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Discuss the extent to which effective development policy depends on good research

Introduction

In development, for one to know what aids development, why a particular system works and how effective an approach taken towards improving development is, a proper research has to have been done. Development policy is a decision made or designed to improve a condition from a problematic state to a better or an improved form. Research is said to be ‘a careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something’ (Merriam-Webster). Some types of research done are reviewing existing research, field experiments, secondary analysis (reviewing information from existing archives), qualitative methods, survey, case studies, and cost-benefit analysis (research done to determine the cost and benefit from an action), amongst others (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002). Research is an important part of policy making because without research, pressing policy questions will not be answered as it’s hard to make a policy without identifying a problem, the context in which the problem is based and possible solutions that a policy could enforce.

In a research at the IMF in 2011, Moises Schwartz, the director of IEO states that “Research is at the heart of innovation and improving policymaking”. He goes on to say that research, at the IMF, helps develop and improve conceptual models that serve as the foundation for policy recommendations. In this paper research will be used in relation to evidence-based

This paper discusses how research influences policy, the gap between researchers and policy makers and how good research is needed for effective development policy making.

Research and Development policy

One cannot make a policy if one doesn’t know what that policy is to address. Without research, policy makers will not be informed about the problem that requires a solution through careful planning and decision making. The way research is done and presented could influence deeply the policy making process (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002).

For the creation of effective development policy, not just a policy under huge probability that it might work, proper research has to be done. Furthermore, for the improvement of quality of life and reduction in poverty, a proper use of research and evidence in the making and practice of development policy, is required (Court et al 2004). Research promotes credibility and also plays an important role on how policymaking is thought of by country authorities and also, research improves the gathering and spread of global knowledge (IMF 2011).

Effective development policy requires researches that are relevant to the particular policy question. Researches done for a specific development policy question will look at the problem from all spheres, gather knowledge about the problem from the place the problem is situated and the people it affects, carry out a thorough case study and could also ask indigenous people to suggest solutions as they know better what will work for them and then make recommendations which will influence the development policy making. This entire process will ensure that the policy is effective as the decision will be based on research that addressed the problem directly and evidence produced. People in a community, through participatory approach, a research technique, could identify problems in their society and proffer solutions to these problems (green et al 1995; Frankish et al 1997).

The 1999 white paper on modernizing government adopted evidence based policy as part of its philosophy as it expressed its expectations of policy makers to bring up new ideas, take a different approach to the way things have been done in the past he use of research in the policy making process and also to create policies that will proffer effective long term solutions. Research helps policy makers be well informed about a situation a policy is to address however “…there is nothing a government hates more than to be well-informed for it makes the process of arriving at decisions much more complicated and difficult” ( Skidelsky 1992). In my own opinion, research restrains the government from making a “one fit all” policy. It is easier for a government or donor institutions to make a ‘one fit all’ policy than going through the process of research, gaining adequate knowledge about a particular problem and having to make policies that fit specific contexts or societies and not been able to make a general policy that is not based on specific contexts or a countries specificity.

In basil jones paper on linking research to policy, he says to achieve effectiveness and efficiency better sector work has to be done alongside research and analysis in development process which will in turn influence policy making. Without research or proper knowledge of a development problem, it is hard to make right decisions that will enable effective solutions.

There is a great link between research and policy making although, it has been said that there is a gap between policy makers and researchers. It said that researchers make their findings inaccessible, sometimes lengthy, in a different language and uneasy to decipher just in time for policy decisions (Jones, 2011). Also, researchers do not research on problems facing policy makers but answer questions based on the tools and resources they have (World Bank 2010).

Development policies are made based on finding solutions to development problems and research seeks to study and find possible and optimum solutions to those problems. Thus, without proper communication between the researchers and policy makers, it will be impossible to make an effective development policy as it is impossible to make a developmental progress if these two actors are working individually or separately.

Conclusion

it has been noted that governments and donor institutions tend to make ‘one fit all’ policies that will cut across different countries without taking into consideration the different countries peculiarity or its institutional context and sometimes are accused of making policies based on existing data from doctored research plans and conclusions that fit an existing policy or research done before without making room for new researches (Brettenwoods project, 2011). For example, the prevalent view amongst staffs of the IMF is that research findings need to be in relation with current IMF policies and evaluations done at the IMF showed that some researches were done with the conclusion and an already present policy in mind and some researches had different conclusions and recommendations separate from the analysis done in the research (IMF 2011). Furthermore, some NGOs have distorted the policy making process which renders the policy incapable and in turn creating negative effect on the poor by not engaging in research based evidence (Harper 2001). Above, it was noted that there was a significant gap between policy makers and researchers which needed to be bridged. Bridging the gap between these two actors In the development process could be done by making good use of researches that have been done and researchers communicating their findings to policy makers(court and young 2006).

Also these donors should not make it all about the funding but also gaining or gathering and sharing new knowledge which can only be gotten from good research (Jones 2011). Policy questions should be the basis for a research and not just research based on the resources available to the researcher or what attracts the interest of the researcher at that time. Furthermore, in considering the future of development, results that influence policy and practice and relevant to poor people’s needs could be gotten by the improving the researchers effectiveness to produce such results. This was stated in a 2008 research strategy of DFID.

Finally in answering the question to which extent effective development policy depends on good research, before a policy is made, there has to be an evidence of a problem and the evidence of the problem and knowledge gathered about the problem is held in mind before a decision is made to improve the condition of a problem, so basically there cannot be a policy without a research of some kind. Therefore, a development policy depends on research but an effective development policy that will properly address a problem that is being faced will depend on a good and thorough research. This paper has discussed the link and gap between research and policy, the dependency of policy on research and also the benefits of an evidence based policy.

References

“Research” Merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. web 26 February 2014

Social work as a practice was not defined as a profession until the early 20th century even in other countries there are different ideas as to what a social worker is; for example in some developing countries what in the United Kingdom as a youth worker is seen as a social worker. In England a probation officer does not need to be a qualified social worker whereas in Scotland it is necessary for the individual to be qualified. In Scotland social workers are registered with the Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) and have to abide by their professional code of conduct, which is important as a national guideline due to social work being such a diverse area. It is important for social work to abide by these guidelines but also to use theories that are of relevance to inform their practice.

Social work theory throughout the years has continued to be an important part of social work practice. The purpose of this assignment is to critically discuss and analyse the relevance to two of these theories into practice using the O’Donnell family. The two theories this assignment will look at is the attachment theory, Erikson’s eight stages of man and also to look at anti oppressive practice. It is important to look at these different types of theories as they are all important dynamics that are necessary for social workers to understand the society, individuals and politically and socially influenced world in which they have to work in.

An example of a mid range theory is the theory of attachment, the first theory of attachment was written by John Bowlby; Bowlby believed that the attachment between mother and infant was important to the child’s future development. Bowlby also believed in four characteristics of attachment: proximity management, safe haven, secure base and separation distress. If a child suffers separation from their primary carer (their mother) then this may manifest into social problems later in life however if the child has unpredictable contact with their mother then it will have insecure attachment. Bowlby later looked at attachment throughout different ages and stages of development, to understand how a person that losses or is separated from an individual they had developed an attachment with would be affected. It has been identified that attachment behaviour is inbuilt as it can be triggered if a child is scared or frightened. If a child feels loved and valued by their primary caregiver it is highly likely that the child will develop a good level of self-esteem and perhaps may be more confident and independent in later life due to a feeling of belonging and acceptance. However should a child feel they are rejected or neglected by their primary caregiver it is like they may feel unwanted and unlovable. The positive example of attachment would allow the child to develop a trusting bond which would not be the case with the negative attachment example. This relates to Erikson’s eight stages of man; this is an infant’s stage of psychosocial development which has two paths a child can take depending on the care they receive trust versus mistrust is established.

This theory of attachment was developed further by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970’s in her study “Strange Situations” based on observing children aged twelve to eighteen months, she described three types of attachment that she discovered during her studies these were; secure, ambivalent and avoidant attachment. Secure attachment is seen as the most preferred and beneficial to a child’s positive development; the care given by the primary caregiver would be attentive and provide a solid base for the child to progress emotionally, socially and intellectually. Ambivalent attachment tends to occur when the primary carer is unreliable and unstable this would be classed as emotional neglect which may leave the child unsure of their place within the family which may result in the child displaying distressing or anxious behaviour. Children who are victims of this type of behaviour may be very attention seeking in order to gain the focus of those around them that they do not get at home. A child however that is a victim of avoidant attachment would perhaps be less likely to show their true feelings or talk about them as they are afraid of those they are close to leaving them. The child’s lack of emotional response would possibly be because the primary caregiver in these cases will perhaps show more care and attention when the child is content however if the child shows visible signs of distress or need they will pull away from them. In some cases children exposed to avoidant care givers may take drugs or alcohol to cope with their fear of rejection from others.

This attachment theory was even further developed by Main and Solomon in the 1980s they outlined a further type of attachment called disorganised attachment or insecure attachment, a child’s primary caregiver in this stage is confusing to the child. Children who are subject to these varying behaviours tend to fear the loss of that attention even though they are given the attention they require.

A child who has been unable to have a secure attachment, for example through abuse, fostering or adoption, is more likely to have problems in future with their relationships with others or suffer emotionally.

Attachment theory has been used in social work to work with children and families and has more recently become part of mental health practice. It is important to acknowledge in social work how a person’s past in terms of the family unit they were brought up in and the level of care they received can affect them in the present; also how the individuals past experiences can affect their own children. However it is also important for social workers to look other theories as well to help inform their practice and not focus on a singular theory. This theory is also a past orientated theory as it looks at how the past effects the present.

In relation to the O’Donnell family Kate would appear to have been a victim of avoidant attachment due to being left by her mother and taken into care at an early age. Because of her past she may be fearful of her children rejecting her as her self esteem would have been affected due to being in and out of care homes. This difficulty in attaining meaningful attachments may also have contributed to her being a lone parent and Kate is repeating history with her own children as they are developing a meaningful attachment with her friend Frances. It is also significantly appropriate to examine how this is affecting Kate’s children and how this may manifest later if intervention is not made by social workers to bring a closer bond to the primary carer.

A further mid range theory that was touched upon in a previous passage was established by a psychosocial psychologist by the name of Erik Erikson. Erikson’s theory was loosely based around Freud’s past works however it was developed into what is called Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man. According to Erikson at certain ages throughout a person’s life they will go down one of two developmental paths, however it is necessary for those using this theory that it is not simply one path or the other. Erikson acknowledged the fact that although a person should go down the The eight stages are Trust versus Mistrust, Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt, Initiative versus Guilt, Industry versus Inferiority, Identity versus Identity Confusion, Intimacy versus Isolation, Generativity versus Self-Absorption, and finally the last stage Integrity versus Despair. The first stage takes place in infancy this is when a child is most vulnerable as they rely entirely on their care givers; if the child comes to know that they can rely on their primary caregiver as the care giver is continuously there for them then they will develop to trust more than a child whom is ignored or has unreliable caregivers and develops mistrust. Each oof these stages has an impact on the next stage of development and therefore it is detrimental to producing a balanced human being that the child passes through with more positive experiences of emotional development than negative. In the second stage autonomy versus shame this takes place when a child is around the ages of one to four the third stage initiative versus guilt takes place between the ages of four and six, if a child has in stage four the child between the ages of six to twelve industry versus inferiority

In stage five identity versus role confusion this takes place in adolescence generally between the ages of twelve and twenty; at this age an up and coming adult is most likely to be at the peak of peer pressure and will be discovering who they are both as a person and sexually. This can be a very hard time for individuals but with a good base they will be likely to find who they are with easae however it is possible that they will become confused for example the loss of a father figure for a boy may result in that person being unable to undersand why the Erikson’s eight stages of man have been criticized due to the fact that it was based ona study of men, it can be seen as a rigid document and does not take into account individual factors. For example an individual whom has a severe learning disability and perhaps has been psychologically examined to be at a mental age of five will not suffer from the complexities of stage five although that may be their corresponding age with Erikson’s chart. Although this criticism should be kept in mind, Erikson’s stages of man can be a useful tool as a guideline for use in social work.

Although Erikson’s model may seem very black and white it is important to remember that during each stage of development in order to have a healthy perspective in life, it is important in each stage that the strongest is the positive from the scale, there must be some level of negative development; for example a little bit of mistrust is healthy as to trust naively would eventually result in a individual putting themselves in danger. Trust versus Mistrust takes place during infancy; the route in which the infant’s personality takes depends on the parent to provide those needs that the infant cannot satisfy itself. If the mother does not take care of her child through neglect the infant will not develop basic trust and will take a negative step on the psychosocial scale. Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt takes place during early childhood, starting in a child’s second year of life, once again children are reliant on their parents to support them during this stage. This is when a toddler tries to become an individual. If the child’s vulnerability does not get the necessary support from the care givers then they will develop a sense of shame and doubt. Initiative versus Guilt takes place also during childhood normally developing during the ages of four and five; this is where a child tries to establish their own boundaries as they try to establish their identity

In stage four, Industry versus Inferiority, taking place up until puberty, this is when a child tries to be recognized for their achievements, for example at school for doing a project, however if they do not get this desired recognition and feeling of achievement then it can result on them developing a feeling of inferiority, inadequacy. Parents still play an important role in this stage however as it takes place primarily at school, teachers are important. Stage five, identity versus identity confusion takes place during adolescence this is when the individual try to find a sense of themselves, this Stage six, intimacy versus isolation is the first stage to take place during adulthood, intimacy with other human beings can only happen when identity is established. The intimacy can be with a friend or a lover it involves merging personalities with others. It is important for an individual to have this intimacy otherwise it can result in them being alone and withdrawn. Stage seven, Generativity versus stagnation, this is the second stage an individual goes through in adulthood, people who are generative are productive, tolerant and able to care for others and themselves equally. It is not always expressed through parenthood sometimes it can be through being a teacher. Those who are unable to develop in this stage result in a feeling of being stuck as they are unable to care for other people properly. The eighth stage is integrity versus despair, this takes place during old age, an individual in this stage establishes integrity being satisfied with their life and believing it was important and had a purpose. The person who reflects on life positively, according to Erikson, have an acceptance of death. However, a person who reflects on their life, feeling full of regret of their past it is also shown through a report to researchers that those who were more feeble through their body’s degeneration felt as though they had little control (Geppert & Halisch, 2001) and therefore despair would occur as they were not as willing to accept death. (Cloninger, 2008).

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was based on clinical evidence there has been further research into this work specifically in the adolescent stage of identity versus identity confusion. This research was accomplished by James Marcia whom

As there have been many studies carried out in child development this essay will breakdown its content into the history of attachment theory and the basics of how it works. Mary Ainsworth was well known for her ‘Strange Situations’ study and this essay will give a brief description of the experiment and its outcome and will be critically explored. As social deprivation is still a common factor in today’s society this essay will define what is meant by social deprivation and then will investigate the consequences this has on children that have been reared in that environment. It will then show a study of children raised in orphanages and institutions and demonstrate how the effects of having no attachment to caregivers can have a negative result on their development. Many studies relating to attachment throughout the lifespan and attachment in adulthood have been carried out and this essay will break down these studies and determine whether the outcomes are conclusive or not. Finally a conclusion will be given on the relevance of attachment theory and how individuals have formed and developed throughout the life course.

Attachment theory is the work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Bowlby devised the basic system of the theory which was to reform our understanding about a child’s connection to the mother, and the disturbance caused through separation, deprivation and bereavement. Ainsworth’s technique’s made it possible to expand the theory and has contributed towards some of the new direction that it has taken up to date. Ainsworth gave the idea of the attachment figure as a secure base from which an infant can investigate the world; she developed the concept of maternal sensitivity to the infant signals and its role in the development of infant – mother attachment patterns. Bowlby summarised that for a child to grow up mentally healthy, it needs to experience a warm, intimate and stable relationship with its mother. He accentuates on the primary carer as being female, claiming that he did not agree that dependency is established with a secondary supporter. (Bretherton, 1992). The three characteristics of attachment theory are secure attachment, ambivalent attachment and avoidant attachment. Securely attached children show the slightest distress when parted from their caregiver; this is because they feel secure and are able to depend on their caregivers, the children feel at ease in seeking out their caregiver when frightened. When a parent or caregiver leaves an ambivalently attached child, they will become very distressed. This is the outcome of poor maternal connection as the child can not depend on the caregiver when in need. Children with avoidant attachment are likely to avoid caregivers. They show no difference of emotion between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research shows that this is the result of abusive or neglectful acts by the caregivers. (Wagner, 2009). Mary Ainsworth constructed an assessment technique called the Strange Situation Classification. (SSC). She investigated the security of attachment in one-to-two-year-olds in the ‘strange situation’ study to figure out the nature and types of attachment. Ainsworth created an experimental procedure observing the various attachment forms demonstrated between caregivers and infants. The infants were between 12 and 18 months old and were placed in a small room with a one way glass window so that they could be observed. Over the space of 21 minutes, managed in 3 minute sessions the following episodes were conducted; mother and infant were left alone, a stranger joins the mother and infant, mother leaves infant and stranger alone, mother returns and stranger leaves, mother leaves so infant is totally alone, stranger returns and then lastly the mother returns and the stranger leaves. Ainsworth’s findings during this study were that the child suffered separation anxiety-the child was distressed when the mother left, stranger anxiety- avoided the stranger but was friendly when the mother was present and finally the child displayed a reaction when reunited with their mother. (McLeod, 2007). The strengths of SSC are that it is a reliable study. It delivers dependable results and has become accepted worldwide as a method for measuring levels of attachment. Although the study has positive outcomes it can be criticised that the attachment is only focused on that between the mother and child. There is no mention of the other parent or grandparents to whom children can have an attachment bond with. (Lamb, 1978) Other research has found that the same child may display different attachment behaviour on different occasions. When a child’s circumstances change their attachment may also alter, if family circumstances were to become different. (McLeod, 2007)

Social deprivation can be defined as being denied suitable and responsive interaction with others, whether the denial occurred from limitations positioned on a physical ability to be in the company of others or by limitations on an emotional access to others. There are two related elements to this type of deprivation which are social and emotional neglect. Social neglect includes situations where a child is left without a caregiver or when the caregiver can not attend to the child but is present. Emotional neglect is where the caregiver denies affectionate physical and emotional contact. They ignore all signals of distress from the child and do not give any reassurance, encouragement, comfort and stimulation. (Provence and Lipton, 1962)

Researchers have attempted to establish the effects of childrearing in socially deprived environments on child development. Studies have been carried out on the development of children from institutions and orphanages who appeared to have few social and emotional interactions compared to home-reared, securely attached children. During these studies it was found that children reared in socially deprived institutions developed differently to the home- reared children. Barbara Tizard and Anne Joseph conducted a study on orphans that lived in a clean three-storey building which looked like an institution as opposed to a house. The orphans complied with the caregivers’ demands and rules resulting in the orphanage being quiet and orderly. Beds were separated from each other by glass cubicles. There was shared eating; toileting and play facilities were within a large group of children. The infants and younger children spent up to 20 hours per day in their cubicle-like cribs, which restricted their movement and resulted in solitary confinement. Even during duties such as nappy changing and bathing, social interactions were kept to a minimum. (Tizard and Joseph, 1970). As the orphans were socially deprived they had less opportunity to witness models of appropriate behaviour. They were not engaged in the usual maternal process that secure home-reared children are given. Provence and Lipton (1962) observed the poor quality of peer interaction between institutionally reared children. Their report indicated that the infants showed little interest in one another even though they had been placed closed to one another in their cribs. This therefore prevented them from developing friendships. When compared to home-reared children, the children from the orphanages and institutions appeared to show different behaviours varying from aggression to irregular friendly behaviours. As a result of being reared in a socially deprived environment the children develop feelings of low self-esteem and a degenerated feeling of self worth, where as home-reared children, who are securely attached respond to feelings of self worth as they learn that their needs are important. Children aged 9-11 years old who had suffered severe and emotional neglect had displayed health problems. They became aggressive and developed anti-social behaviours. They were found to have poor quality peer relationships and show characteristics such as worry, fear, depression and hyperactivity. Attachment theory would conclude that lower cognitive ability and motor function would be the result for children reared in social deprivation. (Provence and Lipton, 1962)

A study carried out by Stevens concluded that children reared in an orphanage that had many caregivers over time yet had high levels of attention and interactions from the caregivers, developed normal attachment relationships. (Stevens, 1971) During the 1970s English childcare authorities reconstructed their residential institutions so that they resembled more of a homely environment. The number of staff was increased to care for smaller mixed-age groups in an attempt to encourage the attachment of staff members to the groups of children. (Tizard and Joseph, 1970)

Bowlby believed that the attachment characteristics were carried throughout the life span right through to death. (Fraley, 2004). According to researchers Hazan and Shaver, the emotional connection that develops between adult romantic partners is similar to that of the attachment traits. They noted that the bonds between infants and caregivers and romantic adult partners share the same features such as both feeling safe when they other is nearby, they both share explorations together and they both feel insecure when the other is unattainable. Some adults could be anxious-resistant and worry that they would not be loved leading them to be easily disheartened and angered when their attachment needs are not met. Other adults could be avoidant, seeming not to care much about other people and not having to depend on others and allowing others to depend on them. Whether an adult is secure or insecure in their adult relationships this could be an impression made from their own attachment experiences as a child. (Fraley, 2004). As infants learn social behaviours through secure attachment bonds, the trust and praise endorsed through these bonds are believed to be the basis for the relationships that individuals build as they move from childhood to adulthood. (Bowlby, 1969). Researchers have argued that the connection between infant attachment and adult romantic attachments are only slightly related yet Fraley and Shaver (2000) state that the theory continues to influence behaviour, thoughts and feelings in adulthood and this hypothesis has remained firm for more than over a decade regardless of the different types of intimate relationships.

Attachment theory from the 70’s, compared to present day has been criticized for neglecting the internal world. It has been stated that attachment theory should pay more attention to regular distortions of the child’s outlook of the external world and that the internal working models can conflict with each other. It seems that attachment theory and psychoanalysis overlap the limits of human knowledge. Both theories assume that the first years of life are the most important for the personality to develop: that the maternal feelings are a common factor in establishing the attributes of object relationships and therefore physic development. Furthermore in both theories, early relationships implement the conditions within which certain critical psychological functions are obtained and developed. Both focus on mental and personality development and emotional disorder. (Zepf, 2006)

Attachment theory is now recognized and accepted as a lifespan developmental theory which is important in clinical practice for understanding how early bonding experiences influence psychical and emotional well-being. There is still quite a constricted understanding of what it means to be attached during adulthood. There has been no general agreement on what kind of relationships are acknowledged as adult attachments. As Bowlby (1969) based his child attachment behaviour targets on older figures that are stronger and wiser, this can appear to be deceiving when applied to the changeable attachment behaviour and the sexual nature of some adult attachments. Neither Bowlby nor Ainsworth wrote much about adults and attachment and focused most of their studies on the mother-child relationship, as they believed it had a greater influence on their development. As a result, the information foundation of adult attachment is still developing and not yet final. Early attachment experiences are carried forward and contribute towards the adult personality. Although the bond may not be as extensive, research has proven that family members, friends and even pets provide elements of attachment. (Sable, 2008). Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted a study of adult attachment to explore the influence of attachment quality on romantic love. In their report they found that secure attachment was related to happy, loving relationships of adults who received a caring and attentive childhood. Another study carried out by Main and colleagues (George et al, 1996) based on Ainsworth’s attachment patterns is the Adult Attachment interview. This study was aimed to explore the reasons why adults behave with regards to their childhood experiences. The individuals were asked to relay their relationships with their childhood attachment figures and to bring to mind occurrences which had remained in their memories, for example, separation, loss or rejection. A description was then asked for how their parents’ behaviour may have influenced their adult personality. Their security was determined by the individuals’ capability to reflect on their happenings and to be able to describe them in an open and rational manner. The study resulted in finding that there is an attachment behavioural system that stays active throughout life. Although adults do not require the regular physical company of an attachment figure, as they do when an infant, they do need to know that they have trustworthy and reliable sources around when they are feeling scared, ill or just need reassurance. (Sable, 2008)

Finally, to conclude this essay, it is clear that attachment is a positive theory and the main negatives are from the studies created relating to adult attachment as they appear to be inconclusive. As attachment focuses on the importance of the amount of affection given in relationships, it seems to be the basis of all underlying problems that are surrounded in mental and emotional reactions emitted by both adults and infants. Social deprivation does appear to create an adverse reaction to children being reared in that environment and thus emphasises and confirms why attachment bonds play an important role in children developing mentally healthily and secure and able to lead a strong and grounded life as an adult.

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Social policy may be described in two ways. Primarily, social policy is seen to have a direct impact on individuals and groups of people. Secondly, Social policy is an academic subject to be researched. Social Policy may be defined as the “developing and implementing measures to combat social problems in society, and to the academic study of these measures and their broader social context” (Alcock, Erskine, and May, 2002:240). Baldock, Manning, and Bickerstaff (2007: xxi.) describe a ‘social policy’ as the states deliberate involvement to “redistribute resources amongst its citizens so as to achieve a welfare objective”. Social policies affect a wide range of people, whether it is at an individual level or regards to communities. According to Spicker (2008:1) social policies have to concentrate on several issues including housing, health, education, social security and employment.

The development of Social policies and their implementation have a direct impact on the social welfare of everyone in the society. Social welfare refers to the various social arrangements that are in place to meet the needs of individuals and groups in society, with the hope to tackle social problems. According to Fitzpatrick (2001:5) social policy aims to maximize welfare and minimize diswelfare and he states that there are six main perspectives on welfare: “happiness, security, preferences, needs, desert, and relative comparisons”.

There are numerous texts that exist around the issue of policy formation and its contested relationship with the effects of the policies implementation on the welfare of those it aims to target. This essay aims to provide an overview of the evolution of social policy, legislation and practice in relation to child welfare in Irleand.

Relation to an Aspect of Irish Policy

Hill and Hupe stated that “Implemenation inevitably takes different shapes and forms in different cultures and institutional settings”(2006:2). This section of the essay will examine some of the relationship between social policy and child welfare in Ireland from the 1940’s up to the present day.

Children Allowance and Health Care:

Perphaps one of the most signisifcant social policy developments regarding child welfare was in introduction of Children’s Allowance in 1944. However, the initial implemention of the Act included serveral discrepancies, thus it did not benefit the welfare of all the communitiy. For example, initially the payment was only availabe to families with three or more children. Means testing meant that many families were elimanted from the possible social welfare they deserved. Simliarly, in 1950, Noel Browne introduced the Mother and Child Scheme. He hoped that this would overcome many of the elements that infringed the rights of people in regards to the Childrens allowance. However, both the Catholic church and the medical profession opposed he’s scheme in fear that state run and free medical care would go against their hierachy. With Browns later resignation,the hope of his scheme being fully implented collapsed. Burke (2005:29) stated that “the controversy over the mother and child scheme has profound effecs on the developement of social policy in this country”. The power struggle between the church and the state most definelty lead to diswelfare among citizens.

Mandatory Reporting of Child Abuse:

Society has a challenging task of protecting children. Societies need to employ several ways in which they can achieve this, for example, social, economic, moral, legal and environmental. In the mid 1990’s, The Law Reform Commission recommended the introduction of mandatory reporting of child abuse. The matter of mandatory reporting is one of complexity which has implications not only for children’s welfare but also families, workers and the state. One of the main advantages of the implemenation of such a system was the hope that it would empower proffesionals to report abuse. Above all else it was prodicted that this would secure consistency and would provide a basis for better statistical evidence. However, disadvantages included the danger of over reporting of cases using scarce resources.

There was great variety of options about the mandatory reporting of child abuse. Many argued for an “immediate introduction of mandatory reporting of child abuse as it was seen as a means of protecting children”( ACT Legislative Assembly: nd) and their welfare. However, others believed it would divert the already scarce resources from programs that delivered assistance to families and “at risk” children. For example, Lipsky (1980) beleived that scarcity of resources leads to street- level bureaucracies being consistently criticized for their inability to implement policies which are related to the areas they work in thus leading to diswelfare in many cases. After much debate, the government decided against the introduction of mandatory reporting on the basis that it was not in the children’s best interests and welfare. The scarcity of resources combined with the complex relationship between proffesionals and clients made it unrealistic.

Legislative Framework Governing the Implementation of Childcare Policy:

The Children Act of 1908 and the Health Act 1953 and 1957 were replaced by the Child Care Act 1991 and the Children Act 2001 as the primary statutory framework for the care and control of children in Ireland. Among many provisions, the main aim of the Act according to O’ Sullivan (2009:251) is “the placing of a statutory duty on health boards to promote the welfare of children who are not receiving adequate care and protection”. In the period following the passing of the childrens act in 1991, many attempts were made to standardise procedures and practises in the area of childcare services. For exmaple, the Report of the Killkenny Incest Enquiry in 1993 evidently highlighted that guidelines were not being used and many workers were not even aware of there existence. However, in 1995, new guidelines on ‘The Notification of Suspected Cases of Child Abuse Between Healthboards and Gardai’ were issued and aimed at standardising the cases between the two agencies. This was a step forward for maximising the welfare of children.

In 1999, in the Publication of Children First; National Guidelines for the Protection and Welfare of Children were introduced to improve proffesional practise and thus improving the welfare of children. It highlighted the importance of consistency between policies and procedures. Unlike guidelines before it, Children First was built upon a set of principles which included participation by parents/carers and children in conferences and the development of child protection plans. These guidelines were valuable as they provided a framework for practise, meaning that proffessionals are accountable for their actions. In 2002, Buckley made a warning of the dangers of an over regulated system, as she believed it may lead to discretion and therapeutical skills being replaced by adminstrative management and regulation. In 2003 The Social Services Inspectorate was asked to monitor the implementation of the guidelines, however, while some aspect of the report were postivie,it was concluded that the progress in realtion to “Garda/health board cooperation, the child protection committees and planning for family support services was inadequate” O’ Sullivan (2009:257) Confusion surrounding the implementation of this policy still exists.

Conculsion:

This essay has attempted to summarise and give a critical analysis of certain social policy in Ireland and their relationship with childrens Welfare. As illustrated in the above examples, the in most cases policies may be developed with the hope to benefit and increase the welfare of children but unless they are implemented correctly the policies may lead to diswelfare.

Refugee and immigrant children and youth along with their families comprise the majority of Canadian society. Refugees and immigrants are the mosaic face of present day society. We as citizens have witnessed the process newcomers experience in order to receive their Canadian status. As we are aware of the possible complications that can arise both the Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) article along with Fantino and Colak (2001) article shed an interesting light on migration. These articles discuss how youth challenge these barriers to gain identity in the new society, how issues arise between their inner self and society and also how society can contribute to migration complications. The articles also review how society can be seen to have a positive impact to their experience during migration and adaptation. Both articles assume a similar theme when discussing the challenges/troubles these youth and children encounter during their acculturation period.

Summary of articles:

“Diamonds in the Rough: Bridging gaps in support for at-risk immigrant and refugee youth” summarized the troubles both within the individual and society that is creating a gap within the youth. The gap between individual and society is brought to point in this article as creating a behavior in the youth to engage in high-risk criminal behaviors. Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) focus on the risk and protective factors that are “perceived by key stakeholders to influence ‘at-risk’ immigrant youth who eventually become involved in crime, gangs and violence in Edmonton, Canada” (Pg. 2). Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) organize their article on the view of immigrant and refugee youth behavior by discussing immigrants and crime, bringing upon a theoretical background focused on Maslow’s theory and how Maslows Hierarchy of need provide insight as to how inner fulfillment discourages “negative” actions/thoughts/behaviors.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) review a study that was conducted in order to attain a deeper perspective of the migrating youth into Canadian society; they discuss the risk factors both in the community setting and within the individual. These studies first discussed negative factors affecting the youth and positive factors assisting the youth to not fall into criminal behavior. Lastly, both authors discuss a “solution” that I would like to classify it in order to understand these gap and “misinterpretation” between a trouble both within and outside the youth.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) state that youth who migrate to Canada with their family are faced with issues from back home, such as “pre-migration violence and trauma were reported to be predisposing risk factors for youth involvement in violent and criminal activity in Canada: many youth from refugee camps have witnessed or experienced violence (e.g. rape, murder, and torture) and suffer from depression, nightmares, flashbacks and or disturbed sleep patterns” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 9). A youth arriving in a country that has already developed their own culture and unique mother of tongue can further create a bigger barrier for the youth in terms of acclimating to this new society, their new home.

Social services representative discuss the complications of integration that can cause “stress or anxiety-all their symptoms basically prevent them from learning and adapting” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9). These youth experience pressure to fit in when it comes to the school system. They are encountered with peer pressure or alienation (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9) as “association with antisocial peers, however, can lead to violent altercations and crime (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9). Education was one area where it was classified as a positive impact encouraging youth to act in a positive manner (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.4). Due to the alienation that youth experience due to the want of fitting in within their peers, criminal justice representative said education was seen as extremely important for immigrant and refugee youth: “Not having [education] is what’s creating the push in the other direction, and having it is what would save them” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 13). Creating these barriers furthermore sets this youth to drop out and as a school is seen as a recruitment into drug-related crimes (Pg.10). While seeing the complications that the lack of education can cause we can acknowledge the importance of school and education towards the future of the youth.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) discuss how youth first entering Canada with their families are seen to be lead by the government into subsidized housing (p.11) due to their lack of finances thus, these youth may not have the same economic standing as their peers. This makes the youth feel uncomfortable leading to the youth having to deal with an inner struggle between “wants and needs” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 9). The authors made it clear that contributing factors such as: “family support and stability, socio-economic status, physical and mental health, age of arrival, language proficiency, interpersonal skills social networks, personal resilience, employment opportunities and housing and neighborhood, among others” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 4) are seen as a pushing negative factor and also a helpful positive factor for the youth to get out of troubles in the criminal system. The authors prescribe mentorship and school activities to assist these youth out of the negative criminal behavior (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 13-14). They discuss how teachers are “often unaware of the challenges faced by immigrant and refugee students, and the education system itself is ill prepared to meet their complex needs. Isolation and a lack of social support at school and in the wider community mean that immigrant and refugee youth may be left with few options, and antisocial peers involved in drugs, crime and gangs may be perceived as attractive alternatives” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.16). Family and community support along with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs should be in place in order to assist these youth. Families seen to be “living in poverty are often unable to meet the physiological and safety needs of their children; at-risk youth who go to school without breakfast or lunch and live in subsidized housing may be especially vulnerable. Youth who lack close relationships to family, school and community or who suffer from feelings of inadequacy or failure are easy targets for gangs who promise to fulfill their needs for belonging and self-esteem.” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.16).

The authors review the negative and positive influences that contribute to the idea of where funding should be focused. The authors provide the reader with a qualitative research method to get a better understanding by talking to adults who experienced youth criminal activities due to the barriers put forth. It is also important to note that the authors touched upon the lack of statistical research that is brought forth to the public that shows if immigrant and refugee youth are the only ones big in numbers in the jail system.

Refugee children in Canada: searching for an identity written by Fantino and Colak (2001) provide an overview of migration issues that arise and the troubles that these children are faced with pre and post arrival into Canada. Fantino and Colak (2001) discuss how the children migrating with their families bring with them issues that they face while coming to a new country as a refugee “trauma from witnessing violent crimes, language difficulties, family disruption, and adjustment to a different culture-in addition to the challenges that accompany childhood and growing up” (p. 587). Fantino and Colak (2001) draw comparison between immigrant children versus a refugee child. They both write how both classes deal with “migration and endure the ‘push-and-pull’ forces of home and school, which often work in opposite directions” (p.589). As we are taught to believe that immigrants face less barriers due to their receipt of citizenship Fantino and Colak do not fail to portray the similarities of both groups. Both may encounter society’s discrimination and racism, and developing a sense of identity-while trying to bridge generational and cultural gaps (Fantino and Colak 2001, p.589). “Perhaps the greatest threat to these children is not the stress of belonging to two cultures but the stress of belonging to none” (p.589.) If these children receive a sense of belonging this can open up and increase their self-esteem and further avoid future barriers and inner fights within the child.

One specific concentration that Fantino and Colak (2001) bring forth is the desire for children in the school setting “to be accepted by their peer group, be seen as a dependent and a master by interpreting for their parents” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.589) these factors can contribute to the sense of belonging discussed earlier. These children are in essence parentified as they face the pressure of “interpreting for their parents” (p. 589). This pressure can have a dramatic effect on the child as they are given adult responsibility in settings they are not familiar with. Fantino and Colak (2001) wonder if children really do “adapt better to society” (p.591). They discuss the trouble of parents with the lack of communication they have with their children (p.590). Fantino and Colak refer to these refugee children as “children without history” (p. 594). Both authors bring forth ideas of the host country providing a positive act in order to make integration as a positive role for the child and family. One key factor in determining success is the “reception of newcomers by the host society” (p.589). Task force on mental healthi issues affecting immigrants and refugees (1998) writes that “settlement support services, schools, health and social services and the community at large play a crucial role in assisting and supporting children to adjust and integrate into Canadian society (As cited by Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 589). Fantino and Colak (2001) believe that in order for successful integration we must not ignore the parents who might also be facing trauma prior to arrival. They state that “their challenge is to meaningfully integrate their history with the present and future realities of Canada” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.595) it is only until we as Canadians work as a team to provide a safe haven for newcomers where we can assist and cater to their needs to provide them with adequate housing and support systems. As Fantino and Colak discuss migration trouble pre and post migration both authors do not fail to give Canadians a role on easy adaptation and this sense of guidance makes the struggle of migration as a societal problem and not solely a problem just with the migrating child with their family

Analytic discussion:

Both readings discuss the resolutions and the causes of what a child and youth experience as they migrate to a new country. The identified theme of the harm of migration to the individual at hand arises concerns and a deep look at why changes should be in place to assist the migrating newcomers. By looking deeply at the barriers/causes placed by society we will gain insight on understanding why. Both articles gather information by using a qualitative research method that asks children and adults who were deviant youth in the past about problems faced by both immigrant and refugee children and youth; both articles looked at the trouble faced within the individual and the trouble put on by society. Both articles answer questions of why and how these issues arise, both articles discuss solutions and the lack of statistics that would help to really understand the criminal system in regards to over population of immigrant and refugees in the institution.

As both articles take on such approaches to understanding migration and the effect it has on children regarding identity and youth portraying criminal behavior I will provide an analytic discussion in regard to the theme of troubles of migration faced by the immigrant and refugee child and youth. By discussing how the comparison of both articles both discussed the lack of identity the youth and child face, both articles discussed support systems, whether it was lacking or being seen as a great contributor for successful migration, education as a primary target for success in the individual and lastly community assistance that the host community must act upon. As all articles discuss the implication pre and post the child’s and youths migration I still believe that further questions need to be asked in order to get a more holistic and complete view of migration difficulties and criminal behavior that the child and youth experience.

Who is a refugee or immigrant youth or child when they come to Canada? It is to this thought that we can look at the identity of these young adults and children being challenged when entering a new country such as Canada. We are taught through both articles that when an individual such as a youth and child enter Canada we must realize the issues they have faced at home that might of led them to migrate: “trauma from witnessing violent crimes, language difficulties, family disruption, and adjustment to a different culture-in addition to the challenges that accompany childhood and growing up” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 587). When one reads such statements I can’t help but ask why aren’t these individuals dealing with the issues back home? Could it be that the government can no longer be trusted? Why migrate? Is Canada being portrayed to other countries as a loving, welcoming country? If so, we must change this. Canada being classified as a harmonious country or not has issues of its own. We are dealing with employment difficulties, high taxes, and are still involved in a war where other cultures are still being seen as a threat. Are we setting up this migrating youth with unrealistic expectations of Canada? Is this our fault as Canadians that we are simply setting up a “trap” for this migrating “victims” to have a “difficult” life in Canada?

The issues back home which may have pushed their migration to Canada is not the only issue that these age groups experience. They also witness and experience issues in their new land, and this act should simply put the blame on us, on Canadians. Support system in the school setting is seen to be lacked and to be a great contributor to be the line of helping the youth and child to avoid criminal behavior.

“The development of positive relationships with caring adults in the school setting, such as ESL or mainstream teachers, counselors and school resources officers, was also considered to be a protective factor. In some schools, member of ethno-cultural communities offer approved courses designed to help students develop identity and intercultural competence” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 14).

After school programs where the student can receive assistance in studies or being involved in recreational activities can provide an outlet for the student to develop an identity by taking interest in other activities and also assisting with developing relationship with other students or guides. This not only provides them with a family setting in the school atmosphere but also an family unit when parents struggle to understand the school setting or simply when parents do not have much involvement with their children due to work or emotional difficulties. “Dedicated workers such as these are helping youth exit gangs, offering them opportunities for success and keeping others from becoming involved with drugs and crime” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 14) As this form of assistance provides the assistance of the host community it shows how we can contribute positively to the outcome of the future of the new generation. As this is so, we must be aware of the access these children and youth have to schooling. Funding is needed for better schooling not only for these newcomers but also for youth all around. “In Canada the cost to incarcerate a youth for 1 year is approximately $100,000” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.3), and sending your child to school has no cost then leaves the question of why spend so much in incarcerating youth involved in criminal activity when such money can go into schooling where programs can arise from? As “we should be addressing the crime taken in each community” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 3) we know that education can be seen as a way out for these youth to avoid them from falling into a trap of gang involvement and provide these children with a sense of identity and skills this is an investment that will not only help the migrating newcomer individual but where society would also benefit from. Derwing et al. (1999) and Watt and Roessingh (1994,2001) state that “studies of school dropout rates of immigrant youth have indicated that 46-74% of immigrant youth whose native language is not English fail to complete high school” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 4) doesn’t society see the need for funding?

Community assistance needs to be put in force in order for these youth and children to experience an easy adaptation to Canadian society. Communities provide a learning experience by comforting the individual and providing an exit from any future criminal activity that might come through the youths and child’s life. “These could be centralized in a love reception center, with ongoing follow-up and support in school and community setting” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.17.) Providing these follow-ups with children, youth and their families will give these newcomers being a immigrant or refugee a voice and provide a further perspective of changes and improvements that could be more active. “Social services assistance: including language translation services; help in location permanent housing and accessing English language classes; a community orientation; referrals to health and social services; including professional counseling services; and other services as needed” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 590). Such services can also be seen to benefit the family unit as a whole as it is helping all members of the family to access and be aware of the services provided by the host community, and can also be seen as a contributor in helping family bonds strengthening when migration can be viewed as a challenging phase for the family. Permanent housing should include specifications and be geographically located where criminal behavior is not the face of that community. “Peer ambassador programmers that carefully match newcomers with more established immigrants from the same culture can also be very helpful” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.590) If newcomers encounter other newcomers they will feel a sense of hope as they will see that their present challenges were possible to be overcome; this will provide the recent newcomer with a sense that they can do it.

We can make a change, so why in a country where “11.2% of the total population of 31 million identify themselves as members of a visible minority” (Fantino and Colak 2001, p.588) are being faced with such troubles? In a country where employment is seen as hard to get regarding youth employment why are we not addressing this problem? We realize that the Canadian Baby Boomers are affecting work labor in the present society (Foot, 1998, 82) so how can we assist these youth to find a job when the baby boomers are occupying the majority of the labor market? Do we need more jobs specifically targeted to this population? Why are we still letting in refugee and immigrant families when we can barely assist those already in Canada? Why is Canada still setting up a trap for these newcomers? As I agree with the standings and arguments/solutions that both articles make, I do believe that more questions need to be asked, mostly questions regarding Canada and why Canada is still letting this happen. Heller (1995) along with Jiwani (2002) and Roberts (2002) state that “ethnic minorities and those with English or French language difficulties, are disproportionately represented in the Canadian criminal justice system” (as cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 2) and Canada’s lack of providing statistics related to race and ethnicity can further show that numbers need to be put into place in order to understand migration issues and complication. Without numbers can it be fair to say that Canada is contributing to the problem? Without numbers can Canada take a position and assist solely on word of mouth? Providing this overview can be frustrating to understand how to tackle such an issue of migration, but I do believe that in order for us to understand, numbers that are lacked in the prison system if minorities really do make up the population in the jail system needs to be placed. Rossiter and Rossiter state that such a study might “increase discrimination towards these individuals” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.3) but how can we help a group without knowing statistics? Since Rossiter and Rossiter tackles such a perspective it leaves the question if Fantino and Colak say that the host community must assist these newcomers due to the issues surrounding this population how can we assist youth as a community when we are unaware of youth involvement in criminal behavior for example? Without data, Canadians are left in the dark, and this must change. We must make a change to recognize these newcomers’ diplomas (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.4.) and degrees to set them up for the work field in order for fairness and these barriers to fall down in favor of those newcomers.

My approach to the solution of ending criminal behavior is to look at societal resolutions and also understand the change that needs to be placed. I believe that working with the individual and not for the individual will further assist these individuals on a personal identity level and guide them through the services that can help. Both articles bring upon an analytical overview of migration and the effects brought on by the host community and the services lacking these migrating youth and children. As we understand migration to have a negative effect on individuals we also must not rule out the good that migration can do, such as providing a safe haven for these newcomers from escaping from the harsh realities they faced back home. By communities gathering as a welcoming committee in order to provide the newcomers with a welcoming atmosphere the community must do more than accept the realities of just adapting to a mosaic country. We must work together to provide support for the child, youth and their families. We must acknowledge the contributions that each youth and child carries within them and be culturally accepting. It can be instilled that the children are our future, and no matter what country these children and youth come from, all should be given a fair opportunity.

“Social workers are knowledgeable about and apply the principles of critical thinking and reasoned discernment. They identify, distinguish, evaluate and integrate multiple sources of knowledge and evidence. These include practice evidence, their own practice experience, service user and carer experience together with research-based, organisational, policy and legal knowledge. They use critical thinking augmented by creativity and curiosity.”

I will critically examine this extract based on my own practice experience and evaluate the use of theories, tools and techniques of reflective practice to see if it supports the statement. I will begin by providing a description of a case study drawn from my previous placement to draw on the practice experience gained and how this may illustrate my learning so far.

It is based on a 14 year old young girl who has been attending a horse-riding charity to help promote her well-being, self-esteem and social skills. For the purpose of this assignment she will be referred to as A. In this particular example, it is A and myself who have met as I have been given the task by my manager to talk to her about her personal hygiene. My manager felt this would also help in meeting the criteria required to handle complex situations (National Occupational Standards, Key role 6). Other young girls in her group have been seen talking behind A’s back about her and have not wanted to participate in group work with her because of this.

I felt apprehensive about the meeting as I had not yet encountered anything like this previously. Though I was reassured by my manager that I would have the opportunity to go through the best approach with her before I met with A. Unfortunately due to time constraints and my manager having to deal with a crisis she was unable to assist me. Prior to the initial meeting with A I began to research on how best to deal with the situation and plan ahead on how best to communicate with her. I wanted to do this without hurting her feelings as she was a young and impressionable young person. This is also known as second order skills when employing planning strategies in what I as a worker am doing, being aware and observing interactions, being able to feedback what has happened (Kaprowska, 2005).

Still feeling unsure on how to lead onto this particular topic due to my lack of experience, I realised that if my nervousness is apparent to A this may only escalate her worries as well. As a result I tried to keep my anxiety at bay. I asked if she had access to shower/bath facilities as a lot of the children who attended the organisation came from areas of deprivation. At this point I realised I felt out of my depth in having this conversation, and on reflection later felt it conflicted with my own personal beliefs. I did not believe her to have any hygiene issues when I had worked with A in the past. This may have shown when I eventually got to the topic at hand and told her the truth. She may have observed that I did not feel happy explaining why I am asking these questions when I myself did not share the same view as my colleagues and others. I came away from the meeting with my confidence shaken, it was made worse when I learned from my manager that A was upset and her mother had in fact complained about me the next day.

I felt a great deal of empathy for this young girl, as a professional I had made a commitment to ensure her well-being. I was trying to achieve a fine balance between trying to support her whilst also trying to bring about social change. A reason for this I realised was that A and I had a few similarities which may have affected how I worked with her, the way I perceived her and also in the way I related to her. I recognised that we both had experienced bullying at similar ages. Upon reflection I realised I had assumed her to be more vulnerable in my eyes because of my own experiences which may have impacted on the working relationship I had built with her (Ojala and Nesdale, 2004). Both A and her mother were disappointed in me and felt strongly enough to complain. I felt terrible that I had caused A such distress.

Trust is a primary feature in conducting person-centred work. Originally developed in the field of psychology by Carl Rogers (1951) where he outlined the person centred therapy. If I was disclosing information to A about her poor hygiene which was not something I wholly agreed with, then being transparent and honest became difficult. A may have observed my unease with her in the meeting, and may have lost faith in me and my work. I realise afterwards that I wanted this to change, and so actively researched how I could engage in positive work with A.

Person centred work also involves being able to discover the client’s wishes and feelings and taking this forward in a positive manner. The theory proposes that both the worker and the client are equal, it also challenges the notion of the worker being seen as an expert of knowledge, and that the ‘expert knows best.’ In the meeting with A I had not really questioned her thoughts and feelings on the situation, and therefore had made the power dynamics between A and myself unbalanced and less in her favour. I had not taken her identity as a service user into full account and consequently may have oppressed her unknowingly by not trying to understand her views and opinions.

In the next meeting with A, I actively researched and utilised the person centred approach to help her feel valued and considered in the process. In achieving this I had learnt the gaps in my learning experience and attempted to further my knowledge to benefit my work with A. This can be seen that I am applying the key elements of critical thinking as mentioned in Domain 6 of the Professional Capabilties Framework (2012).

When talking with A about her riding ability and work with the group, I realised that her wishes, thoughts and feelings had perhaps been neglected when providing this service. Once I reached this conclusion I also began to see that the organisation that I was based in, it may have been the case that a person centred approach was taken initially to begin with. However, when trying to implement the approach fully into practice it seemed as if the people working with A may have forgotten that the planning is not fixed and irreversible. Mansell and Beadle-Brown (2004a) have stated that this is may be the reason why there is a decrease and collapse in being able to take plans forward.

Furthermore similar to Carl Rogers (1951) and his humanistic view for individualism within person centred practice, Yelloly and Henkel (1995) suggested uniqueness as central for effective social work practice. With reference to A’s identity which I had not originally considered, I had come to understand that I needed to make some self-disclosures about my understanding of how I viewed her. I achieved this by communicating honestly my thoughts on how I had assumed that she would not be resilient enough to understand the first meeting. I had labelled her as a ‘victim’ of bullying in my mind when this is not how she saw herself. Perhaps if I had realised this early on I would not have meandered through the conversation of hygiene with no direction, and stated the facts in a much direct and open manner. I made my apologies known to A and explored more about her thoughts on bullying and its impact. This allowed me to remain consciously focused on her as an individual and aware of my own values about addressing individuals.

Funding and organisational issues within the social care sector have meant that resources and number of staff available to attend to service users has meant there is an uphill struggle to meet the needs of the users (Routledge and Gitsham, 2004). These have also had a substantial effect on the voluntary sector where I was based. My interactions with A were largely unsupervised to begin with because of a shortage of qualified staff and resources. This meant the amount of time and resources I was able to spend with any of the young people attending the service has to be made the most of. This may be why having highly skilled practitioners is vital in the face of the current political context. In the face of a double dip recession means having to economise now also extends to social workers as well (Sanderson et al., 2002). Having enough staff members to begin with would be helpful in providing one to one work usually required for person-centred planning. Even when facing such hardships, it may be crucial to have a positive attitude and have a good team to work within to feel that the work you are producing is not only of a high standard but also done collaboratively. Kydd (2004) also affirms that the solution may not always lie in having enough resources but positive together to develop conducive and appropriate working environments. This may go some way to explain how my manager supported me in this particular incident and was able to provide valuable insight into how to improve our working relationship, by being present in future work with A. It is also in line with the organisation’s working policy (Appendix A).

Transparency is crucial to completing positive work with people in social work. Congruence is an imperative aspect of this where the worker and the service user have openness within themselves and with one another to foster trustworthiness (Platt, 2007). Though this can only happen if there is a genuine desire to be honest with one another. That the professional will not hold up a facade and will be able to attend to what the service user is saying by staying in the present and remaining transparent. This may have seemed like a natural concept but was quite difficult to apply when working with A. I did not want to undermine her experience of being bullied by her peers by bringing my own personal experiences into the forefront. Yet I thought if I told her she may not feel quite so isolated which is a common feeling in teenagers with complex lives (Metzing-Blau and Schnepp, 2008). Ultimately I realised my confidence had been shattered to the point where I began to question almost every piece of work I undertook with A, convinced that I would disappoint her and her mother.

This led me to consider other approaches or skills I could better use with A later in my work with her. I came across cognitive-behavioural therapy which is an amalgamation of both behavioural and cognitive disciplines which emerged as a fascinating new concept in 1970s (Rachman, 1997). It addresses the thinking and emotional aspects together, and believes that behaviours can be unlearned. In this way I hoped to be able to view how A conceptualises particular events in her life. Through this I recognised the way A may view herself as she often expressed feeling low, and lack of self-esteem and self-worth. A also had a persistent habit to turn a seemingly positive situation into something negative. This enabled me to understand her experiences from a different point of view and continuous reflection helped me see how she may have needed empowering.

A strengths-based approach was also researched and utilised in my work with A, which has become favourable in both direct and indirect work with service users (Rapp, 1997). This approach appealed to me as it is more service-user led, and helps them see how their strengths play a significant role in the face of their problems or crisis that they may be facing. It is quite different to other approaches in that it acknowledges a person’s suffering and impairment as the result of systemic rather than just psychological drawbacks. In using this approach, this helped A to understand her ability to cope well despite the harshness of her surrounding environment and daily routine of caring for her mother. She was able to see her positive attributes, how others also recognised these which provided for a more balanced view of herself. This is also in line with social work values which places emphasis on helping the user feel empowered and in control (Value B, Topps, 2002).

Since the incident I have had ample time to reflect on my work with A and how I feel about it. Different techniques and tools are used to enable reflection within the field of social work, which can help the way we relate to work, home, culture, and supported networks. Winter (1988) states that experience is not something that we ‘store’ as we would on a computer, rather we ‘story’ it.

Similarly keeping a reflective journal is a useful technique in proactively encouraging critical reflection if done correctly (Kam-shing, 2005). This was a requirement whilst on the course, which I was not keen on at the beginning. I felt it was quite a daunting experience expressing my thoughts and feelings and could not see the benefits of this. For the duration of the placement, as my ability and knowledge of reflection improved with the help of my educator, I was able to understand how this would help me in becoming an effective practitioner. It helped to formalise my ideas, trail of thoughts and bring about a heightened sense of awareness on my own practice.

This technique can be seen as embedded within a theory of reflection developed by Schon (1991). He called this reflection in action (whilst the event is occurring) and reflection on action (after the event has occurred). The journals or learning logs were primarily used after an event had occurred to understand our learning. This tool is available to evaluate the work I have undertaken and how my knowing-in-action may have had an impact on the end outcome. Thus will be able to improve on my skills and ability to reflect-in-action and recognise if there is something more to be done to help the service user. In my interactions with A and other users, I have also recognised that reflection on action is beneficial in evaluating my own practice and reflection in action to implement those lessons learnt actively.

To be able to detect my own mistakes and correct these involves uncovering deeper learning. Argryis and Schon (1974) proposed that when we as people and practitioners simply only operationalize our goals rather than question them we are only applying single-loop learning. When this incident with A occurred, I looked at the different aspects such as theories, A’s behaviour, the organisation’s policies that had influenced my thoughts and perceptions and brought me to look at myself and the situation with close scrutiny and query the governing variables to enforce social change be that within myself, the organisation or A or all of these.

Kolb (1984) and his reflective cycle helped me examine the structures to my reflection. He developed four stages to his cycle. These include concrete experiences, reflective observation, followed by abstract conceptualisation which includes drawing conclusions from incidents encountered and active experimentation. Active experimentation is the ability to learn from past situations and try a new approach. I think this is where I feel I continued my work with A from the very first incident in trying to utilise different approaches to help her. Using this approach also made me realise that perhaps even if the event itself may have hurt A’s feelings it may have raised awareness about her hygiene and brought about independence. This is also in line with Value B of the GSCC codes of practice (Topps, 2002) and with Domain 6 (Professional Capabilities Framework 2012).

Group studying has been known to develop enhanced learning and reflection. Bold (2008) suggests that having a supportive group to talk through your knowledge and experience gained can generate deeper learning and increase reflective competence. In using group reflection I found that having a group to talk through my morals, beliefs and assumptions that direct my work very useful in a public and collaborative setting. It provided the opportunity to look back at a past experience from multiples perspectives and raise questions. I had not realised the grave nature of discussing one’s hygiene would be so difficult, with the help of the group I was more aware of my hidden assumptions on this and how it could affect my practice.

Research by Dahlgren et al. (2006) highlights the importance of group reflection and the role of a critical friend to promote empowerment to both students and teachers. This may be because it allows for the students work in an informal setting and therefore have more of a balanced working dynamics. This kind of democratic environment aids reflective learning by advancing self-knowledge. In my group learning set I came away learning more about my own assumptions about A being a carer to her mother with mental health issues meant that she may not have had facilities to aid good hygiene. The group also helped me look at other explanations for what had happened. I came to understand that whilst the issues of A ‘smelling’ might have been genuine, it could have also been exacerbated by other staff and children through their own assumptions about her learning disability, and status as a young carer to a parent with mental health problems. Their behaviour and assumptions daily may have impacted the way I saw A even though I did not agree with their views. I failed to raise this further with my manager when handed the task of telling A, as I may have also assumed here that she would ‘know best’.

Much later I was introduced to the critical incident technique developed by Tripp (1993). To analyse incidents that have had a strong emotional impact on ourselves as practitioners. It entails learning to look beyond just describing to gain deeper reflection. I began to understand that my underestimation in what I had to tell A, was my own failure. This underlying assumption I later realised arose from my supervision with my manager who had assured me that disclosing this information to A would benefit her. The feedback given from my group has helped me identify areas of my reflection where there may perhaps be gaps and how I could improve on these. I felt the feedback was accurate and enriching, it helped for me to understand how they saw my situation with A and were able to offer alternative explanations for the outcomes that I had not yet explored further.

Overall this assignment has aimed to demonstrate that there are a number of factors involved in practicing good social work. This is highlighted by being able to demonstrate an awareness of my own values and philosophies, how my knowledge in terms of theories can be applied to inform my own practice. I have learnt that utilising and evaluating theories have furthered my practice by eliciting my understanding and learning over time. I have gained additional skills together with multiple sources of knowledge and techniques to better help the people I have worked with. This kind of creativity is what can bring about social change and empowerment. Reflection is an integral part of social work practice and different tools like journals can augment deep learning and improve future practice. What I may have learnt from a situation initially does not mean that these are the only recommendations to take forward. Through continual reflection and critical thinking, it can help to question our judgements and that of others and see if more can be done to change the face of social work practice.

Introduction

Reflection forms a central part of social work practice and education, and it is particularly important for social workers in placement settings or newly

qualified social workers (D’cruz et al, 2007; Parker, 2010). In its simplest terms, reflection “provides us with an opportunity to review our

decisions and decision-making processes” however, in practice, reflection is a far more complex concept (Trevethick, 2005: 251). It is essential

that social workers have the confidence to question their own practice, the organisation that they work in, and dominant power structures in society at

large (Fook, 1999). Reflection, and in particular critical reflective practice, forms a key part of this, as social workers are called on to reconsider and

reconstruct the dominant social discourse. In this essay I will explore my experience of reflection during my practice placement, and in particular in

relation to a specific case study. I will start by outlining my practice setting, and the details of the particular case study. I will then explore my

experience of reflection, and how reflective practice supported me to apply theory to practice. Finally take a critical look at my practice, and suggest

things that I could have done differently.

Although I engage with and explored multiple models of reflection during my placement, the model of reflection that I found most useful was Schon’s

theory of reflection (Schon, 1983; 2002). Schon advocated 2 types of reflective practice. Firstly, reflection-on-action, which involves reflecting

on an experience that you have already had, or an action that you have already taken, and considering what could have been done differently, as well as

looking at the positives from that interaction. The other type of reflection Schon notes is reflection-in-action, or reflecting on your actions as

you are doing them, and considering issues like best practice throughout the process. Due to the limits of the current medium, I will be focusing mostly on

reflection-on-action. However, appropriate use of this type of reflection should inform future practice, and encourage appropriate reflection-in-action

when presented with a similar situation again.

Practice Setting

My placement was based at a not for profit mental health agency, where we provided psycho-social support for people who have experienced mental health

difficulties. Many of the people that we worked with had been subject to section 2 or 3 orders under the Mental Health Act 1983/2007, and were now

experiencing aftercare under section 117. Referrals to the agency could come from social services, GP surgeries, and other not-for-profit organisations.

The people with whom we worked usually had a multitude of presenting issues and concerns, and I was aware from the onset that complex settings like this

require social workers to be reflective in their practice in order to be able to deal with a variety of situations (Fook and Gardner, 2007). However, it

soon became clear to me that the fast-paced working environment, where at times paperwork was promoted over practice, meant that reflection could

potentially be ignored in favour of bureaucracy and targets (D’Cruz et al, 2007). This type of difficulty and uncertainty around reflection is common

in placement settings and when starting a new role (Knott and Spafford, 2010).

Reflection was particularly important when making the transition from university learning to the learning experienced in a placement setting. Social

workers are provided with some guidance in practice to support this process. The Practice Competency Framework (PCF) domains provide some direction about

what areas social workers are expected to emphasise in practice, and what needs to be evidenced in order to successfully complete a placement. Values and

ethics are central to this framework, and comprise domain 2. Critical reflection is also part of this framework, making up the entirety of domain 6.

However, it is essential that social workers do not become complacent in their personal reflection, and they cannot fall back on these types of guidance

and procedures as a shield against engaging in reflection on complex ethical subjects (Banks, 2006).

Case Study

Many of the service users that we worked with had a dual diagnosis (problems with mental health and addiction). These service users particularly challenged

me, as I found their intersecting issues usually stretch well beyond their dual diagnosis, to other areas like housing or physical health. I have,

therefore, chosen to discuss one such case, where I engaged in substantial reflection. The background to this case study, and my involvement with him, will

now be discussed.

JK is a man in his 50s who was born in Nigeria but moved to the UK at a young age. When I worked with him, he lived in a housing project that was

specifically meant to house ex-offenders. Although JK had a lead key-worker at my agency who was a permanent member of staff, I was responsible for the

majority of the key working sessions with JK during my time on this placement. JK had a long history of substance misuse and mental health problems. He was

diagnosed with bi-polar disorder, and dealt with significant anxiety and depression. He received depot injections monthly for his mental health

difficulties, and he found these instances particularly distressing. JK also had a substantial history of criminal activity, which he said became necessary

in order to maintain his addiction to certain illicit drugs.

I would meet JK in a location of his choosing. Although usually this would mean either in our office or in his room, sometimes we went for a walk and I

accompanied him to appointments at times also. This more informal working setting was where he felt he could speak most openly to me. Although I will

discuss my involvement with JK more broadly,I will focus on one particular key working session that we had, where JK was most descriptive about all his

concerns and the issues that were effecting him (session A). This is significant because reflection is particularly important when a critical incident like

this has been experienced, and a less reflective approach could lead to a less holistic or even inadvertently oppressive account of what had transpired

(Ruch, 2002).

Reflective Practice

Different models of reflection supported me throughout the reflective process. Gibb’s Model of Reflection (1988) and Atkin and Murphy’s Model

of Reflection (1994) both promote a cyclical approach to reflection, whereby reflection is ongoing and not a linear process. I found this to be the case,

as I did not move through stages of refection one after the other, but moved between them, often returning to my conceptual starting point multiple times

before settling on a holistic understanding of an event or situation that incorporates all systems influencing that scenario. Keeping a reflective diary of

critical issues and my own thought process encouraged me to construct my understanding of the work I was doing, and justify what actions I had taken

(White, 2001). Support from colleagues and supervisors was also invaluable in this process (Ruch, 2002). Yip (2006) aptly notes that models like those

described above are most useful when starting out the reflective process, and I quickly adapted and developed a model of reflection that was most

appropriate for me.

Social work has traditionally been constructed as the professional knowing best, and continues to be practised in a way where the practitioner holds most

of the power (Holmes and Saleeby, 1993). The power dynamics are slightly different in a non-statutory setting like I was working in. However, these power

dynamics cannot be ignored, and underline all social work practice.I acknowledged the inherent power dynamics from the inception of my interactions with

JK. I recognised that where unequal power dynamics exist in a relationship, it is usually the partner with the most power that benefits most from the

interaction (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002). This is why it is important for social workers to listen to the perspectives of the people with whom they

work, and be willing to accept different paradigms than their own or the dominant paradigm (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002).

When working with JK, I was made aware of his engagement with mental health services, usually provided through the medical professions. He had an allocated

community psychiatric nurse (CPN) who would visit occasionally, and at times he also met with a psychiatrist. Throughout my social work education, the

difference between the medical model and the social model of experiencing mental illness has been stressed to me, and I clearly saw this when working with

JK. The historically oppressive nature of mental health services is widely recognised in literature (Szasz, 1961; Foucault, 1967), and JK expressed to me

at times that he felt that he was not listened to by medical professionals, and just moved from service to service having things done to him,

rather than with him.

Tew (2005) noted that the in the social model of mental distress, core values required include looking at the person and their situation holistically,

removing the “us” and “them” thinking that tends to dominate mental health services, listening to what people really have to say,

and being committed to anti-oppressive practice. I found these to be very helpful in working with JK. During Session A, the fact that I chose to explore

JK’s mental distress alongside the other issues that were going on in his life allowed me to identify that his physical health, including intense

back pain that he has been experiencing, was having a substantial effect on his mental health, and I encouraged him to seek help and support with this. JK

clearly appreciated my anti-oppressive approach, where I tried to work with him in partnership, and he was always keen to know when we would meet next.

There is a stigma attached to having a mental illness, and even when contact with services has ceased, that stigma usually persists (Miles, 2005). JK had

clearly been the subject of this stigma throughout his life. Tew (2005) believes if mental health services were more receptive to the social model of

looking at mental distress, then significant amounts of this stigma and the resultant oppression would be removed.

Applying Theory to Practice

An important part of reflection in social work is the application and consideration of theories in practice (Trevethick, 2012). The theory base of social

work is essential to all the work that we do in practice (Teater, 2010). Social workers need to be prepared to critically reflect on the theory that they

are bringing to practice. It has been noted that the theory base of social work is dominated by euro-centric discourse, meaning that certain paradigms or

perspectives may be excluded unintentionally (Trevethick, 2012). Being from Nigeria originally, and coming from a different cultural background than

myself, meant that I had to be particularly careful in applying theory to the work that I did with JK.However, it is also clear that practice cannot just

be based on routine or habit, with no basis in evidence (Thompson, 2009).

The increasing influence of post-modern theory, which does not promote one paradigm over another, but focuses on the subjective nature of truth, has helped

to alleviate these issues in social work to some extent (Fook, 2012). Our agency worked with some of the most marginalised and vulnerable members of

society, and engaging in uninformed work with these types of service users is a dangerous undertaking (Collingwood et al, 2008). Through active engagement

with reflection, I was able to work with JK using an eclectic theory and knowledge base, but was also careful to note if JK was not comfortable with some

aspects of my approach, and adjusted the approach accordingly. Working closely with JK over a period of several months supported me to be able to identify

any issues quickly, and by the time I we were engaged in Session A, we had a good working relationship.

Of particular importance when working with service users who have a dual diagnosis was systems theory, and I found this theory to be particularly important

when reflecting on Session A. Healy (2005) has recognised that systems theory have been highly influential on the knowledge base of social work. As noted

above, people experiencing problems with addiction tend to have other issues in other areas of their lives (Tober and Raistrick, 2004).I was able

incorporate specific applications of systems theory for the service user group I was working throughout my placement, and in particular with JK. The Six

Cornered Addictions Rescue System (SCARS) was useful in that it took into account a person who was dealing with an addictions situation holistically,

rather than just focusing on the addiction in isolation (McCarthy and Galvani, 2004). In Session A this allowed me to see how JK’s addiction and

mental health problems were also linked to issues with accommodation, physical health, relationships and employment.

What could have been done differently?

I have discussed my work with JK, and reflected on specific incidents and issues with him. However, returning to Schon (1983), he notes that reflection

takes place within our own understanding and the meaning that we attribute to an event, rather than within the event itself. Therefore, social workers need

to look at their own underlying assumptions, as well as dominant social narratives, in order to shape their holistic understanding and experience of a

given incident. Dewey (1993) recognised the importance of discovering new information in reflection. This can come from both internal sources (personal

reconsideration) and external sources (professional support or research), and this new information can completely re-construct the way that an incident or

event is considered, and change the narrative that we are engaged in. This is helpful in reconsidering an event, and determining whether something could

have been done differently or better.

In relation to Session A, one area that I reflected on was that I may have focused too much on theory when working with JK. It has been recognised in

literature around theory in practice that overly focusing on theory when working with service users can actually hinder the work being done, as the service

user can feel depersonalised (Parker, 2010). As noted above, this was particularly important in the case of JK, who was from a different culture than me.

More time could have been spent on listening to JK and his perspective, rather than trying to fit him into a theory or model for the sake of evidencing my

own case notes or reflective journals.

I worked with JK very much in isolation. Although I met his CPN and his drug worker, at no stage was a multi-agency meeting held that I was invited to. To

some extent, this was the fault of the other professionals, who did not consult me on the work they were doing with JK, and literature has noted that

collaboration is particularly difficult when working with dual diagnosis service users, as mental health and addiction services can disagree over the

correct course, or who should take the lead (Clement et al, 1993; Champney-Smith, 2004). However, I could have made more of an effort to engage with them,

or at least discuss with JK how much consultation he would like me to have with those other workers. Suter et al (2009) have found that a willingness to

communicate is a key characteristic needed for effective collaboration, and after the other professionals were not active in engaging with me, I lost this

willingness, potentially to the detriment of my work with JK.

It has to be noted that reflection is not always recognised as a self-evidently positive mechanism. There are critics of the way reflection is promoted in

current practice environments, with some bemoaning the “cult following” that has developed around reflection in the social work sphere (Ixer,

1999: 513). Boud and Knight (1996) equally describe how reflection has come to be seen as “self-evidently worthwhile” without significant

critique (p.32). Ixer (1999) recognises that focusing too much on assessing reflection can lead to a prescriptive approach to reflection that is

uncompromising. I found this to be the case at times, when I was expected to write my reflections at a certain time, and have reflective supervision in a

certain way. As well as this, having someone essentially assessing my reflection made this even more difficult, as I was not able to reflect in a way that

was personal for me. Parker (2010) has noted that reflection is not something that can be assessed based on traditional reductionist techniques. Therefore,

I found it important to not just reflect on my work and the working environment, but also the process of reflection itself.

Conclusion

The issues that social workers are engaged with, and that I have discussed here, do not only reflect the concerns of the service user, but are a reflection

of the issues that are inherent in wider society (Davis, 2007). Unequal power dynamics, concerns around oppression and issues with stigma are all societal

problems that social workers need to engage with not just on a micro-level, but also a macro-level. To some extent this is an area that I found reflection

lacking in. I was able to look at my own practice, and my own assumptions and narratives; however, I was unable to determine how best to address wider

inequality and societal oppression of people like JK.

In this reflective essay, I have explored my practice setting in relation to a particular case study. I introduced the placement setting and the case

study, and then looked at my experience of reflection within this setting. I discussed how I engaged with different models of reflection, experienced power

dynamics, and explored different interpretations of mental distress. I then moved on to look at how reflection promoted me to engage with theory in

practice, in particular in relation to systems theory. Finally, I used this reflection to look at things that I could have done differently, including a

decreased focus on theory and engaging more with other services. This type of critical reflection should be ongoing for social workers in practice, and to

some extent it would be difficult to work in a complex setting like I was without being reflective. Although I noted some areas I could have improved on in

my interactions with JK, what was most apparent in my work with him was that my willingness to explore his paradigm and perspectives opened him up to

engaging with me on a range of issues, that otherwise may have remained hidden.

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As a part of my Postgraduate degree program I got an internship opportunity for a period of three months at Fostering Solutions Ltd. The internship duration was from June till September. This report is a reflection on my experience of working as a consultant at Fostering Solutions. The project consisted of conducting a Competitor Analysis for the betterment of Fostering Solutions. Along with me were my team members Li who was responsible for carrying out the process improvement and Mani Shankar was vested with the responsibility of devising a national and marketing strategy. There was going to be a lot of team work, since the three parts would be combined together as one project. The project turned out to be a grand success and in this report I take you through my journey as a consultant from the beginning of the project till its conclusion looking at the various problems I faced and how I overcame them, the skills I learnt, my strongest motivation, how we developed team capabilities and finally the ending of the project. This was one of earliest projects that were posted on blackboard which I applied for, and was successful in proclaiming an internship after an interview with Fostering Solutions at Manchester Business School. It was a special feeling as I had a chance to work for a foreign company and this would subsequently add commendable strength to my resume.

The Beginning

The prospect of working on a live project as a consultant evoked plenty of excitement. For me the most significant aspect of the project was my opportunity to inculcate the theories and models I learnt in class to the corporate world. Having done my Bachelors in Management studies and currently pursuing a Post graduation in Business Analysis, this was the perfect opportunity for me to utilize my skills and relate to the learning’s from the classroom. Most significantly having the knowledge and understanding of business models which I studied in the Analysing companies module at Manchester Business School helped me a lot. Though, this was possible only because I was able to implement those learning’s in my internship project.

The beginning was challenging because this was a new industry to me and we were unfamiliar with the concept of fostering. I had to start from scratch by learning the fostering basics, the industry mechanics followed by the current scenario of the market. This was going to be the foundation of the project and a key factor to its success. All this had to be done in a short span of time because I needed to get a head start in the project.

2.1 Day 1

In our first meeting with the client at Fostering Solutions Ltd, we were introduced as external consultants to all the members of staff in different departments. My first observation about the company was its organisational culture. I noticed that the organisational culture was of the role culture type, in which the organisation is split up into various functions and each individual is responsible for a particular duty. (Learn management, 2010) We were given a briefing about the project, the company’s background and the fostering industry in general. I learnt that Michelle Sloan would be supervising me for my part of the project at the company. My first impression about Michelle was that she is a friendly and easy going person. I was given authority and freedom to work in any method comfortable to me. Her style of leadership was participative, since she would give me freedom and authority to work in my own way although she would check and double check my work to assess its suitability. We were presented a red folder containing inspection reports of different offices of fostering solutions, details of Fostering Solutions offices, contact details and a survey that was conducted on foster carers named as Foster Carer Viewpoints. This was the first significant aspect of my learning process to carry out a competitor analysis, this was regarding an inspection carried out by an organisation named Ofsted on independent agencies known as Ofsted Ratings. I learnt that Ofsted ratings is one way to assess competitors.

The motivation

I was strongly motivated by the fact that Fostering Solutions were going to take our findings and analysis very seriously. Subsequently our supervisor Prof Kurt kept highlighting the fact that Fostering Solutions unlike other big company internship project would analyse our recommendations meticulously and implement a few key ones. Knowing I had an opportunity to make a difference to an organisation was a big driving force for me. In addition to this I acknowledged to the fact that I was working for a social cause of helping overcome the shortage of foster carers in United Kingdom to the increase in the number of children in care with local authorities. My findings would help Fostering Solutions to recruit better and more foster carers and in turn help a number of children find homes and family.

The Learning process

In this section I reflect upon the learning process with respect to this internship project. I illustrate the gradual progress I made towards completion of the project successfully, there were learning’s and knowledge gain at every level. The learning process began with understanding the foster carer approval process. Understanding this process was very complex and was a difficult task. As the project progressed I realised I cannot compare the approval process or the number of foster carers approved between different competitors because they would not divulge such key information to me. There was no other procedure to find the information either. However understanding this process helped me understand that for a fostering agency it is critical that the right people register their initial interest with the agency. This was the first step to recruiting foster carers. Therefore, more the number of suitable applications received more will be the foster carers approved. The learning process continued with understanding the Fostering industry business model. Learning and understanding the business model was key to carry out an efficient competitor analysis. Independent agencies like Fostering Solutions recruit and approve foster carers, and place them with children provided by local authority. The Independent agency charges the local authority for this and pays the foster carer allowance for their carer service. Shown below is my understanding and reflection about the fostering industry business model.

My Understanding of the Fostering Industry Business Model

For determining an organisations success in today’s highly competitive and complex environment, the business model is the most significant tool. I understood that for any company to exist in this industry it has to recruit foster carers. Subsequently, I learnt more and more about the company, the industry and how things work in general with each passing week. One of the key learning’s was when I realised that the local authority runs this industry and is a key ingredient of the business model. This understanding was essential for me to carry out my competitor analysis. After this the most significant aspect was to list out the key issues involved in recruiting foster carers. I understood that different people had different motivations to choose fostering. They are 1. For the sole purpose of fostering. 2. For the purpose of fostering and the financial interest in the allowance they would get. 3. They could be interested in adoption but first would like to foster the child and adopt at a later stage.

After this I began the data collection process by assembling data regarding the industry to write a brief description and the challenges it is facing. By doing so, I learnt that there was a shortage of foster carers in the industry and an increase in the number of children coming into care. I learnt that the government of the United Kingdom were looking to reduce spending on Fostering in the coming years and this was a major threat to the fostering industry. By the end of June after consulting with Michelle, Fostering Solutions, we short listed nine companies on whom I would be filing reports which would shed light on how these firms compete with Fostering Solutions in the market. On doing further analysis to understand the factors which clarified how these firms compete with Fostering Solutions, I came up with criteria on which they would be compared and analysed, these criteria included turnover, profit margin, number of employees, location, foster carer allowance paid, services provided, placement provided and Ofsted ratings. On carrying out a through analysis of these factors would enable me to gain an understanding of the positioning of these companies in the market. The learning process reached its peak when I could prepare a framework for my project report as shown below.

Framework of the competitor analysis
Working in teams

There were times when I had to inherit the qualities or role of a leader, friend, colleague and subordinate while working as a part of a team. Good team leadership is to create conditions which would allow thoughts, ideas and people to succeed, by coming together and with a flow in the performance. When in pursuit of challenging team goals one can encourage effective teamwork by balancing people’s strengths with building good relationships. I enjoyed working with this team. The team would meet twice a week to discuss our parts and understand the progress each one of us was making. We would go to the office to meet with the client twice a week till the middle of July.

The difficulties I faced in working in this team were communicating with Li who is Chinese and has a funny English accent. Similarly, she would have found our accent funny and would have found it a little difficult to grasp an understanding in one conversation. There were numerous occasions most recently today itself when I had to ask her to repeat her suggestion on the recommendation because I could not understand her English in the first attempt. Despite the cultural and geographical differences, it was an interesting experience working with a person from another country. I adjusted my method of working and communicating with the dynamics of the team. I believe this would be a key requirement for my future prospects when I work in an organisation. It is very important to adjust and settle down in accordance with the dynamics of the team you are working with. Despite our differences, we were a team that worked together, fought the difficulties and appreciated each other’s work. (Lawford, 2003)

We shared work in such a way that every member could use his/her strengths to attain the required goal and not have to work on tasks which required skills which may be deficient. By doing this we increased the productivity of the team and the team morale. An example could be that I was good at making charts and compiling the whole report, whereas Li was good at the editing work and proof reading and accordingly we distributed the tasks to achieve proper synergy.

An example of our progress as a team with reference to the Tuckman’s Team Model

Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development – Tuckmans model gives an understanding of how a newly formed team gradually develops maturity, ability and the establishment of relationships within the team members. From the Forming stage where the team comes together for the first time through 4 different stages the team goes through a series of changes and ultimately performs as a team and works towards achieving its goals

Forming stage – Formation of the team

Tuckman’s model explains

In this stage the team has been assembled and tasks are allocated among members. Team members pretend to get on with each other but they might not trust each other due to not knowing each other well enough. At this stage I felt it was important to bring the group together and work on our goals. It was important that we established our roles and this stage was a period of high learning. It is a stage where I learnt about beliefs, attitudes and observed the behaviour of my team members. Such things gave me an idea to understand these individuals and thus understand the group dynamics which were going to be formed.

Storming

Tuckman’s model explains

In this stage the team members strive to get down with the issues and ways to achieving them. At this stage, it is expected that arguments and tempers will flare. We did have a lot of arguments regarding each other’s report analysis and findings. The arguments occurred on topics such as format of the reports, whose part should come first and also the word count. As mentioned above, the incident where I named a file wrongly had led to arguments. Sometimes teams can become stuck in this phase for a long time due to persistent arguments and problems. At this stage the most important thing is to listen to each other, there was a need to create a positive vibe in the group and appreciate each other’s work. There was a necessity to set tasks and walk along with the team towards the next step. Hence a belief of “yes we can” was needed to make the transfer to the next stage.

Norming stage

Tuckman’s model explains

This as the stage where the team members get used to the working ways of each other and develop trust and strive for team productivity. In this phase teams begin to work as a cohesive unit trusting each other. Li and Mani were aware that I work through the night and sleep early in the morning right upto 11 a.m. Hence we used to schedule some meetings for 1p.m. or later. Mani and I took a little longer to finish our sections of the report because we had a tough time getting the data we needed from secondary sources. Li understood and appreciated this difficulty. We had developed an understanding of exactly what was going on in each others section of report. It is highly important to self evaluate and communicate effectively at this stage. We shared responsibility by delegating tasks to be completed between the three of us. The risk at this stage was that the team could become complacent and lose its creativity or driving force that is required to achieve success in its goals. Our team did not lose its focus we kept working towards a common goal and took the step towards the final stage of our project.

Performing stage

Tuckman’s model explains

This is a stage where the team is totally committed and strives towards a common goal. This is the final stage of the team where it focuses in finishing the tasks it set out and adjourning. Once we finished individual parts of group report, we met regularly at Manchester Business School to discuss the link between the 3 parts. At this stage individuals in the team are highly motivated for the success of the team wasting little time with high trust on one another. We proof-read each others work and thoroughly examined each other’s recommendations, sometimes through discussions, before coming to a consensus. It is key to note that a team according to tuckman’s model can return to an earlier level if there is a change, for instance a review of the recommendations or the report or if a team member leaves prematurely.

Difficulties Faced and How I Overcame Them

At the outset of this Internship project I faced plenty of difficulties. In this section I reflect on the difficulties that I faced and what I did to overcome them. The beginning period was very tough for me from a personal point of view. My Father had a heart problem during May end/June start. I could not concentrate on my work and kept thinking about how things would be back home and worrying. It was an emotional and stressful beginning. At such time, there is no way to find out if your family is telling you the truth about the situation or otherwise. This makes things all the more difficult. It took me about ten to fourteen days to get back to normal self and believing that everything was alright. Nevertheless, this incident motivated me a lot to give it my best shot. I worked harder than ever to make my parents proud of me.

6.1 Problem solving model

This problem solving model was adapted by me from the eight disciplines problem solving method. (David Bruce, 2010) I reflect on different problems I faced during the project and how I used this model to find a solution to those problems.

Lack of Data

During the early days of the project I had a tough time because I was reading information that had nothing to do with competitor analysis. Such was the vast nature of information provided to me about Fostering Solutions. I was given a number of books on fostering, care and training methods, which I read and found out, had nothing to do with my competitor analysis. A lot of precious time was wasted in going through irrelevant data. Often in research projects consultants could spend time reading, researching information that are of no use in the research but still have to be read and assessed to find out its use in future analysis. When analysing this problem with respect to the model I concluded the best option would be to create a framework and scope for my research. By doing so I exactly understood the data I was required to collect and carry out further analysis.

I got all the data regarding Fostering Solutions from the company. However getting information about competitors to undertake a competitor analysis was a challenging task. Getting the financial data such as turnover, profit margin proved to a job in itself. During a meeting with Dr. Kurt, he suggested FAME database and it worked. The data for 8 companies out of 9 was available but TACT being a charity organisation there was no data. Another problem was that for Orange Grove (now taken over by Hillcrest Foster Care) and SWIIS the financial information available was only for the year 2008 and not 2009. But the data for other companies was available as per our requirement. The research could have been better had I got the required annual reports of these companies. I overcame this difficulty by considering the options to counter this problem. I selected the best suitable option which would be to conduct a comparison of these companies on data that I had such as services provided or foster carer allowance. In this way I used my problem solving model and decided to concentrate on the data I possessed to continue my competitor analysis, rather than getting demotivated about the unavailable data.

Similarly, getting data regarding the foster carer allowance was a hurdle. This information is important as it provides insight into who provides the best allowance to the foster carers and where Fostering Solutions stands in comparison. The hindrances I faced during this task were immense. This data for many competitors was not available directly; it was either hidden in the services page or FAQ’s section. By The Bridge did not divulge this information as it was not present on their website, but only in their brochure which they won’t send out unless an initial application was filled. I went to the step 2 of my problem solving model and tried a few options to find out this data. I tried calling fostering companies on my radar and acting like a person who was interested in foster care and asked for access to their annual reports, brochure and foster carer allowance. I was told there was no access to annual reports and for brochure I would be required to fill in an application form. Later, I decided to try calling them saying I was a Manchester Business School postgraduate student and wanted their brochure, annual report of 2009 or 2008 as I am doing a research project on fostering industry. Even this trick did not work as they outsmarted me. The person I spoke to told me to forward my research project plan and key objectives and then only they will send this information. I could obviously not send this because the research objective was a competitor analysis for the benefit of Fostering Solutions. Thus, foster carer allowance for By The Bridge and TACT could not be found out after exploring the options stage. Hence I went to step 3 of the problem solving model and decided to compare these companies on other key factors such as size, turnover, ofsted ratings and services provided.

Similarly, there was no data available regarding number of children placed by each of the competing companies. It would have been very helpful and interesting if I could have got data regarding children placed by each of 9 competitors. There was data available only regarding total children placed by all the Independent agencies and local authorities. I have included the same in the competitor analysis, but there was no data available on children placed by each competitor.

Vast nature of the project

The vast nature of the project and short span of time of 3 months to complete was a hindrance. According to our Academic supervisor Prof Kurt this project could have been carried out as a PhD for a three year term, such was its wide scope. I had 4000 to 6000 words to present and analyse data, compare the 9 companies to fostering solutions and come up with how they compete with them. This was always going to be too short to compile reports on these companies, write down my analysis, analysis regarding financial data, compile findings/comparison for each company to fostering solutions and lastly recommendations. I progressed to step 2 of the problem solving model and explored my options. Then I selected the suitable option of presenting some of the important data in the appendix and decided to strictly following the framework I had set out for the project and restricting myself to only presenting analysis and information that was key and omitting irrelevant data.

Skills Utilized, skills I Lacked and Skills Acquired
Skills Utilized
Skills I utilized to successful completion of the project

It is extremely crucial that a consultant has a complete understanding of the project requirement. I achieved this by breaking down the project into small elements and developed my understanding of the requirement of my client. This was done by discussing the project brief in detail with Fostering Solutions and Prof Kurt. Having applied this skill effectively I now feel I would be able to carry this experience on to future assignments I receive at my workplace.

Secondly, having broken down the project into tasks I utilized my communication skills to keep the client informed about my progress in the report. I used the 7 C’s of communication clarity, confidence, comprehensive, concise, conviction, comfort and charisma to effectively communicate throughout the project.(Leslie, 2010) Having good communication skills helped me massively because this being a team project, there were three lines of communication. Firstly with the client, secondly with my team and thirdly with my academic supervisor Prof Kurt. Hence, to avoid confusion it was important to see that everyone was on the same wavelength. This was achieved by arranging a meeting between the company supervisors and our academic supervisor, Prof. Kurt. We agreed that all communication regarding meeting with our academic supervisor would be handled by Mani Shankar. I would be reporting directly to Michelle at Fostering Solutions and emailing Prof Kurt regularly regarding the progress of my report. We had a number of meetings at Manchester Business School and Fostering Solutions to discuss the progress of the project. Once the channels of communication were established early in the project, I had no problems working on the report and communicating with both the supervisors. Thirdly, I needed to be a good analyst to successfully progress in this report. Prof. Kurt gave me a nudge in the right direction by suggesting FAME database to me to look for financial data of companies that are available. Once this was done, competitors were assessed and compared with Fostering Solutions on turnover, profit margin, foster carer allowance paid, services provided and placements provided. This required a lot of data collection most of which was secondary and required a lot of analysis to find out exactly how they competed with Fostering Solutions in the market.

Having analysed data on each competitor I discussed it with Michelle and Prof Kurt and got their feedback on the same. I found out an interesting statistics at fostering.net. From this file I found out that local authorities were always going to be big competitors with independent agencies in this industry. They had placed more children, recruited more foster carers and received more applications than the independent fostering agencies across the UK. This was the first analysis I had conducted. Showing it and proving it in meetings at MBS with the supervisors and again at Fostering Solutions gave me a lot of confidence. I started believing in my abilities to succeed in this challenging project and provide a lasting contribution to the success of Fostering Solutions. I found it difficult and challenging to collect the data required in order to carry out my analysis. FAME provided limited information and financial data for some companies were available only for the year 2008. There was no other way to find out the information I needed. I overcame this problem by comparing and doing my analysis for these companies on other variables such as foster carer allowance and services provided. Belief in my abilities grew when I discovered that local authorities had recruited, placed more children and received more applications than independent agencies and proved it with evidence in a meeting at Fostering Solutions. I conducted my analysis on turnovers, foster carer allowance, services provided and the locations of the competitors. This understanding was essential for me to come up with important observations regarding how the competitors compete with Fostering Solutions. Thus, in this way I excelled in using my analytical skills.

Skills that I developed during this internship were my planning, organisational skills and time management. If I had to be successful in this project it was essential for me to plan and organise tasks before executing them. I believe I did this efficiently. One thing I would like to highlight and criticise myself is it took me a while to get a head start; Prof. Kurt and Michelle were extremely understandable, patient and helpful. This report could have been better if I had made a better start and I am critical about this issue. Though, the effort that has been put in is the same as I worked longer hours at a stretch when the real assignment began. I efficiently planned the time schedule for understanding the industry, data collection, analysis and writing the report. After analysing the data I would discuss it with Michelle. She would give her feedback and I would incorporate the completed data and analysis in my written report. As planned I completed writing my report before August 22nd 2010. Hence I believe that I have developed good planning and organising skills because without them I would not have been able to complete this project within the time duration; especially after the slow start that I had.

One skill I lacked due to my inexperience of working on a project of such magnitude was presentation skills with respect to formatting and presenting a management report. This was the first time I had worked as a consultant for a company. I had no idea about how to present a report of such magnitude. Prof Kurt in one of our final meetings was critical about the way I had presented and written my report. My report draft had a shabby presentation with parts in bold, unnecessary paragraphs and some parts underlined unnecessarily. Prof Kurt showed me the right way and guided me to prepare the report and present it in a more professional and readable way. He taught me that presentation is a key aspect in report writing and all the hard work done could be undone by a shabby presentation. He gave us ideas to make the report look good and interesting to the reader.

AIDA Model Attention Interest Desire Action – I learnt that a good presentation of the report is a must because firstly it will capture the attention of the reader and generate an interest in the material. After which the reader would develop a desire to read it. These lessons will remain with me for the rest of my life and in future when I work for a company and have to present a consulting report I would reflect upon these lessons Prof Kurt enlightened upon me. (Aida, 2010)

Working with Fostering Solutions – The Client

Fostering Solutions were supportive of this project. Michelle my supervisor was very excited about the whole project from the start. She was very friendly, supportive to me during the duration of the project. I was given a lot of freedom to choose whether to go and work from the office or working from my home/business school library. Michelle could not give me proper feedback because my report was in bits and pieces and in draft format till start of first week of August. But once I sent her the report in full, she helped me edit and also proof read given data analysis for me. Once I submitted my final draft to her, she was very happy with it and gave me her feedback. Michele and Prof Kurt appreciated my effort inspite of the challenges I faced such as lack of data, time constraints, word constraints to conduct a competitor analysis. Michele presented my findings, analysis and recommendations to the director of Fostering Solutions who requested for the FAME financial data to be put in the appendix, and congratulated me for my good work.

In my recommendations to the client I adopted a diplomatic method to avoid being too critical or too polite. Michele was critical about a few of my recommendations at first, but once we debated the issues involved she realised that I had raised valid arguments. My responsibility was to recommend ways in which Fostering Solutions could compete in a better way in the market with respect to competitors. Hence I had to find out and raise concerns in the current working methods/strategy of Fostering Solutions in comparison with its competitors. This had to be done with care due to sensitivity of the issue involved, no organisation would like to hear or accept their faults or limitations. Thus I had to structure my recommendations in such a way that it would be read and accepted by the client. The reason being unless they are accepted with an open mind there is no chance of it being implemented by the organisation.

Self evaluation model

Following is a self evaluation model in which I assess the utilization of skills in this internship project using a coordinate diagram.

X axis – Skills to be evaluated

1 – Planning and organising tasks

2- Communication skills

3- Analytical

4 – Problem solving skills

5- Presentation skills with respect to formatting, editing.

6- Team work

7- Creativity

Y axis – Perfomance rating

1 – Poor 2 – Satisfactory 3 – Good 4 – Excellent

Self evaluation model

Excellent 4- (1, 4) (3, 4) (6, 4)

Good 3- (2, 3) (4, 3)

Satisfactory 2 ———————————————— (5, 2) ——– (7, 2)

Poor 1-

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Skills to be evaluated

Coordinates and evaluation using the coordinates model

(1, 4) Planning and organising skills Excellent

(2, 3) Communication skills Good

(3, 4) Analytical skills Good

(4, 3) Problem solving skills Good

(5, 2) Presentation skills with respect to formatting and editing, presentation of work has to be improved -Satisfact

“A good risk decision requires both good risk assessment and good risk management” (Carson and Bain, 2008: 156). The intention of this assignment is to critically evaluate this statement with reference to my own practice experience. With the focus of this piece of practice being on children, this assignment will predominantly explore risk from the perspective of children. The assignment will start with a brief outline of the practice experience that will be referred to and will explore the social, cultural and political concepts that shape practice in relation to risk. The concepts of risk, risk assessment and risk management will be examined along with what makes them good. The assignment will then explore how Brearley’s (1982) risk assessment was used before looking at theoretical frameworks of reflection.

The practice experience that I will be referring to throughout this piece of work is the assessment process in preparation for a Full Assessment Report that had been requested from the Children’s Reporter Administration due to concerns for the safety of a child. During a domestic incident between Mr and Mrs Hassan, their son Raj (aged 12) was struck on the side of the face by Mr Hassan. As a result of bail conditions Mr Hassam was not allowed within a certain distance of the family home and he was not present during the first half of the assessment process. However halfway through the assessment process Mr Hassam was charged and convicted a Schedule 1 offender, with bail conditions no longer in place Mr Hassam returned to the family home.

Towards the end of the twentieth century risk became a major concern within western society; Beck (1992) argues that we live in a risk society that has an emphasis on uncertainty and blame, and there is no longer a focus on succeeding in doing something good but where we are preventing the worst. Parton (1996) would agree with Beck and believes that globalisation has separated society and in turn created more uncertainty within social and economic life. As a result of the blaming culture professionals are finding themselves avoiding taking risks and feeling that they have to defend their practice and risk decisions (McLaughlin, 2007 and Barry, 2007).

The media and public blame practitioners, particularly when there is a child death, and state that they put children at unnecessary high risk as they fail to intervene quickly enough. Examples of high profile child death inquiry cases include Jasmine Beckford (1985), Caleb Ness (2003) and Baby P (2008). Baby P is an excellent example of how the media and public blame practitioners and received high media attention. Media coverage of how risk assessments and risk managements have failed along with demands for minimising risks and organisational and professional accountability has constrained the role of a social worker and The 21st Century Review of Social Work (2006) acknowledges this (Barry, 2007). It implies that social work professionals were lacking in confidence when it came to taking risks in what has become a risk adverse society. One of the main areas highlighted in the report was the need for a new organisational culture and approach to risk assessment and risk management which would promote merit (Scottish Executive, 2006).

Official policies and guidance have been developed in recent years with the aim of improving practices and knowledge where high risks can be identified (DOH, 1991 cited in Parton, 1996). This is evident in documents that influenced my practice and I referred to them before making risk decisions, some examples include; Getting it Right for Every Child: Proposal for Action (Scottish Executive, 2005), Every Child Matters: Change for Children (HM Government, 2004) and It’s everyone’s job to make sure I’m alright: Report of the Child Protection Audit and Review (Scottish Executive, 2002).

The word risk is a complex and comprehensive concept and there is no clear definition when it comes to defining what would be a low, medium or high risk (Stalker, 2003 and Barry, 2007). Many of the problems that arise during risk taking is a result of there being no exact definition of risk (Titterton, 2005). This in turn creates difficulties when defining definitions of risk, risk assessment and risk management.

The Oxford English Dictionary (2002) describes the noun risk as a situation that could lead to a bad outcome or the likelihood of something unpleasant happening, and the verb risk as being exposed to danger or loss or act in a way that something bad could happen. All dictionary definitions will give the word risk negative meanings. Alaszewski and Manthorpe (1991) would agree with the negative dictionary definitions of risk and define it as, “the possibility that a given course of action will not achieve its desired outcome but instead some undesired and undesirable situation will develop.” Similarly Blackburn (2000) views risk as being a loss or cost as a result of uncertainty (cited in Carson and Bain, 2008).

Carson and Bain (2008) and Titterton (2005) disagree with negative meanings of the word risk; they argue that such definitions are not good enough as they pose more difficulties when taking risks with people’s lives. They both argue that risk needs to be explained as looking at the potential benefits and also the potential harms. Alberg (1996) provides a useful definition of risk as, “the possibility of beneficial and harmful outcomes and the likelihood of their occurrence in a stated timescale” (cited in Titterton, 2005:25).

Risk assessment is the stage in risk decision making where information on the elements of risk is collated and assessed, they are usually made to inform risk management. Risk assessment is concerned with collecting information on the two key risk elements; these are known as the outcomes (also known as the consequences, harm or damage) and their likelihood (also known as chance or exposure) and to assess a risk we must consider both (Carson and Bain, 2008, Titterton, 2005). The two basic assessment tools used to assess risk are; clinical which involves professional judgement and information from research on risk factors, and actuarial is based upon statistical calculations of risk and is used in the insurance industry (Barry, 2007 and Davies, 2008). Although not exclusively, actuarial data tends to be used during risk assessments and clinical during risk management (Carson and Bain, 2008).

In order to undertake a good risk assessment we should include all the outcomes that could occur as a result of the risk decision and which could happen in the period that the risk is being assessed. If an outcome would happen regardless of a risk assessment being made then it did not happen as a result of a risk decision. The risk decision must have made the outcome more likely or serious; both the seriousness of the outcomes and their likelihood must be considered (Carson and Bain, 2008). When assessing the likelihood of a situation it should be based upon the best knowledge available and whether the decision would have been the same had a responsible body (i.e. SSSC) had considered it (Carson and Bain, 2008).

A good risk assessment has a purpose and this is to explore the potential benefits over the possible harms. If the value of the likely benefits outweighs the value of the likely harms then we will be able to justify taking a risk decision (Titterton, 2005). We need to be able to justify taking a risk before we can learn whether harm will result. If harm does result then it is not bad risk assessment, similarly if a risk decision leads to successful outcomes we cannot say it is good risk assessment. A risk decision needs to be judged on the risk decision processes and procedures, not by the outcomes (Carson and Bain, 2008). It could be argued that there are no benefits of taking a risk and this would be deemed as bad risk assessment and must be challenged (Carson and Bain, 2008).

After a risk assessment has been carried out a decision needs to be made on how to manage the situation. Risk management is discovering and controlling the dimensions of the proposed risk into a plan to manage the risks; it is involved with implementing, monitoring, influencing, controlling and reviewing the risk decision (Carson and Bain, 2008). Risk dimensions are features of risk that could be influenced by the practitioner, for example the available resources to manage the risk and uncertainty (Carson and Bain, 2008). Risk management also means making the most of the potential benefits and including service users in managing risk decisions (Stalker, 2003).

In order to have good risk management we must be able to make effective use of all the dimensions of the risk assessment. This includes the time during and the amount of time of a risk decision being made and the time available to intervene if necessary. We need to be able to identify people and their skills as a resource and use their qualities, knowledge and ability to recognise problems and opportunities should they arise. We should identify and consider both positive and negative opportunities that arise at different stages as we go along a risk path. Before making a risk decision we must explore the quality and quantity of available knowledge and its significance. Knowledge is a form of power and this creates degrees of control, this includes recognising our professional, ethical and legal limits to intervene and control a risk. Good risk management is being able to use all of these resources however there is a barrier, they all cost money. Risk management is political as it is about resources, we require adequate resources for a good risk management plan and lack of resources will have an impact on this (Carson and Bain, 2008).

Risk decisions are complex and may be based on unreliable or uncertain knowledge. If harm could not occur then it would not be a risk, if harms do occur then decision making and risk management will need to be examined and a risk decision that was justifiable before the event must remain justifiable after the event. The practitioner will also need to show that any decisions they did make were in line with best current practice on risk assessment and risk management. Many risk decisions will be good irrespective of poor risk management. (Carson and Bain, 2008 and Davies, 2008).

Risk management is often overshadowed by risk assessment, despite the fact that it can only identify a risk and not lessen it (Stalker, 2003 and Titterton, 2005). It is important to give risk management more credit as it can prevent bad risk assessment. If a poor risk assessment is made then it can result in harm, inquiries and court proceedings. As risk management comes after the risk assessment has been made it can in turn prevent a poor risk assessment from causing harm (Carson and Bain, 2008). Also risk management concerns the implementation of the risk decision and can therefore protect against the consequences of poor risk assessment. In order to make a good risk decision we therefore require good risk assessment and good risk management (Carson and Bain, 2008). Titterton (2005) argues that risk assessment and risk management should be interconnected within the same risk framework.

Brearley’s (1982) definition of risk focuses on the negative outcomes of risk (i.e. damage and harm) however despite its restrictions it is argued that it is relevant as he has provided a framework that provides a good starting point for understanding and assessing risk, and that helps assist workers to recognise risk factors when faced with risky situations (Watson and West, 2006 and Kemshall and Pritchard, 1996). Brearley’s risk assessment framework is interactive and uses concepts of the systems approach, task centred approach to the actuarial assessment of risk. His framework identifies two types of hazards which he refers to as general predictive hazards (background hazards) and situational hazards (current hazards); a hazard is the possibility of loss or damage that will result in danger. These hazards need to be weighed up with the strengths in order to identify if a risk decision has to be made (Kemshall and Pritchard, 1996).

I incorporated Brearley’s (1982) framework with the assessment triangle (DOH, 2000 and Aldgate and Rose, 2006) during my risk assessment and I identified that identified that there were no general predictive factors for Raj, he was not known to social work prior to this assault and there was no evidence to suggest that there had been any issues in the past. The situational hazards for Raj were; he had been assaulted by Mr Hassam, his behaviour changed and he became withdrawn and angry, poverty and poor housing. His strengths were; he was resilient, he attended and enjoyed school, he openly spoke out about how he felt. The danger for Raj was that he was at risk of further physical and/or emotional abuse for being open and honest with me after his father had warned him not to speak to any professionals.

During my risk assessment I had to consider how capable Mr Hassam was of further assaulting Raj and how likely it was to happen. I thought about the severity of the outcomes, for example if I thought there was a chance that the outcome would be death then the likelihood would be lower than if I thought the outcome could be assault. I therefore considered the outcome of my assessment to be that Mr Hassam could assault Raj again and although the outcome could be very serious but I felt that the likelihood of it happening was very low as Mr Hassam had never been violent towards his son before and showed true signs of remorse for his actions. However just because it was extremely unlikely that Mr Hassam would assault Raj again did not mean that I could consider it a low risk. An unlikely event does not become any more likely merely as it could have serious outcomes (Carson and Bain, 2008). During my assessment I referred to The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 as I had a duty to safeguard and promote the welfare of Raj and his welfare is paramount (SCLC, 1995), and also to the values of the SSSC (2005), particularly codes 4.1 and 4.2.

When considering the risk period to work within and how we are basing our assessment we should examine research based upon that period. During my risk assessment I looked at research on domestic violence and child abuse and several studies show that there is a high association between domestic violence and child abuse (physical and emotional); Morely and Mullender (1994) found that between 40-60% of children are physically assaulted by the perpetrator and Epsein and Keep (1994) found that 38% of children who called Childline had been assaulted by the perpetrator. To make the use of the highest knowledge available I also consulted with my practice teacher and PTL and considered their recommendations before making my decision. My risk decision was that it was safe for Raj to remain in the family home with his father, as the potential benefits (e.g. prior to the assault Raj and his father had a good relationship) outweighed the likely harms. I was able to work in partnership with Mr and Mrs Hassan and the school and they were all resources that assisted me with identifying opportunities for Raj. On reflection I felt confident that I had used the resources available to me well, particularly research and knowledge and I could justify my risk decision if harm was to occur and would be able to explain how I came to my risk decision.

Reflective practice involves being able to think holistically and in turn this includes exploring facts and feelings, the knowledge and understanding of the situation and being able to look at perspectives subjectively and objectively (Wilson et al, 2008). Schon (1983), Kolb (1984) and Boud et al (1985) have given reflective practice currency in recent years by developing ideas and using and applying them to reflecting on experience and improving action and practice (Brown and Rutter, 2008). I based my reflective accounts in practice on Kolb’s (1984) model of experiential learning. Kolb’s model explores having concrete practice experience which we then reflect and observe on, construct new ideas on and then experiment with. His model emphasises the importance of using observation and testing our reflection on what we see and experience and being able to build upon how we experience the real world (Adams et al, 2002). Kolb’s model has helped me understand that learning is individual and I have to make the connections to existing knowledge, theories and legislation when reflecting on what I have learned.

A number of self evaluation questionnaires derived from Kolb’s learning cycle with the aim of helping people identify their learning styles. I used Honey and Mumford’s (1992) learning style questionnaire to discover that I am a reflective learner; I will watch and reflect, gather relevant data and examine all the possible options available before making a decison. Using my learning style as a reflector and incorporating Kolb’s model of learning I was able to confidently make a risk decision for Raj. I used the supervision process to discuss my learning style and how this assisted me when I put plans of action in place with the Hassam family and how I went through the cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualisation and experimentation (Parker, 2006).

To conclude this piece of work has proved that in order to have a good risk decision then we must have a good risk assessment along with good risk management and my own practice experience was integrated throughout as an illustrative. Today’s risk society has a lack of confidence in professionals and this has an impact when they need to make risk decisions, although after using risk and reflective frameworks along with supervision I was confident to be able to make my risk decision and justify it. With the right policies, procedures and support professionals will be able to make good risk decisions and feel confident when doing so.

The purpose of this essay is to critically evaluate the following statement with reference to my own practice experience in working with risk. “As social workers it is especially critical that we apply a resilience-lens, that is, a strengths-based practice approach…” (Saleeby, 2006, p.198).

With the focus of this piece of practice on working with a family, this essay will predominantly explore the above statement from the perspective of a Children and Families placement. The essay will start with a brief outline of the practice experience that will be referred to and will then explore the concepts of resilience and strengths-based practice as well as risk assessment and risk management. The social, cultural and political concepts that shape practice in relation to risk management will also be explored. A reflective discussion of my practice will follow and this will incorporate the concepts of resilience and strengths-based practice as well as risk assessment and risk management and how this approach was utilised to complete BB’s Pre-Birth Assessment. This discussion will also be set within a theoretical framework of reflection.

The practice experience that will be referred to within this essay is the assessment process I undertook in order to prepare for the completion of a Pre-Birth Assessment which had been requested by the Community Ante-Natal Midwife. The completed Pre-Birth Assessment would be sent to the Local Authority’s Child Protection Officer. This was in line with the Local Authority’s High Risk Pregnancy Protocol. BB is 18 years old and pregnant with her second child. She lives alone in local authority housing in a small village. Her oldest child, CA, was at the time of the referral 9 months old. BB’s partner, BA, who is aged 21, is currently in prison serving a two year sentence for Assault to Severe Injury. BA is not expected to get released from prison until October 2010. The Midwife was concerned that BB would find it difficult to cope with the new baby as well as her daughter and described BB as appearing to lack capacity in her understanding of responsibility of CA’s health and welfare and the health and well-being of both herself and her unborn baby. The midwife also raised concerns about BB’s mental well-being with respect to her partner’s long term prison sentence and in particular raised concerns that BB was finding it difficult to contemplate the birth of her second child without the support of her partner. The Midwife was satisfied that substance/drug misuse was not an issue with BB.

The concept of resilience refers to a dynamic process of overcoming the negative effects of risk exposure, coping successfully with traumatic experiences and avoiding the negative pathways associated with risks. (Rutter, 1985; Luthar et al, 2000). From a developmental perspective, a pathway can become negative when circumstances lead to lower than expected progress or regression. Positive pathways occur as individuals or families overcome adversities. Turning points represent times when a pathway alters direction, such as when professional intervention enables a family or individual to start on or return to a positive pathway. (Hill et al 2007). Gilligan (2004) also suggests that three elements are seen as essential to understanding resilience which arises from a process and results in positive adaption in the face of adversity. Further to this, Fergus and Zimmerman (2005) argue that a key requirement of resilience is the presence of both risk and protective factors that either help bring about a positive outcome or reduce and avoid a negative outcome. In order to illuminate how resilience may operate, the key relationships in the lives of children and their families should be explored. The relationships the children and their families have with the wider world as well as their relationships with professionals should also be included in this exploration. (Gilligan, 2004).

According to Hill et al (2007) many of the findings concerning resilience among young people as they move into adulthood are relevant to parents. The capacities and supports that assist their resilience also help them manage stresses arising from parental roles. However, much of the work on parent and family support has been based on the concept of ‘coping ‘ and the development or building on the strengths of families facing difficulties rather than that of ‘resilience’ (Pugh et al, 1995; Quinton, 2004). Nevertheless, as Hill et al (2007) point out “successful coping equates to resilience” (Hill et al, 2007, p.19).

In order to identify and bolster strengths, as well as reduce risk Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt (2004) consider how a risk and resilience ecological framework (Kirby and Fraser, 1997) can fit with social work’s emphasis on empowerment and the strengths-based perspective. Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt (2004) put forward the ideas that the strengths perspective underlies the concepts of ‘protective factors’ and ‘resilience’ in which people are not only able to survive, but also triumph over difficult life circumstances. The ecological emphasis of the framework expands the focus beyond the individual to a “recognition of systemic factors that can create problems as well as ameliorate them.” (Corcoran and Nichols-Casebolt, 2004, p.212)

In describing elements and principles of strength-based practice, Saleeby (2000) asks us to imagine an equilateral triangle. P at the apex stands for promise and possibility whilst C on the left represents capacities, competencies and character. R on the angle to the right symbolises resources, resilience and reserves. Taking into account the character and tenor of the helping relationship using the work of Carl Rogers (1951) by utilising respect, genuineness, concern, collaboration and empathy as well having useful and appropriate interventions can provide a context for the family and/or individual to confront the difficult and consider the future.

Central to the strengths approach is to begin making an assessment of the assets, resources and capacities within the service user and equally within their environment e.g. household composition, extended family, neighbourhood and local amenities as well as access to community resources. (Saleeby, 2000; Corcoran & Nichols-Casebolt, 2004). Further to this, professional assessment needs to focus on strengths as well as deficits, on protective as well as risk factors. (Werner & Smith, 1992; Gilligan, 2001). What also needs to be understood, in terms of professional assessment is that protective and risk factors have been found to vary according to the type of adversity, type of resilient outcome and life stage. Also risk factors in one context may by protective in another. (Rutter, 1999; Ungar, 2004).

Risk assessment should be understood as collecting information on the two key risk elements; these are known as the outcomes (also known as the consequences, harm or damage) and their likelihood (also known as chance or exposure) and to assess a risk both should be taken into consideration. (Carson & Bain, 2008; Titterton, 2005). Risk assessment is also described as a systematic collection of information to identify if risks are involved and identifying the likelihood of their future occurrence. It can also be used to predict the escalation of the presenting behaviour as well as the service user’s motivation for change. (Calder, 2002)

When considering outcomes Carson & Bain (2008) argue that a risk assessment only requires from a legal, ethical and professional perspective to cover ‘reasonable’ outcomes. The goal should be to include as much information, and as many considerations as necessary but to keep the decision as simple as possible. Including unreasonable outcomes quickly become counterproductive and thereby show poor practice. Further to this beneficial outcomes should also be taken into consideration. Risk assessment should also take into account that risk is being considered, and can be justified because its likely benefits may be more important than the possible harms. Quality risk assessment requires us to think about the amount of harm and/or benefits which might be achieved.

When assessing likelihood Carson & Bain (2008) suggest that the knowledge source and the quality of knowledge are variable. They advocate the adoption of the cognitive continuum model by Hammond (1978 cited in Carson & Bain, 2008). This suggests that we should be able to distinguish six ‘levels’ of knowledge. The lowest level being ‘intuitive judgement’ next is ‘peer-aided judgement’ where two or more people will share knowledge, experience and discuss assumptions and predictions. The third is ‘system-aided judgement’ e.g. supervisor/manager aided. The final three levels relate to the quality of scientific and empirical research which may or may not be available. However, as Carson & Bain point out the value of the cognitive continuum is that it reminds us that

“When making an assessment of likelihood we ought to use knowledge from the highest level, providing it is relevant knowledge.”

(Carson & Bain, 2008, p.142)

Therefore, when conducting an assessment, it is important that the nature of the interactions between the family and environmental factors are examined carefully, including both positive and negative influences and knowledge and meaning attached to them explored and weighed up with the family. What is useful in this respect is the use of grids and visual aids such as resilience/vulnerability matrix (Daniel & Wassell, 2002), My World Triangle and genograms. The usefulness of these is enhanced when completed together with the service user. At this point it is useful to mention that there are two basic assessment tools used to assess risk. These are clinical which involves professional judgement, information from research on risk factors and constructs risk management as well as allowing intervention strategies to be tailored to situation. The other is actuarial and is based upon statistical calculations of risk and uses scales to assess parental dangerousness. This method does not allow for children and their families unique cluster of circumstances and also takes no account of child development theory. (Barry, 2007; Davies, 2008).

Risk management is discovering and controlling the dimensions of the proposed risk into a plan to manage the risks; it is involved with implementing, monitoring, influencing, controlling and reviewing the risk decision. Risk dimensions are features of risk that could be influenced by the practitioner, for example the available (and the availability of) resources to manage the risk and uncertainty (Carson and Bain, 2008). Gurney (2000) defines risk management as processes devised by organisations to minimise negative outcomes and suggests that risk management moves along a continuum between control, legitimate authority and empowerment. Between the empowering and controlling ends of the continuum lie models of risk minimisation which seek to reduce harms and maximise benefits. (Manthorpe, 2000).

However, in order to have good risk management we must be able to make effective use of all the dimensions of the risk assessment. Risk management suggest ways in which a decision may be best implemented. Different levels of resources may be applied. For example, the child who is perceived possibly to be at risk may be visited more frequently. People are an example of a major resource for risk management. The number of people being able to visit to check on a risk decision will be important but will be of little advantage if they are not sufficiently knowledgeable or skilled in identifying problems or opportunities and to make appropriate interventions. However, the availability of resources is money orientated and the availability of risk management resources in one part of the country (or neighbouring local authorities) could lead to a different risk proposal being assessed from that in another local authority that does not have those resources available. (Carson & Bain, 2008)

Webb (2007) identifies social work as operating within a ‘risk society’, that is, a society which views risk as something which should be managed and can be identified and eradicated. Since the beginning of the 21st Century there have been several reports regarding child abuse deaths and, as pointed out by Ferguson (1997), there are

“Few more disturbing phenomena in advanced modern society than the premature deaths of socially valued children who were known to be at high risk.”

(Ferguson, 1997, p. 228)

Examples of high profile child death inquiry cases include Victoria Climbie (2003), Caleb Ness (2003) and Baby P (2008). These are all very good examples of how the media and public blamed practitioners. The resultant media coverage of how risk assessment and risk management have failed along with demands for minimising risks and organisational and professional accountability have, over the years, constrained the role of a social worker. With respect to this Houston and Griffiths argue that

“Approaches to risk assessment and management in child protection have led to an emphasis on prediction, control and culpability.” (Houston and Griffiths, 2000, p.1).

Furedi (1997) argues that the worship of safety and the avoidance of risk make up the new moral order, an order which is prescriptive, intrusive and deeply anti-humanistic. From this perspective, concern about identifying risk is becoming more dominant than concern about identifying need in assessment and resource allocation in risk management.

Avoiding risk is a difficult business which cannot be reduced to simplistic methods and rather than try to calculate the incalculable social workers should develop mutually trusting, respectful relationships with service users. Also this approach to risk assessment and risk management may deny the social worker empowering approaches which respond to need, focus on prevention and which more centrally tackle issues of poverty and social inequality. (Stalker, 2003; Ritchie & Woodward, 2009). Further to this Ritchie & Woodward (2009) point out that if social workers are preoccupied with high risk situations they are less likely to find the space to work either creatively or therapeutically. Additionally, the Changing Lives Report (2006) suggested that the social work profession had become increasingly risk averse. One of the key areas identified in Changing Lives was the need to develop a new organisational culture and approach to risk management and risk assessment which promoted excellence. (Scottish Executive 2006).

In order to complete BB’s pre-birth assessment I took into account risk factors and strengths which I had to analyse and reflect on. Calder (2002) offers a framework for conducting risk assessment by assessing all areas of identified risk and ensuring that each is considered separately e.g. child, parent and surrounding environment. To counteract the risk factors present family strengths and resources were also assessed, for example good bonding, supportive networks. I undertook research regarding parental resilience and according to Hill et al (2007) a vast array of research shows that parents in poverty or facing other stressors usually cope better when they have one or more close relationships outside the household and these are activated to give practical, emotional or informational support. In the case of BB she had a practical and supportive relationship with her mother as well as the support of her extended family which included her grandmother. BB also had a good relationship with BA’s family and his mother in particular was a source of support for BB as she regularly took CA overnight.

Whilst completing the assessment I centred my practice on the strengths-based perspective. As Saleeby (2000) explains the work of the strengths-based approach is the work of empowerment as both a process and a goal. As a goal, those who are empowered seek a firmer sense of purpose, self-esteem, the possibility of choice and connections to resources. As a process it is the collaboration between a social worker and a family or individual, working together on a mutual plan that will move them closer to their aspirations.

Utilising a strengths-based practice with BB was important as she was finding it difficult to interact with the Community Health Visitor and Midwife. BB felt that she was a ‘bad parent’ as she was not conforming to the routines the Health Visitor had recommended. BB also described how she felt that the Health Visitor was ‘judging her and finding her wanting as a parent’. Taking this conversation into consideration I realised that BB had no sense of self-efficacy, self-esteem or self-concept which Payne (2005) describes as resources that people have in order to cope. However, BB’s strengths lay in the care of her daughter. She had a good bond with her daughter and was quick to attend to her needs. BB also had a routine in place with regard to mealtimes, naps and a bedtime routine. CA was also reaching her developmental milestones, had age appropriate toys and had the freedom of the living area. BB had also erected a baby gate to stop CA from gaining access to the kitchen and stairs.

After a thorough analysis and supervisory discussions with my practice teacher I recommended that a Post-Birth Multi-Agency Conference not be convened. BB was happy to continue to work voluntarily with the Children and Families Area Team which would allow ongoing assessment and intervention. However, I recommended that a Post-Birth Multi-Agency meeting be arranged to discuss future interventions as I was aware that the birth of the new baby could be a future pressure on BB. I also recommended a further assessment take place when BA returns to the family home in October 2010. These recommendations were accepted by the Child Protection Officer at the Local Authority.

In conclusion, Kolb’s Reflective Cycle (1984) was useful in the reflection of my practice concerning BB as it allowed me to take into account Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) Codes of Practice, particularly Section 4.1 and 4.2. This reflective cycle also helped me look at BB’s situation holistically by looking at resilience and risk, strengths-based practice and risk assessment and management. On reflection I felt confident that I had used the resources available to me well, particularly research and knowledge and I could justify my risk decision if harm was to occur and would be able to explain how I came to my risk decision. Overall, I felt that my first practice was very much influenced by the negative issues associated with risk however, I believe that this placement allowed me to put risk, risk assessment and management into perspective and accepting that risk decisions should not be influenced by the ‘blame-culture’ but from a balanced approach which takes into consideration beneficial outcomes. This will in the future enable me to better support service users.

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