Category: Free Essays

The purpose of this report is to assess the issues surrounding the childrens human rights in Nepal by criticising their status in conjunction with the applicable International Treaties. Simultaneously its aim is to illustrate the current situation, by providing information from findings regarding the violations on the rights of the children. Particularly it focuses on health status, sexual exploitation, forced labour and education and it reflects those violations, by providing statistical data and paradigms during and after the armed conflict.

It would also give emphasis, on whether Nepal has complied with the International Conventions as well as whether any NGO.s gave any attention towards the crisis sustained in Nepal.

Finally the report would make a general evaluation by providing recommendations in respect of Nepal’s implementations and promises for the improvement of children’s human rights, including the need of their protection and their future concern.

II.Introduction

Nepal in reality is one of the poorest and undeveloped countries in the world, which tries to be reborn from its own ashes, after witnessing and experiencing a 10 year internal violent armed conflict, due to the Maoist insurgency which ceased in 2006.

Nonetheless the last years have been made significant changes and developments. In 2008, Nepal went from political instability to a Federal Democratic Republic as the UCPN-M [1] had agreed with the Nepalese government to come to an end with that conflict. Thus was guaranteed a peaceful government according to the CPA, [2] establishing equality and safeguarding fundamental human rights and freedoms.

Despite the fact that, there is a gradual recovery and progress, serious human rights violations continue to occur, as Nepal still faces the aftershocks of the crisis. Arguably the armed conflict has stigmatised the most vulnerable group and has deprived from them their basic rights. Children have been victimised and faced ostracism of their houses, forced to be soldiers and arbitrarily detained by the government, subjected to ill-treatment and even torture. Others were used for exploitation and being subjected to sexual abuse depriving their right to be educated and also their health status has been deteriorated.

Immediate help from human rights defenders and INGO’s [3] was rapidly given globally, but still it is an imperative need as children demand their protection. Most of them still live under insecurity and instability facing risks of further violations of their rights. Thus is due consideration to highlight the current situation.

III.Children’s Health Status and Human Exploitation in Armed Conflict
It is claimed that “children are majority in statistics but minority on social status in real world”. [4] This statement reveals the current situation concerning children’s rights status in Nepal.
Recent reports indicate that there have been grievous violations of children’s rights as hundreds have been killed by armed groups due to the political situation and others continue to be at risk even if the country is in a post-conflict stage. Moreover thousands were seriously injured and others have died because of diseases particularly from HIV/AIDS. [5] Their health status has been degrading [6] both physically and mentally as the armed conflict deprived from them their basic rights such as the right to family, food and shelter.
The unfriendly environment had exposed orphaned children to conditions which had never experienced before. Moreover hundreds have been displaced from their families and have been subjected to violation, prostitution and involuntary servitude without their consent becoming vulnerable to high risks of infectious diseases. During and after the ceasefire, children exploitation had worsened their health as the majority of the victimised children have been unlawfully treated and exposed in dreadful conditions, facing oppression and coercion. Simultaneously the inadequate health system, resources and the insufficient manpower has worsened their health status.
Even if Nepal has attained to streamline child’s health the last decades by reducing mortality under 5 from 118% in 1996 to 61% in 2006, however disparities exist by different social groups regarding accessibility in the health system.
The phenomenon of child trafficking is Nepal’s one of its major problems. Yet, no formal surveys have been prepared by the Nepalese government but the Committee concerned that there is lack of actual statistics of children victims on exploitation and trafficking. [7] However a research conducted by CWIN [8] in association with Save the Children revealed that 73,8% of 110 boys living on the street, had had non-consensual sexual intercourse. [9] Another tragic study conducted by ILO [10] estimated that about 5000 children, mainly girls are working as commercial sex workers. [11]

Nonetheless Nepal had successfully ratified and had abided by the terms of OPSC. [12] Also the Interim Constitution of Nepal guarantees the protection of children against any form of abuse and exploitation as well as many acts such as the Children’s Act [13] and Human Trafficking and Transportation Control Act [14] is opposed to CSEC. [15] However the study of the CRC [16] Sub-Committee of the HRTMCC [17] reveals that the Nepalese provisions do not explicitly address the issues that fall under OPSC [18] and fail to accord with the CRC.

Consequently that means the legislation does not safeguard the rights of the children from CSEC. According to the same study it was observed that even if institutions, centres and initiatives are combat against CSEC there is a lack of coordination between them [19] as there is an overlap due to government institutions. At the same time different projects cease to continue their work as there is no adequate financial support and also there is no specific programme to work against CSEC for the best interests of the child.

Notably children who have participated in consultation meetings did not know about the government programmes regarding OPSC dissemination. Since most of the children are illiterate they cannot understand the provisions conducted by the Nepalese government combating CSEC; so without having the proper knowledge and support it would be an utopia for them to fight for their rights against CSEC which could be characterised as a modern type of slavery.

IV.Forced Labour-DCL

Myriad studies, indicate that the mission of the government is to enrich the status of the child in Nepal and make attempts in order to formulate strategies so as to eliminate the worst forms of DCL. [20]

Nepal has one of the worst backgrounds regarding the forms of forced labour especially in the DCL. Frans Roselaers claimed that “unacceptable forms of exploitation of children at work exist and persist but they are difficult to research due to their hidden, sometimes illegal or even criminal nature.” [21] The phenomenon of child labour in Nepal takes lots of dimensions the last decades as children are economically active from their young age. In accordance to NFLS [22] the participation rate for children is estimated at about 40.4%. [23]

The current political situation, poverty and the harmful traditional practices use children to be exposed in the worst hazardous conditions and forced them to drop out from school depriving from them their education. The constitution of Nepal prohibits child labour and the Nepalese government after the ratification of CRC indicated the commitment of ensuring that children do not have to work. Therefore Nepal was obligated to enact respective domestic laws. Within this context enacted the Children’s Act [24] and also Child Labour Act [25] strictly prohibiting and eradicating child labour. Furthermore in 1997 ratified C138 [26] with object the abolition of child labour and became a member of the SAARC. [27] Also, the IPEC [28] operates in Nepal with intention to create policies against child labour.

An issue which is yet due consideration is whether children rights have indeed made progress after the ratification of the Conventions in conjunction with the new democratic system of Nepal by enacting respecting legislation, policies that present a development on their human rights status. It must be emphasised that there is a significant reduction of bonded labour to 40.4% compared to 47.0% of the total child population which was detected in NLFS 1998. Although the Committee in its one observation concerned that “despite the efforts of the state party to abolish the worst forms of child labour, the prevalence of child labour remains high particularly in hazardous conditions of work”. [29]

In 2009, the CEACR [30] despite Nepal’s ratification of C182 [31] and Optional Protocol to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict [32] requested the government to take measures in order to amend its domestic legislation and prohibit the forced recruitment of children less than 18 years for use in armed conflict. The Committee also observed that the government has not made respective laws which are consistent with the provisions of the Convention in order to prohibit a person below 18 years to be exposed in hazardous work.

V.Education

Education is children’s prime concern and also it could be considered the basis of creating a safe future for a nation. Children are the principal participants of a country and especially Nepal which is a nation where education must be promoted among other developments made by the state. Nepal has ratified the ICESCR [33] where Articles 13 and 14 highlight the issue of free compulsory education. Although Nepal consented to the terms in order to provide free education between the ages of 6 and 11; the provisions regarding the Covenant are not followed.

Also in one of its latest reports the UN [34] Committee observed that Nepal has yet to adopt a policy of compulsory education and further comments that there is a gap concerning the attendance between girls and boys as well as there is great disparity between castes ethnic and indigenous groups. The emancipation of children from a young age had used them to work hard as their families do not invest in their educational needs because of monetary hardships. Statistics from a recent survey conducted by the ILO demonstrating the seriousness of the situation; 9% of the total child population, have never attended school and 59% have not even completed their primary education. [35] Remarkably the gender gap remains a problem as mostly girls are discriminated from education due to the patriarchal traditions who want girls to be married from their young age.

VI.Human Rights Defenders

NGO’s such as UNICEF [36] play a fundamental role as their mission is to safeguard the rights of the children in Nepal. UNICEF had provided mechanisms for the needs of the children supporting them in various ways: providing rehabilitation and remuneration programmes as well as reintegration programmes. A NGO named “Save the Children” focuses mainly in the development of education and health of the children by trying to regulate and reduce youth mortality. establishing strategic partnerships with the government.

VII.Conclusion

Hence the poor economic status, poverty and also the bad cultural practices in Nepal, illustrate children’s human rights in their worst form. Even if the state has made step forward by ratifying international conventions there is lack of enforcement of the law and policies which in reality constitutes the main gap for any solutions. Nonetheless, Nepal could not be the only fighter of safeguarding the child rights through its legislative framework, but the key lies on the general system of human resources and society which must be sensitive on issues surrounding children’s rights.

IX.Recommendations

Effective strategies must be conducted by the PPCC [37] which would enforce policies for solving the issues of DCL. Even if education has been hindered by poverty, it could be the response to diminish child labour and enrich the status of the child.

The Nepalese government must immediately ratify the third Optional Protocol, [38] as pursuant to it, abused children that became victims of prostitution and trafficking could have the opportunity to raise their voice and bring complaints for violations of their rights.

The state must give attention to the UN observations concerning discrimination in education in which it must eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education. Trade unions should continue to encourage these challenges in the process of educational restructure and put pressure to the government of changing its policies in all levels of education corresponding to the provisions contained in ICESCR.

Streamline

2000 words.

X.Bibliography-References

Rehman, J., (2010). International Human Rights Law (2nd edition). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Naftali B., 2011. International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law (1st edition). Oxford: University Press.

Gajurel, D.P., 2007. “Child Rights in Nepal”, [online].Unpublished Menuscript, Kathmandu: Nepal Law Campus, Faculty of Law, Tribhuvan University. Available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract id= 1106619. [Accessed 27th November 2012].

Aruna, J., 2008. Impact of Armed Conflict on Children in Nepal: Situation Analysis of their health status. [online]. Kathmandu School of Law Child Rights Search and Resource Centre, Nepal. Available at: www.ksl.edu.np/crc_students-article.asp. [Accessed 27th November 2012].

Child Rights NGO Report Prepared by: CRC Sub-committee, Human Rights Treaty, Monitoring Coordination Committee (HRTMCC), Secretariat: Child Nepal (CN)., 2011. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child

on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000). [online]. CN Promoting Child Rights through Education. Available at: www.childrennepal.org/showmodule.php?url=crc. [Accessed 27th November 2012].

Child Rights NGO Report Prepared by: CRC Sub-committee, Human Rights Treaty, Monitoring Coordination Committee (HRTMCC), Secretariat: Child Nepal (CN)., 2011. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child

on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000). [online]. CN Promoting Child Rights through Education, 2011, 21. Available at: www.childrennepal.org/showmodule.php?url=crc. [Accessed 27th November 2012].

Child Rights NGO Report Prepared by: CRC Sub-committee, Human Rights Treaty, Monitoring Coordination Committee (HRTMCC), Secretariat: Child Nepal (CN)., 2011. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child

on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000). [online]. CN Promoting Child Rights through Education, 2011, 13. Available at: www.childrennepal.org/showmodule.php?url=crc. [Accessed 27th November 2012].

International Labour Organization (ILO) Central Bureau of Statistics of Nepal,. 2008. NEPAL CHILD LABOUR REPORT based on data drawn from the Nepal Force Labour Survey. [online]. ILO 2008, xi. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/kathmandu/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_182988/lang–en/index.htm [Accessed 27th November 2012].

International Labour Organization (ILO) Central Bureau of Statistics of Nepal,. 2008. NEPAL CHILD LABOUR REPORT based on data drawn from the Nepal Force Labour Survey. [online]. ILO 2008, xii. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/kathmandu/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_182988/lang–en/index.htm [Accessed 27th November 2012].

UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2008. Nepal: Persistent violations of children’s rights. [online]. Available at: http://www.crin.org/resources/infodetail.asp?ID=29608. [Accessed date 27th November].

Karen C.T., 2000. Trafficking in children in Asia; a regional overview. [online]. ILO. Available at: www.ilo.orf/asia/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_BK _PB _7 _EN/lang–en/index.htm. [Accessed 27th November].

Gonzalez, Z., 2002. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour El Salvador, The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents: A Rapid Assessment [online]. Available at:http://www.ilo.org/public/spanish/standards/ipec/simpoc/elsalvador/ra/sexexp.pdf. [Accessed 26th November 2012].

The purpose of the current study was to determine whether children exhibited a preference for solitary play, same gendered play, or opposite gendered play. The hypothesis was that both males and females would spend more time in gender-segregated play than engaging with opposite-gendered peers or in non-interactive play. Play is a vital contributor to the cognitive, emotional, and social development of children (Chea, Nelson, & Ruben, 2001). One important component of childhood play is early peer interactions. The choices a child makes with regards to peer selection contribute to their development by determining the quality of their early social interactions. A number of factors must be taken into consideration when evaluating children’s social situations. Children can either play alone or with one or more peers. Solitary play can take a variety of forms, each carrying a different implication for the child’s social experience. Social play can involve interactions with same gendered peers or with opposite-gendered peers. Each of these components contributes to the unique social experience each child encounters.

Recent work has suggested that solitary play is not always an indicator of poor social skills. Motivations for solitary play vary and could include self-reflection or regulation, task-oriented motivations, personality characteristics, or an inability to engage with peers. Work by Moore, Everston, and Brophy (1974) has found that the majority of time children spend in solitary play is engaging in goal directed activities. These activities are beneficial for development. The researchers suggest that rather than being an immature and developmentally harmful method of play, this type of solitary play represents independence and task orientated behaviour that should be seen as indicating maturity. It has been suggested that the category of interaction that Parten (1932) referred to as parallel interaction is a more immature form of play than solitary play rather than an intermediate step towards cooperative play (Johnson, Ershler, & Bell, 1980). This type of interaction is more frequently exhibited in younger children. Research suggests that in many situations it acts as a bridge to cooperative group play, and is often only engaged in for a very short period of time (Smith, 1978). The parallel interaction initiates communication with the child and leads to cooperative play. If the attempt to open up an interaction fails, the child may resort to parallel play again. Extensive time spent in parallel play may indicate poor social skills (Pellegrinin & Bjorklund, 1998).

As children develop, they generally spend more time in cooperative play with their peers. Research by Smith found that solitary play decreased throughout the preschool period. Another study by Rubin, Watson, and Jambor (1978) found that preschool children engaged in significantly more solitary play and less group play than children at the kindergarten level. As a child spends more time in cooperative play, peer selection becomes an important component of their social experience. The decisions a child makes regarding those they play with contribute to their development by determining the quality and characteristics of their social interactions.

Participants

The participants in the study were 10 students from Dr. Mary J. Wright University Laboratory School. The 10 participants consisted of 5 males and 5 females. The students were from the Five-Afternoon Kindergarten class and all participants were four years old. All of the participants were Caucasian and from the middle to upper socio-economic class. During all four of the one hour observations there were approximately fourteen children including the participants and approximately six adults were present. There were child-initiated activities which included playing with Lego or blocks, drawing and colouring, and playing with various toys. There were also teacher-guided activities that included book reading, show and tell, and arts and crafts.

Observational Procedure

The participants were observed using a play partner index, which catalogued the different play partners that the children engaged with. This index had six different categories, which were: same gender play, opposite gender play, male parallel play, female parallel play, goal oriented play, and non-goal oriented play. The participants were timed in 30-second intervals using the stopwatch program on a cell phone. All of the participants were monitored from an observation room, which contained headphones, chairs, a writing table and a one-way mirror used to observe the children without disturbing their play. The students were observed in the Mary Wright Classroom during the child-initiated and teacher guided activates. Each child was observed one child at a time for 20 intervals of 30 seconds, and recorded the category of play that the child was engaging in. For example if a student was near another female student but not directly interacting with her, it would be recorded as female parallel play.

Results

The type of social play that each target student engaged in was recorded in 20, 30-second intervals for 10 minutes. The total numbers of intervals were added up for each participant and the participant was labeled by the condition that they spend the most time in. In the single case of an equal number of intervals between two categories, each category was assigned 0.5.

There were no significant differences that were reported between the play categories for males or female. Both genders spent the majority of their time engaging in solitary play. There was only one child who demonstrated any sort of preference for opposite gendered play, and even in that case, only 50% of the participant’s total interactions within the ten-minute period were within this category. These results can clearly be seen in Figure 1 on the table’s page at the end of the paper. There are many possible reasons for the failure to demonstrate significant results, such as sampling issues, environmental factors, and the transitory characteristic of the age range observed.

Discussion

The hypothesis was that that both males and females would spend more time in playing with children of their own gender than interacting with opposite-gendered peers or in non-interactive play. The results failed to support the hypothesis. No significant relationship was found between the categories for males or females. Research by Smith (1978) has demonstrated that solitary play decreases throughout the preschool period, as children begin to engage more with their peers. The children were in their later years of preschool and they failed to show this preference for social interaction. It is possible that the children in the current study have not yet made this transition. The age range considered represents the transitory stage, and this may contribute to the lack of significance in the results.

Furthermore, research by Rubin, Watson, and Jambor (1978) considered preschool aged children compared to kindergarten children, and found that kindergarten aged children spent much more time in group play than the preschoolers. The children in the current study were on the older end of the age bracket for preschool but had not yet reached kindergarten. These children may have been too young to begin to demonstrate the preference for cooperative play that was exhibited in these studies.

This research is of significant value to schools, daycare, parents, or anybody interacting with children on a regular basis. Being aware of the dominant social patterns for each age group can allow caregivers to identify children who may be diverging from the norm. If children fail to engage in positive interactions with their peers or tend to engage in long periods of parallel play, they may be developing poor social skills. Caregivers who can identify these children can then assist them in working towards positive relationships with their peers. Knowing the beneficial forms of solitary play can allow caregivers to provide children with stimulating activities that can assist them in their development, and monitor children for extensive periods of time spent in non goal-directed behaviour. Each child has independent needs when it comes to social behaviours. Being aware of the trends and risks can allow caregivers to meet the unique needs of each child.

There are many extensions that can be made to provide further insight into social patterns in children. For example, the family situation and siblings in particular may influence social preferences exhibited in children. Some children may enjoy playing by themselves because they come from a larger family of many siblings and desire time alone. The opposite may also be true. In regards to gender preferences, children may gravitate towards peers that are the same gender of their siblings. For instance, a young girl who has three brothers and no sisters may demonstrate a preference for male play partners. The impact of being an only child could be considered, as well as the effect of a participant with mixed siblings. Patterns between siblings and peer interactions could be investigated.

As research continues to shed light on the social patterns of children, caregivers of all kinds will become more able to meet the needs of each child. Their unique traits can be appreciated and specific personal weaknesses can be attended to. As social beings, it is vital that humans be socially adjusted in order for them to reach their full potential and experience overall wellbeing. This research allows for increased insight that can ensure children are provided with the opportunity to achieve this goal and experience a positive social environment that is beneficial to their development.

Social and emotional development underpins effective learning, positive behaviour and the judgements they make in and out of school. Schools need to be places where emotions are accepted as normal, unthreatening, discussed freely, expressed safely strategies and support are written in statements and policies. A successful strategy that has been introduced into schools is SEAL, SEAL stands for social, emotional aspects of learning, and this is a school programme that focuses on the development and the application of social and emotional skills. Not only does SEAL consider the needs of the children but also all that work in the setting, providing support for them to implement the strategies that it highlights. It’s important in the early years that practitioners understand that children develop at different rates; emotionally others are more mature than others. This is a similar situation for social development children that don’t have enough social experiences from a young age are less likely to be social in a classroom due to lack of confidence. The theorist Bowlby is most famous for his attachment theory he devised the term ‘maternal deprivation’ (Bowlby, n.d.) this was because he believed that if children were separated from their mothers at young age then they would be psychology damaged (Squire, 2007) this supports the theory that without enough social attachment and experiences in the early stages of life then children are more likely to be unconfident in social situations and find it harder to adapting to school life. The EYFS believe that all children are ready to learn. The EYFS (2012, pp.2) states that ‘Development is not an automatic process, however. It depends on each unique child having opportunities to interact with positive relationships and enabling environments’ being a unique child emphasises more on the fact that children do develop at different rates. So having relationships with people and being in a encouraging environment helps develop children socially and emotionally, this is why it’s essential practitioners and schools provide these are much as possible.

It is proven that in the 21st century children are more likely to worry about family, school, friendships from two decades ago (Blake, 2007). This is a worrying result because most people have the view that childhood should be carefree and trouble free. Schools have more pressure now more than ever to ensure that children have a safe and worry free environment to learn in. Social development is promoted in all child care settings, teachers are using group tasks more and involving children as much as possible, if they realise that a child is withdrawn then action is taken to involve this child such as talking to them and introducing new provisions such as a ‘buddy system’ at play times so children can always have someone to socialise with. However when it comes to emotional development, I haven’t seen many provisions put into place to support this, some schools introduce schemes such as ’emotion sticks’ in which the children place their name in the pot with the emotion that they are feeling that day, this quickly faded out because the children forgot and the practitioners forgot to remind the children that they need to do this, circle time is a popular way that schools choose to support emotional development, this is very effective in the early years, unfortunately not every school use circle time often because they don’t have time and it won’t fit into their curriculum so it’s often put aside. One way in which some schools promote emotional and social development is interacting with the community in which they live in, this gives children the sense of belonging and a strong self-image, this in turn builds self-esteem, the higher their self-esteem is then the more confident the child will be, making the most of opportunities especially throughout the school, because they have already had the experience of being involved with the charity event or helping the elderly they will be more confident in the social aspect of new activities but also emotionally because they have more confidence in what they can do. The every child matters document supports this strategy, the ECM has a section titled ‘make a positive contribution’ helping the community is part of this.

There are several strategies that schools use to support emotional and social development, in order to keep these as effective as possible, the school need to review the strategies as often as needed to ensure that they are working, if a method isn’t working then another is chosen and used in the school. This can be done by monitoring the children whilst they are taking part in the strategies to see how they are using them, if they are engaged and involving themselves in them then this is a good sign however if a couple of children don’t feel comfortable or utilising the method as desired then a different approach may need to be taken. Reviewing the strategies every term is a good way to see how effective it is, another strategy can then be introduced in the next term, and once the method that is the most effective in the school for the pupils, teachers and parents then it can be used throughout the school, different age groups may also need different strategies, older children’s emotional and social developmental needs will be different to the early years, this needs to be taken in consideration when planning approaches. Some schools may end up with 2 or 3 different methods being used in the school.

One of the most recent strategies that schools use to support emotional and social development is the healthy schools scheme. This was set up to promote healthy eating and exercise in schools, not only does this promote concentration in the classrooms but it involves children in activities organised by the school, the way in which the schools implement this strategy is up to them, some may decide to use Activate or Wake Up Shake Up in their school day or by introducing healthy snacks at break and lunch time. ‘A Healthy School promotes the health and well­being of its pupils and staff through a well-planned, taught curriculum in a physical and emotional environment that promotes learning and healthy lifestyle choices’ (Departement of Health, 2007) This strategy was more important than ever in 2012 due to the London Olympic Games, children wanted to be more active in and out of schools, so having sports days and Olympic challenges was an ideal way to promote healthy schools further. The walking and cycling provisions that some schools use, involve the children in the community as well as being sociable, this supports the emotional and social development of children. However not all schools provide strategies such as these, some schools don’t have the funding whereas others don’t see it as an important aspect of children’s learning. When the scheme was first introduced thousands of schools took it on board however as the years have passed it’s become increasingly difficult for schools to motivate themselves to continue the strategy. In order for healthy schools to once again be a priority for schools, new ways of promoting healthy eating and exercise need to be put into place, schools could involve the children in this process, this would also make the children more motivated to actually do the activities because they have had an input. If a child is constantly being told that they are unhealthy therefore they need to take part in the schools activities, then their self-esteem is going to get lower and lower which has a considerable effect on the child’s emotional welfare, they will eventually have a negative view of themself, schools need to be aware of this and ensure that no child is told they are unhealthy or lazy, every child needs to take part in the scheme as much as possible.

In contrast to the recent impact of healthy schools, there has been numerous research and discussion about gender roles. There is the ultimate question of, are girls born automatically liking pink and boys liking blue? There will never be an exact answer to this question some will say it’s to do with nature whereas others will say affected by nurture. When children first come into a setting, they may feel pressure to go and play with the construction area if they are a boy or immediately go into the role play area if they are a girl. This attitude is changing and children are becoming more confident in their own decisions as to where they should play, however some parents heavily promote girls playing with dolls and putting on makeup the same is for boys, parents may want their son to play football or rugby which are heavily male influenced. This goes against the various strategies that schools are implementing to help prevent children feeling as though they don’t have an individual identity, which affects their emotional understanding. Dowling (2012, pp.159) agrees with this point ‘young children will only become confused if values at home and nursery are in direct opposition’ Every classroom should be gender neutral with pale walls, and pictures of girls and boys playing in the different areas of the classroom, providing activities that both girls and boys can play with for example not just providing colouring pages for girls but for boys as well. However even though this method is being implemented, the media still goes against a gender neutral environment, portraying women in Disney films as being helpless and in danger and having a dashing knight coming to save the day, this gives children the perception that women are weaker and less brave then men. However this attitude will almost never be changed, companies know what makes them money and if it means giving children mixed views about themselves then they will continue to do it. It’s essential that schools continue to use the action that they are taking to help prevent these views coming into schools. Not only is it important that classrooms are inclusive, the practitioners also need have an understanding and agreement about inclusion, in order to provide equal opportunities for every child (Beaty, 2006)

One of the most effective provisions that schools have introduced is circle time. Jenny Mosley is the brains behind the whole school approach towards circle time. Good behaviour management is key when doing circle time, the children need to know the rules that surround circle time, it’s a trusting place where the children can communicate with each other and discussing issues that they feel are important and is also a great opportunity for children to socialise with the rest of the class. Circle time can also be used as a anti bullying technique, if children aren’t getting along in or out of the classroom then this strategy can be used to give the children the opportunity to talk about their issues, this also opens their eyes to the fact that they may of really upset the other children, providing emotional awareness that a child’s actions may affect another child and they may not even know it. Circle time works best when it’s not done too often; having circle time every day would be boring for the children and the teacher and would lose the desired effect. It provides opportunities to learn how to listen and respect others; it’s also an emotionally safe place for children to be in with trusting people and a comfortable environment. (Circle Time, n.d.) However because circle time is the most effective when it’s done regularly, it can be easy to forget the routine of circle time missing circle time several weeks in a row can effect children because they may have something specific they want to say in circle time and don’t get the opportunity to say it because the teacher has forgotten about circle time, this can be easily resolved the children could be responsible for reminding the teacher about circle time, having a day activity planner in a visible place that consists of pictures and words so the children can see what they are doing also, is a good way to inform that circle time will be happening, reassuring the children. Circle time additionally provides important time for children and practitioners to develop a trusting and positive relationship; this is why circle time is especially important in the first couple of weeks of term.

The professional relationship between parents and teachers is just as important, parents and carers need to know that their child is safe and happy in the setting, if a parent has concerns about their child then the teacher is the first person that they will go to, for example if a parent thinks that their child is being bullied by another child in the class then the teacher and parent can work together to think of techniques to use in order to stop this happening, circle time could be one of the strategies used. A method that was used in a school to promote the relationships between child and teacher and parent and teacher was stay and play. This occurred once a week and parents or relatives had the choice to join in on activities in the classroom, it would start off by the teacher explaining what the activities were for, how they linked in with the curriculum and what the parents could do to further encourage the learning at home, the stay and play session lasted for 45 minutes, the teacher answered any questions that they were asked, and the children enjoyed playing with the various activities in the classroom with the support from parents and teachers. This was a very effective strategy used in this school, and they can continue to maintain the building relationships by having parent councils like the one in Bruce Grove Primary School, they found a parent council very effective it provided opportunities for parents to communicate with one another and have their input into how they wanted their children to learn. This continues the positive relationship between schools and parents/carers, its essential that there is constant communication because they both want the children to learn and develop to the best of their ability, when children see the positive relationship between their parents and their teacher, it makes them comfortable around the teacher.

Not only is the relationships within school important but the environment is equally important, the EYFS’ approach to the unique child consists of positive relationships and an enabling environment. An environment that provides opportunities and exploration also needs to make the child feel safe and secure. These positive environments from the EYFS (2012, pp.2) explain that they need to have ‘stimulating resources, relevant to all the children’s cultures and communities’ successfully combining play and learning especially in early years settings, this is important because then children will link learning with being fun. Not only do schools need to support children with their emotional and social development but they also need to support them to take risks and explore new environments, children learn the most effectively through personal experiences so promoting these gives children more confidence in their abilities and having a better perception of themself. Positive relationships and enabling environments ensures learning and development. Observing, assessing and planning ensures that strategies work in the setting and meet the children’s individual needs. Each section of the EYFS document are individual however they are all underpinned by the basic factors to successfully support children’s social and emotional development. Every unique child needs positive relationships from every direction; parents, teachers and fellow peers. Enabling environments that are supportive and positive these together will equal to learning and development.

Caring for children looks at the range of settings and providers that care for children across the private, voluntary and independent sectors. The following report outlines the care needs for children.

Collate evidence which describes the role of the practitioner in caring for children

The role and responsibilities of an early years practitioner follow a number of codes of practice and state how you conduct yourself. When working with children a number of codes of practices exist. Such as Special needs, Safeguarding children, Children’s learning, Behaviour, Working with parents, Data protection etc.

The early years practitioner has clear responsibilities, like

Work to the principals of the sector and codes of confidentiality

Meet learning needs of a child

Provide an environment that is warm, welcoming and stimulating

Work with parents and partners

Work as part of a team that provides a quality service for both children and parents

The early years practitioner has to:

Put needs of children first – because this will help keeping children out of harm, keep them safe and encourage them to meet the standards for there abilities. Respect others choices -If you do not this could cause friction between staff members and can reflect on the setting and onto the children. Respect confidentially – It is important to respect confidentiality as it can help a child stay out of trouble, keep them safe and help them.

Plan, record and review – This is important as it can help you improve. It can help you notice your strengths and weaknesses. This also helps when doing activities where you can see what event went well and what did not, how you could do things differently and may allow you to handle a situation differently

It is important to demonstrate responsibility as it helps the children learn right and wrong and it is partly your responsibility to teach them this and they may treat you as a role model. Also partnerships with parents. This is also important as then you can learn about a child, their likes and dislikes, etc. It will also help build relationships with parents so they know they can trust you.

Continuing Professional Development is important as it shows you want to be the best that you can be. It also shows you are very interested in making the children be the best they can be and that you are dedicated in doing that. Observing children helps you recognise stages of the Childs development. This can help recognise where a child’s needs are, where they need extra help, etc

Lastly working as a team as this helps create a positive environment for everyone to work in and also help people feel included and this will help with self-confidence.

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E2 – Collate information about how care for children may be provided within families and society &

E3 – Include evidence which compares the differing roles of statutory, private, voluntary and independent settings.

Many parents adapt to changes in their lives and usually have the support of family and friends to provide assistance. Many families however can face issues that affect the family life and often need support to help them. Such factors like:

Financial Difficulties

Low income families

Cannot afford food or clothes

Poverty, poor health and depression

Poor housing, etc

Unemployment

Loss of jobs, no income

Depression

Changing jobs / Mother working

Loss of child care

Separation of child from mother

Divorce and separation

Lower income

Smaller housing / cramped conditions

Caring for other family members / long term illnesses

Elderly relatives

Hospital

Bereavement

Emotional strain

Dealing with grief

Social isolation

No communication

No transport

Living in a new area – no friends, etc.

Children and families need support at certain times and there are many organisations and self help groups that can provide this support. Such as

National Childbirth Trust, National Association of Toy and Leisure Libraries, Child Poverty Action group, Home Start, Parentline plus, Gingerbread, contact a family, etc.

There are many different settings where children can be cared for such as Respite Care, Holiday play schemes, Parent and toddler groups, Schools, Workplace nurseries, Childminders, Pre-schools, After school clubs, Residential care, Day nurseries and Creches

Usually the main support group is within the family network such as grandparents and Aunties and Uncles.

There are four different types of Sectors that provide care and education for children. They are;

Statutory Sector

Voluntary Sector

Private Sector.

Independent

A Statutory Sector is a Sector that has to be there by law, so dentist, local schools and hospitals are part of this. Local schools have to be there by law and get some funding by the government. The age range that schools cover is from five years to eleven years olds; they follow a set routine where reception covers the EYFS and then year one to year six covers the national curriculum. Schools are open from nine o’clock in the morning to half three in the afternoon, from Monday to Fridays, term times only. This means that schools are closed at Christmas, Easter, summer and half terms. Schools are in easy access areas, where there is enough space for an outside play area for example the playground and indoor space, for example somewhere to do P.E. A local school can be adapted, for example ramps for people with disabilities and for people to find it easy to access the school. A local school should also include snacks; they should be healthy snacks like fruit and vegetables. They should also include toileting times for the children. Statutory Schools are usually free except payment for school dinners, school trips and some snacks.

The aim of a Statutory Sector School is to provide opportunities of education for every child and to support their learning also making a safe and secure environment for children to keep them from harm. Another aim is to provide social opportunities for the child this will include learning to make friends, learning to socialise with people, learning the difference between adults and children and learning to respect others. It may also provide opportunities for the family by meeting new parents so they are making new friends and it may also prove as support for families as they might find people to rely on and also some services though school to help support them.

A Voluntary Sector is a sector, which people volunteer to organise and run, so mother and toddler, brownies and Pre school groups are apart of this.

Mother and toddler groups are usually for children age two to four years. The mother and toddler groups are usually opened from nine to eleven thirty in the mornings or half one till three in the afternoon. These kinds of organisations are usually placed in a church or community hall, which aren’t necessarily built for the use of children. The staffs are usually parents themselves but the person in charge of the organisation must have a level three childcare qualification. The organisation may ask for a small donation each week, approximately ?3:50 a week to cover the basic cost of the booking of the hall and also for lighting and water bills. The area in which the organisation is situated may not have an outdoor area for the children to play out in, the organisation should also follow the EYFS curriculum where children will learn through play and the space may also be Ofsted inspected.

The main aim of a mother and toddler group is to provides short term care of young children to give a parent or carer a little time to themselves and also to give young children stimulation and also play and social opportunities. Another main aim is to get children ready for school or nursery. Another way is to create social opportunities for the parent or carer of meeting new people while helping out with the organisation or just dropping off their child at the group.

A Private Sector is a sector, where people pay extra to try and get the best of their child’s education or health and also their own. When you use a private day nursery you are charged for using them, you are approximately charged ?150 a week to use the services. These nurseries are open from 8 am – 6 pm all year except bank holidays, the age range for these nurseries are usually from six weeks old up until five years. They also provide all meals, breakfast, dinner and tea and also snacks; they also have sleep facilities, indoor and outdoor play areas for children to play in. The building may not be purposely be built for the children but will be adapted for the children to provide their size facilities. All the members of staff will fully qualified, managers and rooms leaders must be at least level three or level two trained. Ofsted will also inspect the building and the staff to check if it’s safe and also to check if they are following EYSF curriculum.

The aim of a private day nursery is to provide safe and secure environment for children to keep them from harm for children in absence of parents or carer and also to provide opportunities of education for every child and to support their learning. Another aim of the private day nursery is to provide stimulating environment with bonding with other children and also to provide learning through play and also opportunities. Another aim may be to allow employment opportunities for parents or carers and knowing a child is in a secure place and is cared for.

An independent sector are companies with more freedom to organise their provision. Their services may not rely on government funding and does not have to follow the EYFS or the National Curriculum. However the service may be OFSTED inspected to make sure children’s welfare needs are being met.

Services of independent provision include independent schools and nurseries.

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E4 – Include a summary of the main regulations that govern the care of children in different types of settings.

The following is legislation that relates to working with children in a children’s centre:-

Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

Race Relations Act (1976)

Human Rights Act (1998)

Data Protection Act (1998)

Disability and Discrimination Act (2004)

The legislation can influence working practices in the children’s centre by:-

At all times complying with the Data Protection Act 1998.

No discrimination by it against any person with respect to opportunity for employment, conditions of employment or delivery of the Services because of sex, marital status, race or disability.

The Children’s centre shall in all matters arising comply with the provisions of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, the Human Rights Act 1998, and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, etc. The centre must comply with the provisions of the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000 and make sure that they perform their responsibilities, to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination, and to promote equality of opportunity and good relationships between different racial groups.

The centre should be responsible for and take all such precautions as are necessary to protect the health and safety of all persons employed by it and should comply with the requirements of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and any other Acts or Regulations relating to the health and safety of employed persons. Human Rights Act 1998. It gives further effect in the UK to rights contained in the European Convention of Human Rights.

The Care Standards Act 2000 and the Regulations and National Minimum Standards set out the responsibilities of agencies and carers in promoting the health of children who are looked after.

The Education Act 2002 – Local authorities and schools where requires to protect and safeguard and promote the welfare of children. This included health and safety, child protection and the overall well being of children.

The Every Child Matters and Children Act 2004 – The Children Act 2004 introduced a new duty (section 10) to co-operate at a strategic level on local authorities, Primary Care Trusts and other relevant children’s services partners.

The act is to protect children and promote welfare and well being of children.Being healthy: enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy life style. Staying Safe – being protected from harm and neglect. Enjoying and Achieving – getting the most out of learning and life, and developing skills for adulthood. Making a positive contribution – being involved in community and society and not engaging in anti-social or offending behaviour. Economic well being – not being prevented by economic disadvantage from achieving their potential

Other legislation that helps the health and well being of children is shown below. Meggitt. C. (pg 249-251)

The Children Act 1989 provides care and protection of all children and young people in need, including those living away from home. Local authorities have a specific duty under section 22 of the Act to safeguard and promote the wellbeing of each child they look after.

The Children and Young Persons Act 2008 – amends the Children Act 1989; support the care system and putting in place the structures to enable children and young people to receive high quality care and support.

The Mental Health Act 2007 amended the Mental Health Act 1983. It requires hospital managers to ensure that patients aged fewer than 18 admitted to hospital for mental disorder are accommodated in an environment that is suitable for their age (subject to their needs). This is due to be fully implemented in 2010.

The Mental Capacity Act 2005 generally only affects people aged 16 or over and provides a framework to empower and protect people who may lack capacity to make some decisions for themselves, for example, people with dementia, learning disabilities, mental health problems, stroke or head injuries who may lack capacity to make certain decisions.

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E5 – include 2 activities which will each support and maintain a different aspect of the daily care of children

There are many different routines for children that can help them maintain a different aspect of daily care for children such as Hygiene – Toilet time, washing hands, bed time and teeth cleaning, Mealtimes – Sitting at the table and Sleep Routines:

Daily routines vary depending where the child is being cared for. But promoting and supporting a childs independence and self care is also important and a childs self image and self esteem are vital to their overall wellbeing.

However I have chosen the following as my chosen activities –

Shoe laces

and Dressing – weather appropriate.

Activity One – Shoe laces

What is the activity? Teaching children to tie their laces by making a personalized shoe. (the children decorate it themselves) with laces for them to practice.

What do you have to do?

Adults role – help the children learn to tie their laces

Child’s role – learn to tie their laces and keep practicing

How does this promote independence? It helps them learn to tie their laces so adults don’t have to do them

How does it promote daily living? It helps children tie their laces so they can do it daily and at their convinence

What areas of learning does it promote? Intellectual, Physical and Emotional

Is it fun? Yes especially the decorating

Is it important? Yes

Why? Because it is a basic skill for every day living

What age? 4- 5 years of age

Can you break it down to make it easier? N0 not really

Can the activity be extended? No

Activity two – Dressing weather appropriately

What is the activity? Dressing up a doll in appropriate clothes to go outside and play in, which will keep them warm and dry depending on the weather

What do you have to do?

Adults role – help the children learn how to dress appropriately

Child’s role – to be able to dress the doll properly and wear weather appropriate clothes themselves.

How does this promote independence? It helps them dress properly thrmselves without being told what to wear and they choose what they want.

How does it promote daily living? It helps children dress appropriately and to keep warm so that they don’t become ill and that we do it everyday

What areas of learning does it promote? Intellectual, Physical, Emotional and Health

Is it fun? Can be

Is it important? It can be

Why? It stops the child from becoming ill and keeps them comfortable with what they wear and do

What age? 4- 5 years of age (pre-school)

Can you break it down to make it easier? N0 not really

Can the activity be extended? Yes – broken down into holiday (warm weather clothing), wet weather clothing, winter (cold weather clothing)

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E6 – include an explanation of the key issues which enable multi-professional teams to work together.

Multi professional approach allows professionals share knowledge about a family needs so that the parents don’t have to ask the same questions over and over again.

The professionals are aware of each others roles in supporting the family so that conflicting advice can be minimise. It is essential that each agency communicates well and understands not only there role and responsibilities but the others agencies as well.

Parents/guardians are the most important people in a child’s life, and recognise the importance of this. We have a responsible role that involves sharing care of the child with parents/guardians; listen to parents/guardians, as they are the ‘expert’ on their child.

Respect will be shown for family traditions and childcare practice, and will work in harmony with the values and wishes of the parents. Partnerships with other agencies benefit children, for example

Speech and language therapists for children with hearing and language difficulties -This could include sign language or English as a second language. Bereavement management – play therapist, Educational psychologist to assess behavioral needs and bring about positive behavior in a child. Sensory impairment such as Limited vision, Hearing disorder or Speech problems. Also Dietary, Religious or Learning needs

This is to ensure that all the needs of the individuals / children are met and they develop to their full potential. These partnerships do have an important role to play in ensuring that children’s experiences and learning are maximized.

Tassoni pg 237

A multi professional approach when working with children and parents is important as it helps children not ‘to slip through the net’.

Communication is the biggest part of the multi – professional team, as everyone needs to know what is going on.

The multi professional approach team is made up of a lot of different agencies, they are agencies including Schools and teachers, Hospitals and doctors, Social workers, Police and many more. They all work together to help parents and children to stop tragic cases such as death, child abuse, etc.

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E8 Show an understanding of diversity and inclusive practices

Recognising diversity is about recognising that children can come from lots of different backgrounds and family structures and this could be from the language they speak, culture and beliefs.

Diversity means responding in a positive manner to differences, valuing all people.

All children are citizens and have rights and entitlements.

Children should be treated fairly regardless of race, religion or abilities. This applies no matter:

what they think or say

what type of family they come from

what language(s) they speak

what their parents do

whether they are girls or boys

whether they have a disability or whether they are rich or poor.

All children have an equal right to be listened to and valued in the setting.

Improving the physical environment – physical aids to access education such as ICT equipment and portable aids for children with motor co-ordination and poor hand/eye skills. New buildings should be physically accessible to disabled pupils and will involve improving access to existing buildings including ramps, wider doors, low sinks, etc

Improving the delivery of information to disabled children at nurserys or schools – The information should take account of pupils’ disabilities and parents’ preferred formats and be made available

Children should be treated fairly regardless of race, religion or abilities. This applies no matter what they think or say, what type of family they come from, what language(s) they speak, what their parents do, whether they are girls or boys or whether they have a disability or whether they are rich or poor.

All children have an equal right to be listened to and valued in the setting and all children have a need to develop, which is helped by exploring and discovering the people and things around them.

Some children’s development may be at risk, for example children who are disabled and those with special educational needs , those from socially excluded families, such as the homeless or those who live with a parent who is disabled or has a mental illness, children from traveller communities, refugees or asylum seekers and those from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

All children are entitled to enjoy a full life in conditions which will help them take part in society and develop as an individual, with their own cultural and spiritual beliefs. Practitioners ensure that their own knowledge about different cultural groups is up-to-date and consider their own attitudes to people who are different from themselves.

Children in the UK are being raised in a society with many sources of cultural diversity. Good early years practice needs to support this from the earliest months of babyhood. Practitioners need to work to create a positive learning environment. Play materials, books and other resources can be offered in a helpful way by reflecting on how young children learn about culture and cultural identity.

Diversity and inclusion is also linked to legislation such the Childrens Act 1989, SEN act 2001, Rights of Children 1989 and the Race Relations Act 1976. Also included is the Disability Act 2004.

Children like experiencing food, music or dance forms that reflect their own family and neighbourhood experiences. Early childhood is a good time to offer opportunities that enable children to stretch beyond the familiar. Children can learn to appreciate cultural diversity in styles of art, craft, music and dance. All opportunities need to be well grounded in positive pride for the styles common in every child’s own background.

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E9 – References

Child Care and Education – Tassoni. P. (2007). Heinemann (Harcourt Education Limited). Oxford , England

Child Development – Meggitt. C. (2006). Heinemann (Pearson Education Limited). Harlow, England

Department of education and Skills (DFES) 2007 –

Early Childhood Studies, Willan, Parker-Rees, Savage: (2004) :Learning Matters ltd

This journal article A practical approach to implementing theraplay for children with autism spectrum disorder by Russell, S. is taken from International Journal of Play Therapy. It is a qualitative research study to helping other teachers to develop skills in using Marschak Interaction Method (MIM) Model (Jernberg & Booth, 1999) which consists of Structure, Engagement, Nurture, Challenge to enable autism students to participate in Group Theraplay, especially for the kindergarten mainstreamed classroom setting. The approach used the existence of resources in school, for example, teachers, toys. The research examined the effectiveness of Group Therapy in this setting compared to the use of alternative therapeutic approaches. A sample of 60 children, age range from 2 years to 6 years of age, diagnosed with severe behaviour and communication disorders with approachability, cooperation and attention improvement. This research was carried out in Heidelberg of Germany, which is a small city. Another research study conducted in Germany and Austria using a wider range of client populations diagnosed with behaviour disorders and speech-language delays/deficits from years of age of 2 to 6. In this research, mild, moderate, and severe symptom groups of children are used with a wide range of assessments. In Wettig, Coleman, and Geider (2011), children with shyness/withdrawn and language disorder symptoms are studied. These two studies were conducted in one region of Germany with 60 children diagnosed with both communication and behavior disorders. In addition, another study was conducted in an urbanized area in Hong Kong with 46 children with internalizing behaviours in a mainstreamed elementary school.

Review of the article

The author of this article used several case studies and MIM model to effectively implement the Independent Study Process in this Group Theraplay as illustrated below:-

Fosters a child’s self esteem

MIM Analysis

Feedback Session

To develop the feeling of being connected and accepted within one’s family and community

Teaches to take care of others

To increase and help to develop trustiness

Brainstorm final product

Provide necessary assessments tools

Identify audience

Evaluate study

The criteria for selection of students for this study were that they must be diagnosed with autism spectrum in the mainstreamed classroom. By the end of their studies, students participating in theraplay showed improvements in self-confidence, social skills and communication skills.

An Introduction to Theraplay

Jernberg (1979) became Clinical Director of the mental health programme and developed Theraplay® in 1967 to cater to the children with special needs. It has numerous positive results in parenting and early-intervention programmes in day care centres and pre-schools, mental health practice and children with autism spectrum. Jernberg and Booth (1999) continue to establish and modify the model and make it as widely used as possible. Theraplay has also proven the effectiveness with younger children with language disorders (speech) and severe behaviour disorders, autism and developmental problems.

Theraplay is a proactive, intensive, relationship focused parent-child theraplay, which is developed according to the parent-child interaction in a healthy and natural way. It helps to develop secure attachment and lifelong mental health. Theraplay is a guided interaction and reflection focused on the parent becoming more available, responsive and attuned to the child.

Initially, the therapist will conduct an intake interview without the child and using Marschak Interaction Method (MIM). Then, the therapists will feedback to the parents before the weekly treatment begins. Parents will observe the sessions and then gradually participate more and more. A periodic parent meeting is essential.

Dimensions of Theraplay

Structure:

In the child-parent relationship has shown adult helps child becomes physically regulated. The adult is in charge to set limits and rules, and helps to complete a sequence of activities. The structure programme helps to control the child as well as a feeling of safe. For example, Simon Says, holding traffic lights up to start a name activity.

Engagement

The adult is attuned to the child’s state and responds in a way that helps the child’s regulate and integrate physical and emotional states. Adult focused on child in an exclusive way providing sensitively timed soothing and delightful interactions. For example, if a child is unable to comply by playing simple game.

Nurture

A child who has experienced such caring will feel loved, important, responded to, safe, and comfortable, and will begin to respond to the caregiver-parent. He/she will establish eye-contact and transfer this safe and comfortable feeling to the rest of the world.

Nurturing is a significant element in Theraplay and is expressed through activities that are soothing, calming quieting, and reassuring, such as rocking, feeding cuddling, and holding. The world will become more predictable, safe, secure and warm. Child develops expectation ‘people will take care of me” and “good things happen to me”.

Challenge

Challenge is an important aspect of Theraplay sessions, especially with children who are particularly fearful of new experiences. The activities are designed in a playful, physical ways that help the child to extend him or herself a little bit, appropriate to the child’s level of functioning. It also allows child to master tension arousing experiences, for example, extend finger to grab.

It is proved with positive results that Theraplay training is a successful way to produce or achieve intended results to teach special needs children with different disorders and to improve child and the parent/teacher relationships.

Assessment Tool

MIM (The Marschak Interaction Method) is a well-organised method to observe and assess the people-relationship between 2 persons. It is the assessment tool unique to Theraplay that is the basis of the treatment planning process. MIM assessment evaluates parent/teacher capacities from setting limits and providing order, child’s states and reactions to the sessions, encouraging and supporting the child’s effort and make it to be effective by providing suitable soothing, attention and care On the other hand, MIM assessment evaluates child capacities through the respond and accepts the parent’s/teacher’s attuned attempts to engage, to accept limits, order and directions, to accept parent’s/techer’s attention, soothing and caregiving and to participate in activities that support and encourage their efforts to advance developmentally.

Group Theraplay in a mainstreamed classroom setting

Theraplay was also used in group and kindergarten classrooms to promote engagement and interaction with peers.

Group Theraplay can be conducted into the mainstreamed classroom with a professional and teacher present, with the participation of all students in the classroom. Group Theraplay can be used to identify different areas like nurture, structure, engagement, and challenge, which are their needs. Apart from these, professional and teachers would be able to identify more children for the study. Professionals and teacher could use the toys or learning centres to conduct Group Therapy.

Case studies

According to Russell and Rachel (2011) reported that Rieff and Booth (1994) research with a child with age of 2, with PDD (Pervasive Developmental Disorder). By providing Theraplay training of eight months, the child has established trustiness with other people, the knowledge of the difference between oneself and other people and a sense of oneself.

Another case study reported by Russell and Rachel (2011) based on Fuller (1995) concerning a girl with age of eight years old diagnosed with autism in a day treatment centre. After participating for 14 months in a Theraplay group, it showed that the child has great and apparent progress in dealing with other people, and start to interact, play and talk to other children.

Strengths

It needs minimal supplies of toys in conducting Group Theraplay sessions, for example, a sensory ball, bubbles.

To help the teachers in the classroom to more effectively to use the instructional time.

Theraplay therapist makes appropriate decisions about what is going to happen, what modifications will be made and how the games will be played.

Students are exposed to the interest areas, which are unable to be found in the normal curriculum. Through lectures, demonstrations, movies, interest centers, these areas can be established. These activities showed new ideas to students in a non-threatening environment and providing the opportunity for them to freely explore any new ideas.

Family involvement

Structures, predictability and routine.

Limitations

The number of research/studies showing the effectiveness of Group Theraplay for ASD children in the mainstreamed classroom are very limited

It needs to use a well-validated instrument to evaluate the relationship between the parent / teacher / children with ASD and the degree of attachment

Tools or resources used are already in place in the classrooms. Thus, it is essential to have tools to meet these ASD children’s needs.

Ethical and cultural needed to be considered as ‘touch’ is incorporated in the various activities.

Individual difference in terms of the type of autism and individual characteristics of the child and their families.

Lack of trained professional or teachers to conduct Theraplay in the classroom.

Conclusion

Theraplay is an effective play therapy that can be conducted individually as well as in group in the mainstream classrooms by using resources that are already in place. Group Theraplay working with ASD children in the mainstream classrooms can reinforce academic and social skills with the teachers and peers.

Engagement Structure, challenge, and nurture – the four dimensions of Theraplay, form a effective supporting structure for children with ASD to achieve these therapeutic goals. For instance, the structured procedures provided safe, secure and predictable situations. Engagement activities could help ASD children into interaction with others. Nurture activities provide an opportunity to feel valued, accepted and loved. Challenge activities provide opportunities for ASD children to explore and try new experiences with high success.

By using MIM assessment tool is not adequate to evaluate the effectiveness of Theraplay. It needs a fully-tested instrument to evaluate the parent / teacher / children with ASD relationship and the degree of affectionate relationship

Results

Number of cases

Age range

Size of sample

Area(s) Studied

Results

7

2- 6

60

improve attention, cooperation, and approachability, interactive behavior, shyness/social anxiety.

+

Theraplay itself involves toys or play media which is the language of children. They can substitute verbal words and convey vast messages across. By using useful toys or play items in the classrooms, could be regarded as a useful tool for expressive purposes.

Therapist’s or teacher’s in the mainstreamed classrooms job is to make contact with autistic children in a comfortable setting. When Group Theraplay is seen as having meaning, the therapist or teacher is easy to sense the inner rhythm of the child.

Future Research

The number of children with ASD is on the rise and therefore teachers’ possibility to work with ASD children are more common than in the past. It is essential to train teachers to conduct Group Theraplay in the classroom to help ASD children.

From the above-mentioned limitations, a research study is needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of using Group Theraplay with ASD in a mainstreamed classroom using a variety of assessment tools to determine the degree of attachment and the parent / teacher / children with ASD relationship. Most mental health professionals were trained using verbal based interactions. Hence, they experience great challenge in communicating or establishing a relationship with children especially ASD children who do not rely on verbal means. Research should be planned with ASD children in the International mainstreamed schools setting. Lastly, studies need to be conducted in a multi-racial setting with different languages and cultures.

Aims and Objectives

Conducting Group Theraplay in mainstreamed kindergarten classrooms could help ASD children to overcome the challenge of change and adjustment to a new environment, participating and interactions with other children, and to enhance a better rapport using the MIM dimensions namely as structure, engagement, nurture and challenge.

To determine the effectiveness of Group Theraplay in mainstreamed setting, it is recommended to use the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001), the Gilliam Austism Rating Scale (2nd version; Gilliam, 2006), and a 5-point rating scale (Gardner, 2010) for pre- and post interventions. These assessments are recommended for their validity and reliability with ASD population.

Teenage pregnancy is a term used to address girls between the ages of 13-19 years who become pregnant (UNICEF, 2008).Teenage pregnancy and its resultant health issues are of concern worldwide. In Ghana, for example, according Keller, Hilton & Tsumasi-Ankrah (1999), nearly 1/3 of the childbirths recorded in public hospitals occurred to women less than 19 years of age. Meanwhile, Guttmacher (2012) reported that in The United States of America, 750,000 teen pregnancies occur yearly. Health messages are crucial in effecting behavioural change of preventable factors on health (Mokdad et al; 2004). This message is created in an attempt to influence change in behaviour and can as well be used not only for changing adolescents’ sexual health behaviours, but also for informing and educating a larger population.

This essay will address the following: chosen medium, the rational for the message addressing political issues supporting its use, the underpinning health belief model, ways of evaluating the success of the health message, its impact on a wider population and, the influence of nurses, other health professionals and lay persons on health promotion regarding teenage pregnancy.

According to Guttmacher (2012), 3,312 girls become pregnant every 24 hours. Also, in every 26 seconds a teenage girl becomes pregnant and a child is born to a teen mother every 56 seconds. It is therefore sensible to explore the extent of teenage pregnancy and its impact. De Vienne, Creveuil & Dreyfus (2009), believes that 70,000 teenagers die yearly from obstetrical complications, and 1 million infants born to adolescent mothers die before their first year of life. Although the majority of teenage pregnancies occur in developing countries, one million babies are born annually to teenage mothers in the developed world. According to (Adeyinka, Oladimeji, & Adekanbi, 2010), in 2003 42/1000 births in the US were to adolescents. Furthermore, it has been reported that adolescents are at a higher risk for adverse outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, pre-eclampsia, congenital anomalies, uterine rupture and infant death than their older counterparts (Phipps, Blume & DeMonner, 2002).

In view of the health problems the world is confronted with as a result of teenage pregnancy, this message is aimed at creating awareness of the various causes and outcomes of teenage pregnancy. It also aims at promoting healthy sexual behaviours, to give the youth the skill and knowledge they need to refuse sex, delaying the onset of sex and to practice safer sex and to reduce the number of conceptions among adolescents (Kirby, 2007).The message will also help debunk certain ideologies and myths about sex education such as those with regards to certain words or body part being unmentionable and the taboos of sex education that influence the human sexuality negatively (Adepoju, 2005).

Consequently, advances in communication strategies have changed how individuals access, assess, communicate and use information. Egger et al (1999), stated that health promotions are motivational and informative messages directed to one or more people. The idea of attaining improved health and a better quality of life needs tailoring our educational messages to the particular group of people it is intended for, taken into account the cultural practices of the community as such programmes involve community members who participate to define and solve the problems (Denison et al, 2009)

Cultural, religious and traditional issues influence sexual behaviours. Personally, in my area of practice culturally acceptable sex education is given using, local dialects in folk songs, radio drama and role plays avoiding sexually explicit words. This way community values are respected as well as responded to. In recent years there has been a much stronger religious and political focus on the teaching of sex abstinence in schools than in the past years (Butts & Rich, 2008). This is to add to the existing knowledge that most religious group preach abstinence before marriage e.g. Islam and Catholics even preach against contraception hence telling the youth to abstain from sex (Citizens Budget Commission, 2012). Contrarily, some social customs induce girls to stay out of school and enter into early sexual relationship were girls are given away in marriage at puberty (Keller et al; 1999). These observations considered a health promotion message using role play will inform the adolescents on causes, complications and prevention, of teen pregnancy and motherhood in a non-judgmental approach.

Role play therefore, is considered the appropriate medium as it focuses not on acting but on the actions of the characters. It helps in the process of decision making and clarifies judgments and behaviours and lastly it encourages looking beyond the self and into another person in a close and more intimate manner than reading or lectures allows (Rowles and Russo, 2009). Role play is unscripted and a dramatic technique of message delivery that encourages people to improve behaviours that illustrate expected actions of persons in a defined situation (Lowenstein, 2007).

In the delivery of such messages ethical issues could arise. Everyone needs to have equal access to care, thus the principle of justice must be considered and the nurse is to do good by providing the information and education they need but she has to seek consent from parents before she could go ahead. In developed nations parents can decide they don’t want their wards to sit in for such programs according discussions by fellow students from the UK whereas from experience in Ghana one needs to just tell the head teacher when the nurse is coming. It is important to recognise that in carrying out the principles of beneficence and non maleficence, the question will be how much information is too much? Knowledge of when information given becomes unethical is important. Appropriate information must be presented in an age appropriate manner as there will be potential harm if a wrong and inappropriate message is chosen. An ethical dilemma will arise when a choice has to be made between standardised and acceptable programs that are available (Miller et al; 2011) e.g. teaching abstinence as opposed to safer sex practice. Inappropriate programs for a particular age group could easily be misinterpreted and result in the adolescent being misled as she perceives the information differently from the way the educator intended for the message to be received (Miller et al; 2011).

Promoting the health and wellbeing of adolescents is a vital part of every society including health workers. Teenagers have been recognised to be at high risk of health-damaging behaviours such as teenage pregnancy (Jacobson & Pill, 1997).Similarly, Reeve (2002) in his study revealed that healthcare providers have the potential to strengthen young peoples’ awareness of appropriate sources of help and information, comprehensive sex education programs and advice on sexual health. He also reported that, the introduction of contraceptive services delivered by nurses, as well as trained teenage advisors or lay persons will be associated with an increase in the number of people attending for advice and contraceptives. Contrary to these assertions Thomson & Scott (1991), criticised that sexual health education at school has little or no relationship to the real choices and pressures around sexual health that affects the young women.

Furthermore, Denison et al (2009), proposed that every agent of health care including lay persons/peers can partake in communicating the causes and effects of teen pregnancy by mobilising community members to participate in role plays which will illustrate causes, complications and where to get help whether in the community or the hospital setup.

According to MARIE STOPES INTERNATIONAL (2012), in 1998 in England, the pregnancy of girls under 18years conception rate fell by 13.3% over 5 years. There has also been a shift in society’s views about how best to tackle problems like high teenage pregnancy rates and poor sexual health amongst young people.

Increasingly, from a personal perspective parents and professionals will recognise the need to offer teenagers with opportunities to talk about how they feel openly, skills and self-confidence they need to deal with the situations they face regarding sexuality. Also it will raise awareness in the community and at national levels which will in turn help them to strategise and tailor programs to help the youth to understand the way in which sex is, to help them know that relationships portrayed in the media are not always accurate and the appreciation of the challenges and responsibilities of parenthood. This includes supporting them delay early sex, equipping them to stay safe and healthy when they do become sexually active. Parents will play a more positive role in supporting their children on sex and relationship issues (Primarolo &Merron, 2010). According to Sexual Offences Act (2003), in UK the age of consent for female and their male counterparts is 16 years. This means men who have sexual intercourse with girls below 16years of age will be prosecuted. Meanwhile there are such clear cut age ranges and laws in Ghana expect for rape cases. Also support from national and international agencies may include development of national training standards on relationships and sexual health to provide a constant framework for local workforce development (Primarolo & Merron, 2010).

The evaluation of sexual health promotion programs has to be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Reliable and Time bound (Haughey, 2012).

Assessments of sex education programmes can vary from changes in knowledge, attitudes and values to those of behavioural change including initiation of sexual activity and pregnancy rates (Fullerton, 2004). Arguably, initiation of sexual activity cannot easily be evaluated if the adolescent does not openly discuss it. Also clear statements given by students about the outcomes of unprotected sex and how those outcomes could be avoided at the end of the session (Vincent, Geiger, Willis, 1994).

The aims of sex education are often motivational, relating to lifelong quality of relationships, as well as pregnancy and STI prevention (Fullerton, 2004).

Moreover, studies have demonstrated that health decision making is a process in which the individual moves through a series of stages or phases. Interactions with persons or events at each of these stages influence the individual’s decisions and subsequent behaviour (Rosenstock, 2005).

As a matter of fact, behavioural change is a difficult process which starts with enabling change in personal behaviours of individuals by giving them the knowledge to do so through education (Bellamy, 2004). The health belief model posits that people who perceive themselves as susceptible to negative outcomes are more likely to reduce risky behaviours than those who do not see themselves at risk (Janz & Becker, 1984). The model postulates four conditions that predict a health related behaviour; perceived susceptibility, perceived seriousness, perceived benefits and barriers (Janz & Becker, 1984).

Perceive susceptibility refers to one’s perception of the likelihood of contracting a health disease or condition (Witte et al; 1996) or becoming pregnant in this case. It helps individuals to adapt to healthier lifestyles. The more the teenager perceives the outcomes of teenage pregnancy, the more they will try to avoid it.

Witte et al (1996) again stated that perceived severity will be the teenager’s belief about the implications of a health risk. The perception of severity is often based on the health information given or knowledge about the severity of a condition and difficulties it will create on general wellbeing. If she thinks of it as a serious issue she will try to avoid getting pregnant.

Also, the concept of perceived benefits is the teen’s judgments of the value of the action that will lessen the risk of getting pregnant. Usually, teenagers will practice healthier lifestyles when they believe a new behaviour will lessen their chances of getting pregnant and suffering the consequences (Janz & Becker, 1984). This assertion of Janz & Becker is not always the case as some will wait to be in that particular situation before they take action. On the other hand, as most teenagers don’t change their lifestyles easily, perceived barriers are their own assessment of the difficulties in embracing a new behaviour. Amongst all the perceptions, perceived barriers are most important in defining behavioural change (Janz & Becker, 1984) because if they are able to overcome these barriers their behaviours will change.

Cues to action are pieces of information which are given out with the intention of triggering decision-making actions. They could be internal or external e.g. informational flyers, advertisements on television or internal symptoms of an illness (Witte, 1996). Lastly self efficacy, measures the degree of the reaction taken to prevent pregnancy and that they are able to perform the recommended reaction to avert the risk.

Teen pregnancy and motherhood is a serious problem affecting adolescents which can causes health and social problems. With empowering the youth through education, teen pregnancies and its related problems can be prevented. From a personal view point, it will be acceptable to say that proven programmatic answers to this dilemma are likely to be dissatisfactory. The point is not that sexuality education and contraception education cannot be helpful, but that without more help from the society at large, their impact may be small. On the contrary, an intervention that starts by affecting behaviour in a self-effacing way may ultimately generate changes in behaviours. Behaviour is “contagious” and teens, in particular, are extremely influenced by what their friends do or say. This suggests that programs are not to be judged on the basis of their immediate effects only but also on their peer culture reorientation potential.

Specific purpose: to inform my audience about the positive side of stubbornness in children, the causes of stubbornness, and how to deal with stubborn children. Central idea: stubbornness in children is a repeatedly every day issue and people should take an action and try to understand it very well in order to resolve the problem.

Introduction:

As we are all university students, few more years from today, some of us will probably be married and have a kid or two. Did it ever occur to you: how are you going to raise your children? Or how are you going to be able to handle and deal with your stubborn child?

Imagine with me few more years from now; you are at your friend’s house having a good time, while both your children are playing together. You realized it’s time for you to go back home. You tell your child it’s time to go, but he/she refuses to leave and begs you to stay a little longer. So you give your child five extra minutes, and when it’s time, you face the same problem of refusing again.

At some point or another, each parent reaches to a battle with their own children, yet not many parents knows how to deal with their children’s stubbornness and how to handle such situations right. All parents want their children to be well behaved and know what’s right from wrong, but this goal is not always easy to accomplish, especially when the child is stubborn.

I myself have been in so many similar situations with my nephews and nieces, where I didn’t really know how to react.

I read some books and did further research to know more about the topic of stubbornness in children. The word “Stubborn” as defined in Cambridge Dictionary: describes someone who is determined to do what they want and refuses to do anything else.

Today I would like to inform you about the positive side of stubbornness in children, the causes of this matter, and the ways to deal with the problem.

(Transition: Let’s start with looking at the issue from a positive perspective.)

Body:

Stubbornness in children might not always be a bad sign of behavior; instead it could be helpful somehow. Let’s take a look at the bright side of stubbornness in children.

A child’s stubbornness could possibly be his/her way of representing that they can think for themselves and that they can emphasize on their own opinions and believes. Stubbornness makes children feel that they have a certain level of control over some situations, which psychologically will boost up their self esteem. It is a way for them to learn how to express their own thoughts, have choices, and have power over certain things. When a child recognizes that he/she might have an option and they act on it; that shows a great deal of development and intelligence.

For instance: instead of giving commands to your child which can be replied with a ‘no’ answer, you can give him/her the freedom of two choices that you choose. So instead of “Don’t jump on the bed”, a parent can try saying “You can either sit on the bed or jump on the floor, which one would you like?” Giving your children a little bit of control over their environment and the choices that they can make, is very empowering for them and very helpful to the parents as well.

(Transition: Now that you know that stubbornness isn’t necessarily negative, let’s look at the causes of stubbornness in children.)

There are number of reasons that cause stubbornness in children, some are:

Marital Disputes: Families that are dominated by tensions, have a highly strong emotion, and have a poor marital relationship lead children to tension and disturbance; which will cause the children anger and stubbornness. In some cases marital disputes might generate cases of mental disorders.

Rocking in the attitudes of parents: parental authority in evaluating their children’s behavior should be fixed and non contradictory between one time and another. Parents shouldn’t be tough at a certain case some time and then be lenient with the same exact case some other time or vice versa. Moreover, parents should have an agreement and put up clear laws and regulations for their children to follow; those rules should be clear and concise. For example, when a child asks his father something and the father refuses, the child probably will go and ask or beg his mother so that she can say yes to that particular thing the child asked for, which will generate some level of stubbornness in the child by time when each parent has a different word.

Jealousy between siblings: another cause of stubbornness in children might be because they are jealous of their siblings. A lot of children feel jealous of their brothers and sisters, especially when the parents get a new born baby. The child may start to feel that he/she has lost the love of their parents and they might also feel that the newborn baby took away all the attention and care.

Last but not least, an obedient child might suddenly become stubborn. And that can be only a grabbing attention behavior, and the minute parents make time for their child, the stubbornness behavior is not repeated.

(Transition: Given the causes of stubbornness in children, I’m sure you would probably be wondering what the ways to deal with this issue are.)

There are many ways to handle stubbornness in children:

Rule number one is to always stay calm but firm whenever your child is being stubborn. Don’t try to solve the problem by shouting. The key is to remain calm, and never allow your child to cause your temper to boil over. You should be the authoritative voice in the situation.

As Mrs. Joanna Al Khayat, who holds a bachelor of arts in social science majoring in child psychology from Boston University, suggests; setting up a daily routine life into your children’s lives might be helpful for they get to be able to distinguish what is expected from them. For instance: setting up meal times, bath time, and bed time.

Mrs. Al Khayat also adds that allowing some space to your children will enhance their ability of making their own decisions or forming an opinion and deciding for themselves, it’s also an important aspect of the child’s character development. For instance: giving your child the freedom of choosing which cartoon he/she prefers to watch won’t cause any harm and will satisfy their needs. However, when your child persist on doing something harmful, like playing with a knife for example, your child must understand that you, as a parent, should have the final word in decision making.

Another way of overcoming stubbornness in children is that parents must probably set some boundaries and guidelines and establish consequences for crossing them. Make sure that the punishments are age appropriate. And after that, parents should speak to their children and explain to them what will and will not be tolerated.

Praise your child and give him/her some kinds of rewards when they cooperate and behave well.

Reduce unnecessary rules: the more regulations you have, the less your child will obey and follow your guides. As a parent you should help your child feel less controlled by having more optimistic communication with him/her than pessimistic ones each day.

Conclusion:

In conclusion: As we have seen stubbornness is a very normal common behavior in children.

Parents shouldn’t just look at this behavior in a bad perspective; instead it could have a positive effect on their children.

Understanding the reasons behind stubbornness in children will prepare the parents to be patient to overcome this issue. With proper knowledge and understanding, parents learn how to react to their children’s behavior.

There are some certain methods that help a lot in dealing with stubborn children.

“aˆ¦Sugar and Spice and everything nice, that’s what little girls are made of.” Society today has made a clear cut line about what is appropriate for a little boy and what is appropriate for a little girl. Society has made that distinction through gender stereotyping. If you walk into a preschool class room today, little girls will be playing dress-up with fairy and princess costumes while the boys will be tackling each other or playing with dump trucks. Even though many people believe that gender is not learned, but instinctual instead, there may be outside influences on gender roles that children fall victim to, for example parents influence gender roles by the language they use and media and toys reinforce gender stereotypes in children by character portrayal and advertisements.

There are many different parenting styles that are seen today. Psychologist Diana Baumrind discovered four basic styles of parenting; authoritarian, permissive-indifferent, permissive-indulgent, and authoritative (Morris, 310). Regardless of the parenting style that one family opts for, there seems to be a common thread; the majority of parents will dress little boys in blue and little girls in pink. The thought process behind this is so that their gender can be identified properly by an outside source. No parent wants to be walking through a store with their little boy and have a stranger ask, “How old is she?” Interestingly enough however, according to the article “What’s Wrong with Cinderella?” author Peggy Orenstein points out “when colors were first introduced to the nursery in the early part of the twentieth century, pink was considered the more masculine hue, a pastel version of red. Blue, with its intimations of the Virgin Mary, constancy and faithfulness, was thought to be dainty.” Somewhere along the line, the reverse was thought true; pink was more feminine and blue was more masculine, and is so “enforced” by today’s standards.

Another example of how strongly parents influence gender was learned when an experiment was performed at Harvard University. Male babies were dressed in pink outfits and were then given to adults to handle under the impression that they were girls. The language used with the boy babies dressed in pink fell into the female stereotype, while the girl babies dressed in blue fell into the male stereotype, being called handsome and tough (Pruett). Language is a big influence on gender interpretation. Often we tell boys not to cry and explain things with different tones for boys versus girls. If a little girl hits a friend, parents/caregivers might use a gentler phrase like, “gentle hands on your friends please.” If a little boy hits a friend, parents/caregivers might just shrug the action off as “Boys will be boys” as the common saying goes or raise their voices to get the point across more strongly, “We DO NOT hit our friends!”

Even the compliments that adults bestow upon children can be gender stereotyping. When you tell a little a girl how pretty she looks in her dress is an illustration of that. Parents lead by example. Their children learn behavior from what they see their parents doing, even if unintentional. If a child sees their mother as the one who always does the laundry and cooks the meals and the father as the one who always takes the trash out, then chances are that the child will follow the same roles when as they grow up.

Media also plays a large part in where children learn about what their gender role is. Disney movies are a prime example of this. In these movies, the leading female character, usually a princess, is sweet, romantic, daydreams about Prince Charming, and almost always wears a dress in a pastel color. On the other hand, the same Disney movie can represent the male population watching with a prince, who is usually strong, willing to fight, and always gets the girl at the end. These characters often lead to a misconception of what is feminine and what is masculine. On the spectrum of gender identity, Disney may represent the extremes of what the appropriate gender role is.

Advertisements are often seen using gender as a marketing strategy for toys or games. If you look at a commercial for Tonka Trucks, there won’t be a little girl to be seen in these ads. However, if you see a commercial for Easy-Bake oven, the opposite will be true. There will be no boys in those commercials. Seeing these on television demonstrates to children what should be an appropriate toy for a little boy and what should be appropriate for a little girl. Even the behaviors of children portrayed in television advertisements are stereotypic. Boys are often seen as active and domineering while the girls are portrayed as shy or overly silly.

These advertisements usually lead to the purchase of the toys shown for the sex it was targeted to. Parents often wonder if you give a baby doll to a little boy or a dump truck to a little girl, will they be gender confused. Even the most new-age parents might find it bizarre to see their little boys walking around preschool with a purse and in dress shoes. Boys have a harder time crossing the gender line, whereas some parents of females might think that it’s alright for their daughters to play with dump trucks or Legos. This does not mean that the son will be more feminine and the daughter will be a tom-boy, but a majority of parents do not want to risk that.

Not everyone believes, however, that gender is strictly a learned behavior. In 2009, Texas A&M University used eye tracking software to measure infant’s interest in either “male” or “female” toys (Shaffer). According to an article published in 2010, the author M. Fox, found the results to be extremely informative:

Hormone levels in the saliva, as well as finger dimensions that indicate prenatal testosterone exposure were measured to see if these things could explain why the infants visually preferred certain toys over others. The results revealed that while the girls’ preferences weren’t affected by hormone levels at all, the boys’ preferences were affected by both current and prenatal hormone levels. It appears that the higher the presence of testosterone at the time of the test, the greater the preference for groups of figures over individual figures, and those who indicated a higher exposure to prenatal testosterone had a stronger preference for the ball over the doll.

This means that the boys showed an optical penchant for gender specific toys. In an article in New Scientist, Linda Geddes states that research has been done to show that the introduction of changing levels of testosterone and estrogen while babies are in utero may also have some sway in which toys boys and girls pick.

There are other theorists that believe that there is a cognitive connection to gender development. Carol Lynn Martin and Diane Ruble are two such theorists. They discuss Kohlberg’s theory of gender development is and what the impact is of knowing your gender does not change. This is an important fact for children to learn, generally setting the concepts of what is ‘correct’ behavior for your gender type. Martin and Ruble think that there are important cognitive themes for gender development, rather than the influence of a specific outside source.

The first important theme discussed is “The Emergence of Gender Identity and Its Consequences.” In this stage, it is allegedly general knowledge that children understand that there are two different types of genders, and they have the realization that they fall into one of those two categorizing sexes. This first theme is then broken down into two sub-categories, “Evaluative Consequences” and “Motivational and Informational Consequences.” The former meaning that the child understands and identifies one group as their own and sees this group as a positive. The latter sub-category means that one the child picks a gender to identify with and while the want to understand the opposite sex dwindles, the individual seems only interested it their own gender identity.

The second theme that is thought to be a cognitive gender identity link is “Active, Self-Initiated View of Gender Development” and the final theme is “Developmental Patterns.” In these two themes, the thought is that the main focus is learning about the social gender group that they most identify with, and forming and developing the characteristics that are most familiar with the identified gender. While exploring the cognitive connection to gender, many place a strong association to motivational significances and developmental configurations of the gender identity theory.

Even though many theorists believe that gender is not a learned behavior, but you are born knowing the difference between ‘appropriate’ male behaviors and toys and ‘appropriate’ female behaviors and toys, others disagree. Those people state that there are many possible outside influences on children when they are learning their gender roles in society. Some also believe that being aware of specific gender stereotypes has a connection to how one behaves. The media and toys that children do see and use play an intricate part in the concept of gender roles and parents influence gender identity by using specific language and actions. Whether or not gender is identity is solely obtained by influence or is pre-determined by some cognitive connection, it is an intriguing issue. Should boys and girls be able to make the choice of the toy that they want to play with or what their favorite color is going to be regardless of what society claims is “normal”? With the role that parents or caregivers play in gender role identification, they should learn different methods for breaking stereotypes. Adults could make sure that they use the same language for both sexes or become involved in activities such as cuddling with boys or wrestling with girls. Connecting children of both sexes in such a manner is a good way to encourage the cycles of gender stereotyping to end.

To raise a child of any age comes with many difficulties for caregivers. Most parents strive towards raising children that are responsible, independent and respectable. There are a few schools of thought to disciplining children. One may be to apply discipline by teaching and the other to physically discipline a child as a means to correcting inappropriate behaviors. The Encarta Concise English dictionary defines discipline as “To teach somebody to obey rules or to behave in an ordered or controlled way” (“Discipline,” 2001, p. 409). Physical discipline is based on the use of fear as the motivator to changing a child’s behavior. “Behaviors that do not result in significant physical injury (i.e. spank, slap) are considered corporal punishment, whereas behaviors that risk injury (i.e. punching, kicking, burning) are considered physical abuse” (Gershoff, 2002) Parents who use either form of physical discipline with children need to understand the damaging effects it can have on a child’s emotional, moral and social development.

Emotional Development

A child’s self esteem is developed through caregivers offering encouragement, acknowledgement and nurturing their range of emotions. “Recognition of emotion is particularly important because it represents the early utilization of social cues on which children’s subsequent interpretation and behavioral responses will depend.” (Cicchetti, Hormung, Pollak, & Reed, 2000, p. 680) Using physical discipline as the motivator for altering a child’s behavior affects their emotional stability. “Being slapped or spanked is a frightening and threatening event that arouses strong negative emotions such as humiliation, sadness, and anger.”(Straus, 2005, p.145) The use of punitive measures is in direct opposition to what disciplining is meant to achieve and may affect a child’s development. “They may be slow to reach milestones in social and physical development.” (Crosson-Tower, 2004, p.191) Physical discipline affects the child’s feelings of acceptance and they tend to respond with destructive impulses, rather than positive responses. “Children and adults reared in abuse have had their senses trained in such a way that to use them for receiving or transmitting positive messages is not part of their communications system.” (Helfer, 1980, p.38) Parents and caregivers need to help the child develop self confidence, self reliance and self discipline. Children who recognize self efficacy by being offered simple choices begin to develop moral insight.

Moral Development

Discipline, whether positive or negative, develops a child’s perception of themselves and defines their moral understanding of how they should behave. A child who learns hitting is acceptable may be confused, because in many other areas of their life; school, daycare and recreational activities, hitting is unacceptable. It is in direct contradiction to what they learn at home which in turn becomes a value. In addition, children exposed to physical discipline are more susceptible to becoming abusers themselves (Newman, 1993). Parents who are not armed with the proper parenting tools become frustrated and angry about controlling their children’s behavior. Straus (2005) says, spanking has roots in two cultural myths; one, spanking is okay if done by a loving parent and two, spanking will work if all other methods of discipline fail (p. 140-141). Parent’s who understand their children’s ability to internalize all discipline measures, also realize they are developing their children’s values. “Children’s internalization of morals is thought to be enhanced by parental discipline strategies that use, minimal parental power, promote choice and autonomy and provide explanations for desirable behaviors” (Gershoff, 2002, p. 1) The short term consequences of physical discipline will undermine the child’s developing moral understanding and further debilitates their social development.

Social Development

The expression of abuse with a physically disciplined child becomes apparent when their interaction reveals itself by their behavior with other children. A child who is physically disciplined at home is traumatized. A study conducted by Marin & Beezly (1977) suggests that children were more alert to their environment and cautious of peripheral danger around them (p. 375). Therefore, the resulting animosity that has built up is misdirected to whomever the child comes into contact with outside of the home which is usually learning centers such as schools. In a research study conducted by Eckenroder, Doris & Laird (1993) reporting’s on pre-school children demonstrated that children who have been physically disciplined showed aggressiveness and were more likely to be disciplined from teachers than children who have not been mistreated (p.54). Children who are unable to cope with their pent-up aggression react in a negative way in the school environment. “For the abused child, the lack of social responsiveness becomes more striking.” (Tower, 2002, p. 49)

The physically disciplined child who matures and enters high school with multiple disturbed behaviors reveals other social and psychological impairments. “Insecure attachments to their mothers, lower intelligence scores, impaired language development, lower levels of cognitive maturity and effectance motivation, more negative affect and less positive effect, less pro-social behavior, and more aggressive and non-compliant behavior.” (Eckenroder, Doris and Laird. 1993. p.57). Therefore, the initial bond between child and parent is vital in the development of the child. “A strong child-to-parent bond is important because children are more likely to accept parental restrictions and follow parental standards if there is a bond of affection with the parent.” (Straus, 2005, p. 146). If the trust is diminished from their primary source, namely the communication between parent and child, the bond and relationship is strained. Thus, a child’s friendship with other children, siblings and even family members are greatly affected which causes anxiety with the child.

Conclusion

In summation, the raising of children presents many challenges for caregivers. The goal of raising children to be responsible, independent and respectable individuals is an arduous task. In the teaching method of disciplining, a goal is to strengthen self discipline and personal control so that caregivers relieve themselves of parenting by the time the offspring leaves home. To reach these goals, parents must make sure their children learn the skills involved in problem solving and making decisions. Conversely, correcting inappropriate behaviors by physically disciplining children have long term consequences which will greatly hinder the child’s development as they mature. The short term results of physical discipline on a child’s development manifests long term effects, characterized by low self esteem coupled with morals which contradict the values of society.

Annotated Bibliography

Beezly, P., & Harold Martin, P. (1997, June). Behavioural observations of abused children.

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 19, 373-387. Retrieved from

http://ibs.colorado.edu/cspv/infohouse/violit/violitDetails.php?recordnumber=3191&vio_nam=violit

A behavioural observation of abused children is an article derived from Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, written by Patricia Beezly and Harold Martin. The article focus on how children’s development is directly affected by being physically disciplined by their parents or caregivers. The authors appear to support the claim that children should not be physically discipline by using case studies and statistics.

Cicchetti, D., Hormung, K., Pollak, S. D., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces:

Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36(5),

677-688. Retrieved from http://psych.wisc.edu/pollak/pdfs/recognizing_emotion_faces_devpsych.pdf.

This article is a study by Cicchetti, Hormung, Pollak and Reed with the hypothesis being the lack of recognizing certain emotions as a direct correlation to physical discipline. Utilizing social cues and how the child interprets and responds to them is important for their development and further predicates the child’s familiarity of negative environments. The writer understands the premise however the stats seemed weak in respects to differentiating between normal treated children and physically disciplined children, yet clearly neglected children showed the least responsiveness to the tests. Nevertheless, the outcome supports the paper in regards to physical discipline affecting the physicality of children to their reaction of emotions.

Crosson-Tower, C., (2004). Exploring child welfare: A Practice Perspective. Pearson

Education, Inc.

Cynthia Crosson-Tower, examines the protection of children in chapter 7 titled Protecting Children When Families Cannot-Child Abuse and Neglect. Her premise, “non accidental injury inflicted on a child” defines the quintessential meaning of physical abuse to children. In reference to the paper, the writer needed to support the argument of physical discipline being detrimental to the development of childhood milestones.

Discipline. (2001). Encarta concise english dictionary. London.

The definition of the word “Discipline” was found in the Encarta Concise English Dictionary. The relevance of the term being added to the research paper is so the reader has an accurate meaning of the conveyed idea.

Eckenroder, J., Doris, J., & Laird, M. (1993). School performances and disciplinary problems

Among abused and neglected children. Development Psychology, 29(1), 53-62. Retrieved from http:// http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00121649.

Eckenroder, Laird and Doris ascertained data from a school and examined stats from kindergarten to grade 12 in their study. The study, for instance revealed the personalities of pre-schoolers as aggressive and requiring more attention from the teachers. The writer found the study helpful to the paper in supporting that physical discipline is exposed upon contact with learning centers such as daycares and schools.

Gershoff, E. T. ( 2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated behaviors and

Experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128 (4), 539-579. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539

This review paper by Gershoff anticipates the use of physical discipline or corporal punishment as detrimental to child behaviors and experiences as relative to pain. The review was helpful in defining how the study differentiated between corporal punishment and physical abuse, yet the bias was supported by Gershoff’s findings.

Kemp, C.H. & Helfer, R.E. (Eds.) (1980). The Battered Child (3rd. Ed.). Chicago:University of

Chicago Press.

In chapter 3 titled Developmental Deficits Which Limit Interpersonal Skills, of the text The Battered Child, Ray Helfer explores how senses vital to our development can be affected by abuse. Senses are developed by the child’s environment and when these external forces are not positive and safe the child suppresses and mutes their own development. Helfer’s focal points on interpersonal skills such as delayed gratification, responsibility, decision making, problem solving, trusting others, feelings and action are affected by childhood deficits.

Newman, F. (1993). Children in Crisis. Scholastic Canada.

Children in Crisis, is a book written by Fran Newman. It covers topics on different types of child abuse, precipitating factors to the events leading to abuse and the impact on family dynamics. This book was somewhat helpful, although the focus appeared to be more on family structure and values, rather than how child abuse directly affects a child’s self esteem and other developmental stages.

Straus, M.A. (2005). Children should never, ever, be spanked no matter what the circumstances.

In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles & M. M Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current Controversies about

Family Violence (2nd ed., 137-157). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Retrieved from

http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/CP67%20Children%20Should%20Never%20be%20Spanked.pdf

This article written by Murray Straus was located through Google Scholar’s search engine. The author presented relevant and accurate information on the topic of child development and the ineffectiveness of physical discipline on children. Although the article was interesting, the use of language and vocabulary may present an entry level university student with great difficulty when attempting to read and retain the information.

Tower, C. (2002). Understanding child abuse and neglect. ( 5th ed.). Boston, MA: USA

Cynthia Crosson-Towers in chapter 3 Maltreatment and the Developing Child, studies early childhood development. Infants that have not had the stimuli of care do not reach the required milestones outlined for that age. Milestones, as a standard measurement for development has shown that it is vital that children reach each phase and move onto the next phase for proper development. The material covered in the text was succinct and clear for the understanding of childhood development.

Select one of the following age groups: infants, toddlers or young children. Focus on two developmental domains (select from: physical, social and emotional, language and/or cognitive development) of the child. Describe how these two domains develop within your chosen age group with the support of human development theories and concepts studied in this course. Identify a range of teaching strategies that promote a child’s development in each of the two selected domains.

Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. The study of human development helps to understand how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, intellectual, language, social and emotional and spiritual development. Papalia and Olds (1998) define lifespan development as “a lifelong process of development” (p.10).

This essay describes the physical and cognitive development of infants (birth-12 months) and also discuss about some teaching strategies that promote physical and cognitive development of infants in the early childcare centres.

Physical development refers to progressively gaining control over large and small muscles. Gross motor (large muscle) skills allow a child to do things like roll over, sit, crawl, walk, and throw a ball. Fine motor (small muscle) skills enable children to do things like draw, and eat with spoon. The development of new motor skills allows children to make new discoveries. As they explore, they begin to make sense of their environment (Berger, 2001).

The physical development of infants is very important. Although children develop at different rates, they learn to control their bodies in the same progression (Berk, 2006). Arnold Gesell, an American psychologist, is one of the first theorists who approached to determine developmental measure for children. He developed his theory by studying a number of children (Terry, 2008).

Newborn babies have very few motor skills. Their muscles are not strong enough to control their body, while their sense of hearing and smell are keen. Infants move by reflex when they are newborns. They move automatically in response to various stimuli. Some reflexes help parents to make sure that infants will get what they need to survive (Berk, 2006). For instance, when the mother touches the cheek of a newborn, the baby starts moving his/her mouth in search of a nipple. When the mother touches his/her mouth or when his/her mouth touches the nipple, the baby starts sucking. Also, infants have other reflexes such as reciprocal kicking (Terry, 2008).

In five months, most babies gain control of their arms and head. Gesell considered this process of physical growth “a genetically determines series of events that unfolds automatically” (Berk, 2006, p.14). He believed that physical development occurs to each child in a fixed order, and a certain development happens when an individual’s inner system is prepared. Gesell also suggested head-to-tail and centre-to-edge sequence (Berk, 2006). In other words, control develops from head to toe, and from the centre of children’s bodies out through their arms and legs to their fingers and toes. For example, a child learns to lift his/her head first and then sit, crawl, walk and run (Terry, 2008).

Gesell also stated that an infant gains control of the head before arms, and masters moving arms before fingers. According to milestones of motor development, infants can lift their upper body by using their arms two months after their birth, and sit by themselves a few months later. Then, infants become able to control their lower body to do things like walking and jumping (Berk, 2006).

When the children are of nearly one year, they are gradually developing their fine motor skills like grabbing objects. They begin to stack blocks or other toys. Also they can pick up small pieces of cereal, open and close small boxes, and turn knobs on toys because their pincer grasp becomes more coordinated (Berk, 2006).

Another aspect of physical development is shaping senses. A child’s sense of taste, smell and hearing are more developed than sense of sight. Infants can recognize the difference of flavors, people’s smell and tones of voice, while their vision is unclear. In addition to these four senses (taste, smell, hear and vision), infants develop their sense of touch (Berk, 2006).

Teachers play an important role in promoting children’s physical development. They should provide safe indoor and outdoor spaces for children to move their bodies. Educators should provide materials and equipments according to the age and developmental level of infants (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

Educators can promote physical development of infants by reinforcing and encouraging them. Educators should help and encourage children when they are learning new skills (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991). For example, when an infant is taking the feed from his/her bottle, educator should encourage him/her for holding the milk bottle (Terry, 2008). Educators should provide the opportunities for children to use their senses to explore, shape, volume and other characteristics of objects (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

Educators can promote physical development of infants by providing equipments and opportunities for gross motor skills. To do this, educators should set up the room in a way that infants have the freedom to explore in a range of safe spaces (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991). For instance, some infants have started crawling, so teachers should divide the space so that the infants, who do not crawl, won’t get hurt. Educators should provide a range of materials and equipments that helps children to use their large muscles. For example, push bikes, tunnels and so on (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

Educators can promote physical development of infants by providing equipments and opportunities for fine motor skills. To do this, educators should provide opportunities for infants that help them to develop small muscles by grasping, dropping, pulling and fingering (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991). Treasure basket is a good resource that teachers can use to develop fine motor skills of infants (Terry, 2008).

As human beings grow, they gain knowledge and produce different thoughts, and also their ability of memorizing develops. This change of intelligence is called cognitive development. The early years of a child’s life are crucial for cognitive development (Berger, 2001). Cognitive development of the baby means the learning process of memory, language, thinking and reasoning. Babies develop at their own pace. So, it is impossible to tell exactly when every child will learn a given skill. Jean piaget and Lev Vygotsky are two of the famous cognitive theorists (Tesar, 2008).

After birth of a baby, their intelligence develops rapidly during the first two years. According to Piaget’s cognitive theory, infants explore and understand their world by using their senses. For example, smelling, sucking, throwing, and mouthing and so on. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development, which he believed occur in a certain order to everyone at individual’s own rate (Berk, 2006).

The first stage of development is called sensor motor stage that applies to children from birth to two year. During this stage, an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited, but developing, to their sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping and listening, to learn more about the environment. This stage has further six sub-stages (Berk, 2006).

During first sub-stage, which is reflexive schemes (0-1 month), the child understands the world through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking. The second sub-stage, which is primary circular reactions (1-4 months), involves coordinating sensation and new schemes (Berk, 2006). For instance, if a child accidentally puts his/her finger in mouth and has started sucking it, then later on, that child intentionally repeat this action. By repeating these actions, infants find them pleasurable (Tesar, 2008).

During third sub-stage, which is secondary circular reactions (4-8 months), infants start paying attention on the world around them and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment (Berk, 2006). For example, a child intentionally picks up a toy from the floor to put that toy in his/her mouth (Tesar, 2008).

In the fourth sub-stage, which is coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months), object permanence occurs, demonstrating that memory is developing. Infants realize that an object exists and they begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities (Berk, 2006). For example, if the mother shows the baby an attractive toy and then hides that toy under the blanket. The child in this sub-stage can find the toy (Tesar, 2008).

According to Piaget, infants develop their memory and imitation skills through these sub-stages. New born babies respond to what they feel through senses and also imitate facial expressions. As children grow, they enjoy repeating actions as well as becoming able to remember familiar people and objects (Berk, 2006).

The ways children adapt to situations were described by Piaget as assimilation and accommodation. Children organize their own experience when they encounter the similar events during assimilation, whereas in accommodation, the children adjust old knowledge to new understandings when unfamiliar situations come (Bruce& Meggitt, 2005).

According to Vygotsky, children’s learning is influenced by people in their society. His idea of zone of proximal development is that children’s intelligence expands more when they are supported by adults or older children than when they are working by themselves. Infants gain knowledge not only from their own discoveries but also from what other people illustrate to them (Nixon & Gould, 2003).

According to Piaget, the teacher should provide an environment where children can explore themselves. Teachers play an important role in the development of children. Teachers should create an environment where they can interact with the children and observe them closely (Tesar, 2008).

Teachers should provide opportunities for infants to use all senses to explore the world around them. For example, providing treasure basket is a good example to promote infant’s cognitive development. By doing this, educators can help children develop new concepts and gain thinking and reasoning skills (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

By providing musical instruments, teachers can help children to acquire knowledge of different sounds and children know the difference of high and low volume (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991). Teachers should provide finger food to the infants. By doing this, children can smell, taste or squish the food. This helps infants to get familiar with the taste, hardness, softness and smell of the provided food (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

Teachers can promote infant’s cognitive development by interacting with them in different ways. This helps children to promote their confidence and curiousity. Educators can promote infant’s confidence and curiosity by praising their successess. For example, if a child roll over or hold a toy for the very first time, then the teacher should praise that child. By doing this, teachers can help children in buliding their self confidence and inceases their curiosity for achieving success for next time (Dodge, Dombro & Koralek, 1991).

In conclusion, physical development occurs to infants automatically according to genes in the fixed sequence. Also, babies gain control of their upper body before lower body. Infants gain knowledge of world through explorations by using their senses as well as organizing previous experiences when they face unfamiliar situations. According to Vygotsky’s point of view, an infant’s cognition expands with the support from people around them. Educators play a prominent role for the physical and cognitive development of infants.