximately US$2b). Foreign exchange benefits the government, their agencies and locals indirectly. However, it is said that the government gain direct benefit from the increase of income whereas tax revenues will increase.

The article also states the benefits to local Jamaicans through employments. The planning of tourism development provides jobs for communities and other local Jamaicans such as vendors etc. Statistics shows that employment through tourism provides approximately 200,000 persons directly and indirectly. Jobs that are provided directly are hotels, crafting, transportation, attractions and indirect are trading, bank etc. Infrastructure can be beneficial to not only hotels and resort but also the public facilities. Infrastructure has to be improved to accommodate tourist that are at the airport to hotels. For example the Norman Manley Airport road has just been improved. Locals also benefit indirectly from the increasing of foreign exchange.

The planning of the tourism development is also beneficial to tourist/visitors. If tourism is developed then it would attract more visitors to the island. This will improve the visitor experience and will come again to endorse in our culture and, our sun, sand and beach.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PUBLIC PRIVATE SECTOR TOURISM PLANNING PARTNERSHIP

According to DBJ (2012) public private partnership is a long term procurement contract between the public and private sectors, in which the proficiency of each party is focused in the designing, financing, building and operating an infrastructure project or providing a service, through the appropriate sharing of resources risk and rewards.

There are recently public private partnership for tourism planning between JTB and JHTA. Public private partnership can bring advantage to tourism or disadvantage. However, the partnership between JTB and JHTA has brought advantage to the planning of tourism in Jamaica which is to gain competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is the main advantage of public private partnership in tourism planning. The public sector will transfer their knowledge while the private do the same to create ideas and increase innovation for the destination of Jamaica. JTB and JHTA have created a ‘give away’ of free rooms which would enable a little competitive edge to attract visitors. The partnership project creates not only a competitive edge but also innovations and new ideas. Another advantage of the PPP is the risk sharing. When problem arise the party who can best manage this problem, the risk would transfer to that party. Another example of PPP was with Lover’s Leap and Ministry of Tourism which would enable to provide jobs to the community members and involve them in participating in tourism. Private sector provides finance and service, where the public sector depends solely on them. For example NTO and JHTA. The private partner manages complex financial and technical task while the public sector deals with law and policies. Therefore the combination of the two brings higher value and minimizes cost. PPP share technology that will enable projects to finish faster and reduce delays.

On the other hand there are disadvantage that affect both private and public sector and both. Although risks are shared, most of the risk sometimes goes to the private partner and overall the government will be responsible in the final aspect. So we can say that although risks are shared most risk is on the government. The projects of public private partnership may take years to finish and this can be an disadvantage for the planning of tourism development. Political problems may arise for example if the government changes and they no longer want to be involved in that partnership then this cause a problem for the private sector.

1 | Page

Introduction

This section is a body of text that aims at reviewing the critical points of current situation including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Wiersma, (1995) proposed that, the review of the literature provides the background and it should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area. Wiersma, (1995:406).Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to review the materials from different authors who have made contributions on the role of infrastructure facilities in tourism development. It includes theoretical literature/global literature which are studies on infrastructure and tourism from global perspective and empirical literatures which are studies done on the topic from Tanzania and in Africa region.

THEORETICAL LITERATURE

Despite infrastructure being an intrinsic part of tourism, there has been little research undertaken on the detailed relationships between tourism infrastructure and tourism development. Gearing et al (1974) study on the case of Turkey as a tourist destination found that infrastructure (comprising roads, water, electricity, safety services, health services, communications and public transportation) is a key determinant explaining tourist arrivals. Tang and Rochananond (1990) concluded that infrastructure is an important element in promoting Thailand as a tourist destination country. Kim, (2000) in discussing the case of Sun Lost City, South Africa, and McElroy (2003) in discussing small islands highlight the importance of infrastructure, particularly government financed infrastructure, in the success of a destination.

On the other hand, Murphy, Pritchard and Smith (2000) relate infrastructure to demand and supply analysis and describe how various components of the destination interact with tourists. Gunn, (1988) defines the product as a complex consumptive experience that results from a process in which tourists use multiple services (information, transportation, accommodation, and recreation). On the other hand, Smith, (1994) acknowledges the role of service infrastructure in creating a product experience. He argues that service infrastructure is housed within the larger macro-environment of the destination and that infrastructure and technology in a destination is key features that can enhance experience. (Smith 1994:51)

The importance of roads as one of infrastructure for tourism has been emphasized by Crouch and Ritchie, (1999) who analyze the product in the context of comparative and competitive advantage, they emphasized that, state that tourism planning and development would not be possible without roads, airports, harbors, electricity, sewage, and potable water. (Crouch and Ritchie, 1999). Kaul (1985) is among the first to recognize the importance of transport infrastructure as an essential component of successful development in that it induces the creation of new attractions and the growth of existing ones. The Tourism Task Force (2003) of Australia asserts that, transport is a big part of the equation. This system is responsible for connecting tourism-generating regions to destinations.

The connection between infrastructure and tourism is emphasized in numerous professional studies, which underline, on the one hand, the special role of tourism development in the infrastructure’s modernizing, and on the other hand, the reverse direction, the generation of multiplication effects of infrastructure development upon tourism Gunn and Var 2002; Eagles and McCool 2002). Today, the infrastructure development represents a preoccupation of the decision factors and specialists from almost all fields, for the elaboration of detailed plans regarding the infrastructure development, the transport infrastructure having an important role (Boers and Cottrell, 2007; Culbertson, et al, 1994; Beedasy and Whyatt 1999; McAdam 1999; Itami et al, 2002).

Generating multiplier effects is conditioned by the way relationships between infrastructure, tourism and local economies are managed, at the level of all decisional levels (Wells and Brandon 1992; Peptenatu et al, 2009; Kinnaird and Hall 1994; Milne, 1998; Belsky 1999; Swyngedouw, 2000; Drake, 1991; Teague, 1990; Milne and Ateljevic, 2001; Milne and Gill, 1998). In many professional works, the importance of infrastructure in the evolution of touristic phenomenon, especially from the qualitative point of view, is considered to be a determinant factor for the tourists’ satisfaction, this psychological state being the basis of a certain territorial competitiveness in this field (Alegre and Cladera, 2006; Crompton, 2003; Bigne et al., 2001; Kozak and Rimmington, 2000; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). In the professional literature, a special attention is given to the quantification of infrastructure role of all types in the tourism development within a space (Crotts and Pan, 2007; Petrick et al., 2006; Pritchard and Havitz, 2006; Ravenscroft and Rogers, 2003), as well as the elaboration of some complex standards for the appreciation of territorial systems’ idiosyncrasy at touristic development (Matzler and Sauerwein, 2002; Crompton, 2003; Jensen, 2004; Chan and Baum, 2007; Truong, 2005; Truong and Foster, 2006).

The development of touristic infrastructure supposes the elaboration of detailed territorial management plans, able to ensure balanced relationships between the territorial systems’ components, especially between infrastructure and economy, on the one hand, and the rural environment, which very often feels the development of touristic activities, on the other hand (Wiener, 2006; Weaver, 2001; Andersen & Miller, 2006; Christensen et al., 2007; Cottrell and Meisel, 2004; Garrod and Wilson, 2003; Cottrell and Graefe, 1997). The development of touristic infrastructure has a fundamental contribution to the increase of the complexity of touristic phenomenon, which contributes to the increase of functional complexity and territorial competitiveness. Infrastructure’s development attracts a series of activities, which accompany the touristic phenomenon, upstream and downstream (Bulbeck, 2005; Knight, 2005; Maneesha, 2006; Lovelock, 2008; Andereck et al, 2005).

Prideaux, (2000) argues that a destination should be easy to get to and easy to get around. Most tourists, being citizens of developed countries, are accustomed to modern and efficient transport infrastructure, and they expect to experience in the destination country comforts similar to home (Cohen 1979; Mo, Howard and Havitz 1993), failing which they will seek alternative destinations.

EMPIRICAL LITERATURES

Tourism is one of Tanzania’s most important economic sectors, contributing 17% of GDP between 2003 and 2005, second only to agriculture’s 46% (MLYED, 2007). While tourism’s growth rate is difficult to separate out from the trade, hotels and restaurants sector in which it is classified, one estimate places its growth at 5.5% per year between 1998 and 2002 (World Bank/MIGA 2006), and a second at 7.4% per year between 2001 and 2006 (PHDR 2007). This contrasts to the agricultural sector whose growth rate has been declining as has its share of employment (from 84% in 2001 to 76% in 2006) and GDP (from 30% in 1998 to 25% in 2006).

The research conducted by Bashagi, and Muchapondwa, (2009) on assessment of the actions that could boost international tourism demand for Tanzania revealed that, tourist preference also has a significant impact on international tourism demand for Tanzania. The result implies a small proportion of tourists either return to the country or recommend the country to others. Since 81 percent of international arrivals to Tanzania are motivated by leisure, there is a need to improve tourism hospitality (customer service) to enhance tourist preference for the Tanzanian tourism experience. Some of the activities which could be undertaken in this regard would be the training of staff in the tourism industry, the improvement of tourism infrastructure such as roads and hotels, and aggressive marketing of Tanzanian tourism products to the world.

On the other hand, report submitted by Mitchell, and Faal, (2008) on making success work for the poor package tourism in Northern Tanzania revealed that, although the Northern Wildlife area is Tanzania’s major attraction, the unanimous opinion among both European and US tour operators is that it is becoming overcrowded, particularly in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There are too few options for tour routes on the Northern Circuit – only one road in/out and very limited accommodation choice. (Faal, J. & Mitchell, J. (2008).

Research conducted by Williams S., (1998), concluded that, ‘like many developing countries, infrastructure in Tanzania is fragmented and is in urgent need of rehabilitation if the country’s development plans are to be achieved. Private investment (both foreign and domestic) in tourism is directly related to the availability of adequate infrastructure (roads, water supply, telecommunications and power supply) and the involvement of the Government of Tanzania in the provision of essential public infrastructure is crucial for the expansion of the tourism industry. (Williams S., (1998:14). Therefore, it is true to say that, the provision of the basic public infrastructure not only increases the flow of visitors to the various sites, but also lowers the operational costs of the hoteliers which will ultimately further enhance the attractiveness of the sites as tourist destinations.

In addition, the results of a public-private sector consensus building workshop held in Dar es salaam (2001) on the key challenges and opportunities regarding the tourism revealed that, tourism infrastructure was described as embracing such things as roads, airports, railways, Parking areas, water supply, power services and signage. It was emphasized that the way people get to Tanzania and the basic utilities available to them on arrival and during their stay could significantly affect Tanzania’s ability to attract tourists. The workshop ended by reaching consensus that, tourism services should include accommodation facilities, camping facilities, Restaurants, fuel stations, banking facilities, and other retail businesses and services in Tanzania that take care of tourist needs.

SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH GAPS

Having gone through the above literature, the study observed that, for tourist activities to flourish in the northern circuit there is a need for government and other stakeholders to invest more on tourism infrastructure facilities. For example, air ports/ airstrips, hotels and utility because this sector of the economy generates more income to the individuals, companies and a country in general. It is through tourism activities the problem of unemployment to the youths can be alleviated, that leads to per capital income of Tanzanians to increase through tourism and consequently national development increased foreign exchange earnings.

The researcher observed that, although tourism in Tanzania is mainly concentrated in the Northern Circuit, but also most of literatures concentrated much on one or two type of tourism infrastructure like road, accommodation, or communication and no one had said about the general role of infrastructures facilities like Road/Air transport, Accommodation, Communication as well as utility; such as water and power/electricity in tourism industry. The investigation of this study is supported by Tanzania tourism sector survey (2009), as shown in the figure bellow which developed to shows visitor’s views on the area of tourism attraction that need improvement.

Figure .1 Areas that need Improvement

Source: Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey, 2009.

The figure above show that the Tanzania Tourism sector took various views from selected number of respondents on the areas in the tourism sector that need to be improved, as a result, majority of respondents pointed infrastructure as an areas which need immediate improvement.(Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey, 2009:15). This aroused the interest of the researcher to assess the roles of all types of infrastructures on tourism development especially in the northern circuit.

2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

According to Sekaran, (2002) theoretical frame work is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. “It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of associations among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and which have been identified through such process as interviews observations and literature survey”. (Sekaran, 2002:102).

Conceptual framework of this study has three types of variables namely; independent variable, moderating variable as well as dependent variable as they are illustrated in the figure 2.2 below.

OF THE THESIS

Figure 2.2 A Schematic Diagram of the theoretical Framework of the thesisDEPENDENT VARIABLE

TOURISM INDUSTRY
MODERATING VARIABLE
TOURISM POLICY
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
TOURISM INFRASTRUCTURES

Source: Author, 2012

Independent variable

Independent variable in this study is tourism infrastructure, because these are the catalytic for trade, investment and growth in the tourism and other industries. The main four independent variables are – Transportation infrastructures, Accommodations infrastructures, communication infrastructures as well as utilities infrastructure. The mentioned infrastructures have been explained as follows;-

Transportation infrastructure. This encompasses roads, railway, airport/ airstrips, transport facilities (vehicles, wagons, aeroplane units and balloons). Easy access to tourism destinations in terms of international transport and facilities for easy movement within the destinations are generally considered to be prerequisites for the development of tourism.Transport infrastructure enable not only tourists to reach the park and go back to their destination, it also help to transport huge amounts of goods to tourist resorts, hence to reduce cost of services to tourist resorts.

Good tourism infrastructures determine the length of stay of tourists in a particular area. Good infrastructure makes availability of goods and services for tourists become cheaper. Through the researcher’s observation on the services offered in the northern circuit, he concluded that, most services offered to tourist especially to the tourist resorts are very expensive due to difficult in transporting those services to resorts caused by poor loads.

Accommodation infrastructure. This includes hotels, restraints, and campsites. Good accommodation services to the tourists attract them to stay longer to the park hence increase national income of the hotel or campsite and the entire country. The absence of quality food, quality rooms, customer care and recreation in hotels discourage tourist to stay at a particular area of tourism destination (park). This statement has been supported by the study conducted by Okello and Yerian (2009) they concluded that “tourist satisfaction for all the parks is independent of tourist attractions, accommodation facilities, and tour services”. (Okello and Yerian (2009:15)

Communication system infrastructure. This includes communication networks through internets and telecommunication system. Reliable internet connections, the use of online payment as well as good telephone networks are the key issue for tourist attraction within the area. Most of international tourists pay their bills by using online methods like master cards as well as online checks, the presence of networking system in the parks will make tourist not to travel with money in their pockets as they do today, which is very risk for tourists.

Utility infrastructures. This utility infrastructure includes water supply and power supply. The adequate supply of electricity as well as clean water to the tourist sites is vital for the development of tourism because most of tourisms expect to get all services like in their home countries, things like warm swimming pools, laundry, dry-cleaning, lighting, entertainment including videos, television, radio, night clubs and elevators requires good flow of electricity in tourist destination. Good and pure water supply systems is one of the most important requirements for the development of tourism facilities is an adequate and continuous supply of safe water for drinking purposes as well as domestic and recreational use. Not only that, but also good waste disposal methods are good attractions for tourists.

The influence of infrastructure facilities on tourism development have also been emphasized by Crouch and Ritchie (2000) whereby they pointed various factors that are suitable for tourist attraction in a specific area that, various infrastructures like shopping, food services, travel services, transportation as well as accommodation services were regarded as catalysis for tourism development as the figure bellow shows:

Figure 2.3: Tourist Infrastructures

Source: Crouch and Ritchie, 2000.

Moderating variables
Tourism Policy

In this study, the moderating variable is Tanzania tourism policy of 1999, which was adopted in 1991 to provide the overall objectives and strategies necessary to ensure sustainable tourism development in the country. Knowing the potentiality of tourism sector, as a strategy for poverty alleviation, the National Tourism Policy of Tanzania was reviewed in 1999 to cope with the dynamism of the tourism industry.

The overall objective of the policy is to assist in efforts to promote the economy and livelihood of the people, essentially poverty alleviation through encouraging the development of sustainable and quality tourism that is culturally and socially acceptable, ecologically friendly. (URT, 1999:13)

According to this policy, it spells out that the private sector plays a major role in the tourism industry’s development, with the Government playing the catalytic role of providing and improving the infrastructure as well as providing a conducive climate for investment. The policy seeks to market Tanzania as a favoured tourism destination for touring. It is recognised that the private sector will play a major role in the tourist industry development, with the government playing the catalytic role of providing and improving the infrastructure as well as providing a conducive climate for investment. URT (1999:14).

Strategies for Tourism Development.

There have been various strategies spelt out by the Government of Tanzania as far as tourism industry is concerned, this have been insisted more after establishment of Tourism Master Plan (2002) which outlines strategies and programmes for the sector. The primary focus of this plan is to obtain sustainable benefits for the people of Tanzania by generating additional economic activity from available resources. Six primary areas addressed by the Integrated Tourism Master Plan are the following:

Creating greater awareness of Tanzania in the tourism source markets.

Expanding tourism products.

Securing a more competitive position.

Maximizing the necessary service skills.

Establishing the necessary structures and controls to underpin tourism development.

The tourist master plan (2002), spelt out what Tanzania offers to the tourism, these included abundance, diversity, reliability and visibility of wildlife, unspoiled environment and beautiful scenery, low tourist density, safe destination, beaches (Europeans), authenticity and the ‘unique African experience’, real Africa and cultural experiences as well as friendly people (Tourist Master plan 2002:24)

Having recognized the importance of infrastructure in tourism development, Tourist master plan (2002) has spelt out various infrastructure strategies targeted for investment such as roads, airports, utilities, as a prerequisite to investment in the tourism superstructure of hotels, lodges, camps, etc. (Tourist Master Plan 2002:76)

The tourist master plan spelt out that, “in order to further reduce the present dependence on Kenya as the main gateway for tourists to Tanzania, there is need to attract additional international flights to Kilimanjaro and Dar-es-Salaam international airports, and to improve the facilities at these airports; there is also a need to improve internal access by road, rail, air, boat to enable tourists to more easily visit parts of the country other than the Northern Wildlife Area”. (Tourist Master Plan 2002:76).

Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study is the tourism development; for a country to develop its tourism industry, there must be variety of tourism attractions, Tanzania has variety of tourism attraction almost in every region, and the most blessed area is the northern circuit with Kilimanjaro Mountain, Ngorongoro crater, Serengeti national park, Arusha national park, Tarangire and Manyara. For these attractions to be fully utilized and increase national income there is a need for public sector investment on various infrastructures that facilitate tourism activities.

The importance of tourism cannot be under estimated because tourism industry is one of the main sources of national income in Tanzania. Performance of tourism industry in Tanzania increase every year, therefore for massive flow of tourism activities, Tanzania through the Ministry of Natural resources and tourism, should firstly improve and modernize infrastructure facilities before advertising various attractions to the international tourists.