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Violence against women commonly known as gender-based violence refers to violent acts ?committed against women with the victims gender as a primary motive. ?Violence against women is very common especially in developing third world countries and even ?in countries with over suppressed societies for example in many regions of the Middle East. ?Even in developed and modern nations still today gender- based violence is not totally ?eliminated and still exists though comparatively the rate is lower than the underdeveloped and/ or ?developing countries. ?

It is like a plague that has engulfed and destroyed many homes and families and a situation that ?needs to be addressed with complete focus as a healthy society produces healthy generations ?which in turn results in healthy and prosperous nations. For years the problem has never been ?addressed seriously and so far has ruined families and disturbed the society at large majorly due ?to lack of awareness among the individuals.?

The ever increasing day to day mechanical lives and expensive living cost is causing more stress ?and depression in individuals, the matter instead of being curtailed by various relevant law ?enforcing agencies, NGO’s and concerned state organizations the occurrences of violence ?incidents against women is on high increase. ?There is a dire need to find ways to stop this as crises intervention cannot only address and ?simplify the situation rather more serious steps are needed to curtail the devastating effects that it ?has on children and families.?

Every year millions of women are affected world over and majority of cases do not come on ?record nor handed lawfully and this ignorance results in gradual increase in such unacceptable ?acts against women. We will all agree here that such violence against women leads to physical ?and psychological harm both, and at times the psychological scars are impossible to treat thus ?damaging the personality of the subject woman for life time.?

If a woman suffers such physical and emotional harm the whole society suffers and the final ?impact is the suffering of the entire society. Thus this raises serious health concerns and requires ?immediate action and prevention from violence from those who are the policy makers and various ?agencies responsible for stopping this violence. ?

The affected suffers from loss of trust, loss of dignity and a deeply compromised self – esteem ?that needs to be addressed along with factors like housing, economic support, social welfare and ?legal issues being an integral part of the health promotion strategy. ?The most common form of violence experienced by women globally is physical violence inflicted ?by an intimate partner, with women beaten, forced into sex or otherwise abused.? In a study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) it was found that between 15% ?and 70% of women experience physical and/ or sexual violence by a partner. ?

According to a United Nations report at least one out of every three women around the world ?has been abused some way or the other in her lifetime and that too by someone known to her.? According to a WHO report the impact of this gender- based violence on the society is deep and ?directly burdens the health care services as women suffer serious physical injuries, death, sexually ?transmitted diseases, miscarriages, acute depression and many other psychological health issues ?resulting in weak and low physical health. And the states have to bear heavy economical costs in ?billions per year.?

A 2003 report by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that the ?costs of intimate partner violence in the United States alone exceed US$5.8 billion per year: ?US$4.1 billion are for direct medical and health care services, while productivity losses account ?for nearly US$1.8 billion.? We can have an idea of existence of this gender-based violence in various parts of the world ?from the figures collected by the WHO while carrying out a study in 11 countries and according ?to this study; ?

The percentage of women who had been subjected to sexual violence by an intimate partner ?ranged from 6 per cent in Japan to 59 per cent in Ethiopia. ?Several global surveys suggest that half of all women who die from homicide are killed by their ?current or former husbands or partners. ?In Australia, Canada, Israel, South Africa and the United States, 40 to 70 per cent of female ?murder victims were killed by their partners, according to the World Health Organization.?

In Colombia, every sixth day one woman is reportedly killed by her partner or former partner. ?Psychological or emotional violence by intimate partners is also widespread.? Up to 70 per cent of women experience violence in their lifetime, according to country data ?available.?Women aged 15-44 are more at risk from rape and domestic violence than from cancer, car ?accidents, war and malaria, according to World Bank data. ?

Female genital mutilation (FGM), defined by WHO as the partial or total removal of the external ?genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs WHO estimates that between 100 to 140 ?million girls and women have undergone some type of FGM. Most of those affected live in 28 ?countries in Africa, although there are some in the Middle East and it also happens among ?immigrant communities in some countries in Western Europe.?

Rape and dowry related violations are also very common resulting in harassment of brides and ?also dowry related deaths, particularly in certain parts of India and other southern Asian ?countries. This violence is exercised not only by the husband but also by the husbands’ close ?relatives (mother, brothers, and sisters). ?

Acid throwing in some Asian countries such as Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, the disfiguring ?of women by throwing acid or burning them are forms of violence rooted in gender inequality, ?but the immediate reason for this is often disputes concerning marriage and dowry. While this is ?not one of the most prevalent forms of violence against women, its consequences are dire for ?those women subjected to it. ?

? ”Honor” killings this is the murder of a woman, usually by a brother, father, or other male family ?member, because she has allegedly brought shame to her family. This phenomenon is rooted in ?the notion of male honor and female chastity that prevails in many countries in the Eastern ?Mediterranean region. It means a man’s honor is linked to the perceived sexual purity of the ?women in his family. If a woman engages in sex outside marriage or even if she is raped, she is ?thought to disgrace the family honor. In some societies, the only way to cleanse the family honor ?is by killing the woman/girl.?

This kind of violence against women and girls is exercised also in western European countries ?within immigrant families. It is generally referred to as ”honor” killings-a rather misleading ?term as the connection with honor is difficult to understand in most cultures. The term ”murder ?in the name of honor” has been suggested. ?

There was this case of honor killing of 3 daughters and their mother who was murdered in ?Canada and bodies dumped under a bridge by their own father with the help of his second wife ?who were immigrants there and belonged to an Asian country. ?

In Saudi Arabia where I used to visit frequently almost every year as my spouse was working in ?Jeddah I witnessed many cases where in men when going for work locked their wives from ?outside till the time they were back home in the evenings the reason being lack of trust on their ?spouse and during one such incidence the house caught fire due to short circuit and the wife, ?maid and an infant child were rescued by the neighbors through apartment windows as the door ?to the house was locked from outside by the husband who had left for work. I left the site ?wondering how much black smoke these three must have inhaled especially the infant child and ?what effect it would have had on their lungs??

With the passage of time and increasing awareness especially in girls / women due increasing ?literacy rates among women such violation is now getting well recognized as a public health ?problem and human rights violation of worldwide. ?

The states and working organizations for prevention and betterment of societies are now realizing ?how this relates directly to the public health sector.?

More and more need have arise to take appropriate measures and proper trained health workers ?are being placed close to the victims of such violation who are also well acquainted with the ?community they work for and its inhabitants.?

The local health services and communities need to play their role and create awareness among the ?public to prevent such incidents. ?

The Central and Federal government bodies need not only to make strict laws for the prevention ?of gender-based violence but ensure effective implementation as well.?

The most effective way to reduce tolerance towards violence against women is to openly debate ?the subject as still there is limited knowledge regarding most workable interventions for the ?prevention of gender- based violations.?

References

• ? www.health.state.mn.us/divs/hpcd/chp/hpkit/index.htm

• http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/?

• http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/suppl_1/25.full

• Violence Against Women – the United Nations

? www.un.org/en/events/endviolenceday/…/UNiTE_TheSituation_EN….?

• Violence against women – Gunilla Krantz, Claudia Garcia-Moreno

• http://www.wikigender.org/index.php/Violence_against_women

This paper summarizes the article titled “The issue of Australian indigenous world-views and accounting” written by Susan Greer and Chris Patel (2000). Also critically review the article and compare it with other articles those discuss the same idea and focus on the same issue.

As any research area and especially in social sciences, the difficulty and the complex of the topic should be taken as a point of departure for exploring and studying the topic as well as the importance of the topic.

The paper was structured into eight sections as following: an introduction; limitations of Hofstede’s cultural taxonomy; yin and yang values framework; core Australian indigenous cultural values; work-related values; land-related values; the meaning of native title and concluding comments.

The purpose of the paper is to provide “evidence of cultural differences between indigenous Australian values and the Western capitalist values implicit in the language of accounting and accountability”p1 as the authors believe that although great efforts have been made on the cross-cultural accounting research, the mainstream cross-cultural accounting research has failed to address two main issues:

First: the mainstream research of cross-cultural accounting focused on the impact of culture on the accounting systems but not the influence of accounting on societal values.

Second: the cultural differences within countries have been omitted.

The article tries to study this issue and fill the knowledge gap in this field, also presents the “cultural norms and values among the indigenous and non-indigenous peoples within Australia” p 308. Specifically, the study aims to “demonstrate that Australian indigenous cultures embody core values that conflict with the values encapsulated within Western systems of accounting and accountability”. p308

Article Summary

The study illuminates the differences between indigenous Australian peoples cultural values and Western capitalist values appears in language of accounting that related to work and land.

Choosing the conceptions of work and land were based on two reasons, first the previous studies which have shown the importance of the work related values and differences between cultures. Second, the recent introduction of “native title” into property law granted the Australian indigenous conception of land some legal recognition alongside other forms of property rights” p309

the authors criticize Hofsted’s cultural taxonomy as they believe in its limitations, they refer to a number of limitations as: this approach overly simplistic as it reflects the values of the politically and socially advantaged groups within countries, also it does not include the minorities in the sample such as indigenous peoples, moreover, “it fails to address the complexity of culture” p310

Because of these limitations mentioned above, the authors adopt another suitable approach which they believe it is the appropriate one for such a study.

The alternative used approach is Yin and Yang values framework, the authors believe that “A useful perspective for examining the cultural values and conceptions of reality reflected and socially reproduced by accounting, is that of the “universal masculine or yang and the universal feminine or yin” (Hines, 1992, p. 318).as some writers (Hines 1992) showed that the language of accounting preferences yang values, such as quantification, objectivity, efficiency, productivity, reason, and logic, and in doing so, silences or excludes those values associated with the universal feminine or yin, such as relationships, nurturing, experience, and intuition” p310

The authors address the usefulness of the adoption of this value framework to their study in two primary reasons. The first reason is because of the evidence of unique Australian indigenous cultural values provided from a large collection of anthropological, sociological and pedagogical literature. Secondly, the increasing emphasis of the Australian indigenous people s on cultural values and traditions.

Core Australian indigenous cultural values

In this section, authors try to introduce the differences in cultural values within the indigenous Australian peoples or (the yin core values).

According to the authors, “The whole community is classified into specific relationships with each member (Crawford, 1989). For example, the Pitjantjatjara people of Central Australia gave Europeans kinship terms aˆ¦. The Yolngu of the Northern Territory are also known to assign positions within the domain of Yolngu kinship to non-Aboriginal people with whom they have more than superficial or brief contact aˆ¦. Thus for many indigenous peoples, kin positions constitute the basic datum of social identity.” p 313

Also authors state that sharing and relatedness values are central to these indigenous societies especially to Aboriginal society.

In the next sections the authors focus on two groups of value taking them as examples, these groups of values, according to the authors, are aligned to yin values.

Work-related values

In this section the work-related values of indigenous peoples are presented as yin values, which are clearly reflected in the indigenous attitudes to work, consequently are in contrast with yang values.

Some examples was given in support to this issue “the strength and nature of obligatory relationships and the web of sharing within kinship networks are often acknowledged as a key determinant of the success or failure of indigenous enterprises. Yet, governments at the state and federal levels and indigenous funding bodies have consistently ignored this factor. Instead, indigenous organisations and communities have been increasingly submitted to financial accounting controls and measures of financial accountability and compliance which prioritise yang values that are in direct conflict with the core Australian indigenous values of sharing and relatedness.” p 316

Land-related values

Descriptions of how the land is considered by indigenous peoples in Australia can be found under this section where the authors provide evidences on how land values for these indigenous are different to accounting and accountability systems in the Western capitalist environment.

The authors state that “The earth is considered the source of all life and, as such, the indigenous peoples are obligated to look after the earth, so that the earth will in turn provide for them” p 318

According to the authors the link between these peoples and land is much deeper than just an economic property, as it can be read that “In Australian indigenous culture it is the spiritual link to the land that is all-pervasive. The land is the source of the Dreamings, the source of identity and the foundation principle of land rights in indigenous culture is not one of individual proprietary rights, rather it is relationships” p 319

The meaning of native title

Native title was identified in the article as “inalienable right consisting of the laws, customs, practices and traditions of particular communities. As such, the rights under native title are limited to the indigenous community which observes those traditions, customs and practices. Native title does not equate with the “estates, rights or interests in land which form the law of real property at common law . . . it is to be regarded as unique” p 320

The indigenous consider it as an important part of their culture not as it appears in the Western accounting literature as:

. The property;

. The asset;

. The economic resource;

. The commodity; and

. The “natural” capital.

The loss of this title means loss of culture itself for these Australian indigenous peoples.

Conclusion comments

the article concludes with the mention of the failure of mainstream cross-cultural accounting research to include the norms and values of less advantage groups such as indigenous, also the article refers to the complexity of accounting and accountability to study such a subject as these social aspects are part of many other subjects as history, ideology, language and mythology. Moreover, the authors suggest to build on the work has been made by Hines (1992) and Broadbent (1995; 1998).

Critical Reflections

This section critically evaluates the work has been done by Greer S. and Patel C. (2000) by reviewing the used method and objectives achieved in the light of other works on the same topic.

Strengths

it is good attempt to bring such issues to the attention of accounting, some issues like the issue of accounting and indigenous, how they are effected by accounting and how accounting should benefits from their cultures for example in terms of environment and social responsibility. As Gallhofer et al (2000) think that “it seems appropriate to speculate further upon how indigenous cultural principles might be reflected more generally in the context of impacting upon accounting” p 397

The objectives of the article were clearly stated and strongly linked to the title. Also the abstract summaries and explains clearly the debate issue of the article and the limitations of the methods used before.

The aims and objectives of the article were well addressed and The findings were well organized and reported objectively. More importantly, new approach was applied as alternative method to characterize the indigenous peoples’ cultural differences in terms of accounting and accountability.

It can be said that the article was well written and sectioned in good order, also very clear literature review was introduced by descriptions of the related work has been done in the same field within discussions in different places in the article which, also number of good references were used in both method section and the development body. In my view, that would give a good opportunity to describe the contents of the article and make them more readable. Not to mention the number of examples was injected in different sections of the article to support the ideas included.

Weaknesses

Gallhofer and Chew state that (2000) “We are particularly concerned to address the problem that non-indigenous researchers face when they write about issues concerning indigenous peoples and cultures” p 258. As mentioned it could be a problematic issue that non-indigenous researchers can not reflect clearly the complexity of cultural and social elements and accounting in indigenous societies in general.

At one point it could be said that the method used to gather the data for this article were clearly explained and the developments of the critical contextual analysis were well explained. On the other point, however, the reliability of the used texts is sometimes difficult to be measured. Also the scope of the study and the population used were not based on a clear approach.

Hofsted’s cultural taxonomy was criticized in the article because of its limitations; however, the method was employed as alternative approach (Yin and Yang value framework) has its own limitations too.

At one point the used method is acceptable for determining the content and deliver broader understanding to the reader .however, it could be questionable if it is the appropriate method to explain and develop scientific accounting theory and result reliable outcomes as it is affected by other sciences such as language, history and politics. This makes the issue is more complicated and can not be studied without considering other elements, for instance, Jayasinghe and Dennis Thomas (2009) found that “The findings imply that any form of rational transformations in indigenous accounting systems in local subaltern communities requires a phenomenological analysis of any prevailing and dominant patronage political systems.” p 351

From personal point of view, hybrid Approach should be applied to study the topic including ethno-methodological approach.

The article does not mention clearly how to improved the accounting theory and engage it with indigenous culture and practices, in personal view, the expected outcomes of studies not just general description to matters but also to give potential solutions.

It also can be argued that the article does not show whereas the indigenous peoples welcome the western accounting and accountability systems or not, and if yes till which degree. In general, the article should have studied both sides of the relationship between the indigenous and the language of western accounting and how they affect each other rather than focusing on one side as the relationship is an interactive one.

As it seems that the issue is more deep-rooted in the accounting field which requires studying the historical background of the matter.

It is also arguable that although the authors arose the differences between cultures within the same country, they applied the comprehensiveness when they studied the indigenous and ignored the cultural differences between these indigenous peoples themselves, for instance Gallhofer et al (2000) believe that “There are complex differences between the three groups of indigenous people and indeed between their different tribes.” p 384

Questions Left to Answer

The article raises issues and possibilities that should be focused on and questions need to be further explored; additional studies are needed to raise research possibilities beyond those identified and overcome method limitations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the paper has promoted to the idea of providing evidence of differences between indigenous Australian values and the Western capitalist values in the accounting context. Some good cases have been presented with implementing a developed method in the field. Besides, several of good references have been used in order to develop the problem statement of the article,

It could also be said that the yin and yang values framework which used in the paper has its limitation in terms of providing evidences of the problem studied.

The conclusion was based on the findings from the critical contextual analysis used and the literature reviewed; also the recommendation was limited to a call for additional research in this area of research as some other researchers suggest (Gallhofer and Chew 2000).

Overall, the study gives good contribution to knowledge in terms of the used method and the objectives, also the study would need to be linked to other works have been done on the same topic (Gallhofer, S., Chew, A. (2000), Gallhofer, S., el al (2000), Davie, S. (2000), Jayasinghe K. and Thomas D. (2009), to give better and broader understanding to the problem introduced in the mentioned article.

The self-concept of a person is about how he/she believes their own characteristics and the evaluation of these attributes (Solomon et al., 2010). A common term, self-esteem, is used to define the positive aspect of an individual’s self-concept (ibid.). A simple distinction of self-esteem is the ideal versus real self (ibid.). As there is usually a gap between the two of them, products are used to minimize the gap and assist an individual in achieving certain goals (ibid.). Thus in this literature review, products would be a main concern in explaining how they are used to help develop a person’s self-concept.

Belk (1988) stated that possessions are seen as a part of our sense of self. Our possessions are used to broaden our self-concept and thus we use them to understand ourselves (Sartre, 1943 cited in Belk, 1988). McCarthy (1984 cited in Belk, 1988) also concluded from his research that a product might contain more of our identities than an individual. Products could act as a consequence to an established self-concept as well as an antecedent to self-definition (Solomon, 1983). The former appears more often in most research, in which consumers buy a product to satisfy their particular need or to manage their appearance or impression in front of others (ibid.). The later is about the consumer’s use of product as stimulation to define a particular social role (ibid.). Products consist of symbolic qualities which are used by consumers to clarify the behaviour and performance of a social role (ibid.). Both aspects of the product usage are significant for consumers in their self-definition process.

In this chapter, the two factors, ‘consumption’ and ‘interaction’, are addressed in two separate subsections in order to explain their influences on the definition of an individual’s self-concept. The third subsection, ‘work identity’, is also included in this literature to explain some characteristics regarding this specific self-identity which is novel to the participants in this research.

Consumption

Sartre (1943/1956 cited in Kleine et al., 1993) mentioned that ‘who we are’ is represented by ‘what we have’, hence consumption is related to self with respect to the person’s possessions. Buying objects is a form of putting one’s self into the object (Belk, 1988). Sartre (1943 cited in Belk, 1988) suggested that buying an object is similar to creating an object, in which the identity of a person is invested into the object through associating the object with his/her characteristics. The strength of maintaining the self identity also increases after immediate purchase of the product (Ball and Tasaki, 1992).

Relationship between ‘self’ and possessions

A person’s concept of self and social identity could be defined by his/her use of products (Holt and Thompson, 2004 etc. cited in Solomon et al., 2010) because the products consist of hints which includes information about the person’s particular social role (Solomon, 1983). Social role is defined by Young as ‘a behavior pattern associated with a particular person in a particular social system’ (1991: 33). A person acting as a particular social role would behave according to role expectations (Young, 1991). People could choose to enact any role and they would alter their behaviour in different situations (ibid.). Even if two persons are acting as the same social role, they would not behave in the same way (ibid.).

The role the product plays in the consumption process could be explained by ‘consumption system’, which describes how the consumer uses the product to achieve his/her goal (Boyd and Levy, 1963: 129). Consumers purchase the product not for its physical existence but the function it provides for the user in accomplishing certain tasks (ibid.). Thus even basic or daily products, such as our house and clothes, could be used to express our self (Kleine et al., 1993; Young, 1991).

The relationship between a person’s self identity and his/her possessions could be explained by the term ‘attachment’, which means that the maintenance of self-concept is supported by current or previous ownership of a product (Ball and Tasaki, 1992). As attachment and time in owning the product increase, that product would become more associated with any significant circumstance or people in the life of the owner (ibid.). But it should also be noted that time is needed for the increase in the level of association even for a high attachment (ibid.).

Prominence of identities

An individual could possess many identities or roles within him/herself (Solomon et al., 2010). Different products may be required for an individual to display his/her particular social role (ibid.). We usually choose products which agree with our identities (Kleine et al., 1993), and consequently each of the identity would be supported by a consistent set of possessions (ibid.).

For each of us, some of our identities would be more prominent in specific occasions (Kleine et al., 1993; Solomon et al., 2010). Our behaviour would be affected by the salience of an individual’s certain identity, and therefore those behaviours related to the prominent identity would be performed more frequently (Kleine et al., 1993). We tend to do something which is rewarding to ourselves (ibid.). The more we perform these rewarding behaviours, the more confident we feel with the usage of those possessions (ibid.). More central identities would be more likely to guide an individual for suitable behaviours (Solomon, 1983).

More about the prominence of identities would be explained in Section 2.2.2.

Disposition

Several consumer researchers (Bonsu and Belk, 2003 etc. cited in Arnould and Thompson, 2005) had argued that disposition is important in the transition of roles and identities of consumers. Especially during times like getting a new job in this research context (Belk, 1988), those possessions related to the role of a student may be disposed because the self-image of the new employee role is inconsistent with those old possessions (La Branche, 1973 cited in Belk, 1988). The quitting of the student role could also be regarded as disposition for which the graduates acquire the new role of an employed person instead, according to the example of one participant in Young’s (1991) research that her role is transited from a manager to a student. Ball and Tasaki also agreed that ‘people will psychologically outgrow many possessions and acquire attachments to others that reflect the new self’ (1992: 170).

However, a person may choose not to discard a product because it acts as a storage platform of valuable memories relevant to his/her past (Belk, 1988). An example is given by the case of one participant in Young’s (1991) research, in which she was keeping the plaque which stored the memory of the relationship with her former boyfriend. She kept it for some time before she threw it away (ibid.). To conclude, whether to dispose or retain a product depends on its importance to the individual for his/her desired identity.

Interaction

Social identity theory states that a person’s self-identity is created from comparison with others and then he/she is classified into appropriate social groupings (Abrams and Hogg, 1990 etc. cited in Walsh and Gordon, 2008). It is a continuous process (Walsh and Gordon, 2008) through interaction between individuals (Charon, 1992 etc. cited in Walsh and Gordon, 2008). The value of one’s self is then confirmed by others (Pratt, 1991). Belk also agreed that ‘others are an important mirror through which we see ourselves’ (1988: 146). Therefore in this section, the concept of symbolic interactionism and prominence of identities are discussed to address the influence of interaction on a person’s consumption pattern and self-concept.

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism would be a useful concept in assisting the explanation because it emphasizes the formation of self-concept in relations to other people (Solomon et al., 2010). This theory states that a symbolic environment exists and it provides a platform for people to interact those symbols in creating symbolic meanings (ibid.). With shared symbolic meanings established through socialization, people should be able to adjust their behaviour and determine their self-image with respect to how others predicted those actions (Solomon, 1983). Those products containing the shared meanings may then be used for enhancing the social role as they provide a greater chance in guiding the user to act consistently with that role (ibid.).

Other people could provide reflexive evaluation to an individual with regard to the symbolic value of the product he/she uses to represent his/her role (Solomon, 1983). This evaluation would then be used to shape the self-concept of that person (ibid.). It could exist in an interpersonal or intrapersonal level (ibid.). The former is a more common one, in which those symbols used to determine one’s role exists at the societal or cultural level (ibid.). The latter is about the imagined appraisal of an individual within oneself, for which the interaction process exists within oneself and he/she use his/her internal evaluation to build up his/her desired role (ibid.). Both processes are effective in determining one’s role and self-concept.

Prominence of identities

The prominence of identities was explained in Section 2.1.2. Some more points are added in this part. Kleine et al. (1993) provides two reasons of the salience of our identities. The first one is about our surrounding social circle (ibid.). The circle forms our social connection, and the interaction with those people would help shape whom we are and the stability of these salient identities (ibid.). The second one is about the evaluations we receive from our social connections (ibid.). As explained in Section 2.1, we have a tendency to perform rewarding behaviours (ibid.). Thus we would adopt the identities which receive the best appraisals from others and choose those identities as the salient ones (ibid.). Thus the effect from our social connections may be one of the factors influencing the prominence of our identities.

A new role: the work identity

Work identity is a self-concept related to work (Walsh and Gordon, 2008). People usually form their work identity from their organizations or professions (ibid.). The greater the status and competence of the organization or profession, the more an individual creates his/her work identity from the group (ibid.). Baumeister and Muraven (1996) viewed work as a way of building up one’s self. Especially for the young females in this context, mastering their first job could be viewed as another kind of possessions which help create their self-identity (Belk, 1988).

Work Orientations

Wrzesniewski et al. classified three levels of ‘work-orientations’: ‘jobs’, ‘careers’ and ‘callings’ (1997 cited in Walsh and Gordon, 2008: 54). People who are jobs-oriented view their work as obtaining returns and rewards and they care less about their work identity (ibid.). Individuals having a careers work-orientation are likely to create their work identity through membership of their organizations or professions or both of them (ibid.). People who have a callings work-orientation would create their full self-identity through their profession because they consider their work as the most important thing in their life (ibid.). Thus it implies that a strong work identity is a consequence of having a careers or callings work-orientation.

Income and Money

Income is the basic appraisal for the work of every employee. They can either spend their income on various products or save the money for further use. Although having possessions is a way of enhancing self-concept, money is also considered a kind of self extension (Belk, 1988). Money provides a person with greater flexibility in choosing activities or possessions and thus it helps magnify the person’s sense of self (ibid.). Rubenstein (1981 cited in Belk, 1988) mentioned that people usually regard money as being successful and powerful, and in fact people with higher income are also reported to have higher self-esteem, happier and more satisfied (e.g. Diener, 1984 cited in Belk, 1988).

Current research context

The three sections above have discussed the theoretical findings by different scholars on the content of this research. However, most of the findings are from European context, for which they may not be applicable to the Asian context. Therefore, this research is aiming at understanding whether the practical findings from an Asian context would be relevant to the European scholarly findings, or if the cultural difference occupies more for this research context.

This research aims at answering the three research questions raised in Chapter 1. Specific research details related to each question would be discussed below.

What products do young female university graduates in Hong Kong choose to define their desired self-concept and social role?

First of all, for females, the research from Secord and Jourard’s (1953 cited in Belk, 1988) found that females concentrate on body parts more than males. Solomon (1983) also suggested that appearance-related products could produce a strong link between the sense of self and the behaviour associated with that ‘self’. Therefore participants may purchase more appearance-related products like clothing or skin-care products. Second, consumption is used for self-definition when the person has an unfamiliar role (Solomon et al., 2010) or when he/she is undergoing a role transition (Solomon, 1983). As mentioned in Chapter 1, the employee ‘self’ of young graduates is in a comparatively fragile sense. Tuan (1980) suggested that this fragile self should be supported by possessions because these possessions may be able to represent the identity of an employed person. Young (1991) also mentioned that role transition requires a change of the environment, social role, enacted behaviour and possessions. Especially when the self-image of being an employee is weak at the start of their career, they tend to purchase user-image related products to strengthen their self-perception (Wright et al., 1992). Research from Wicklund et al. (1981 cited in Solomon, 1983) also found that students possessing a more imperfect sense of ‘career’ self would tend to utilize luxurious products to represent their desired ‘career’ role.

Therefore in this research, their preferred types of products and spending pattern would be explored to understand how they view their identity at the moment. The issue of difference in spending pattern before and after graduation would be especially addressed to explore the process of their role transition.

How do their interactions with others shape their salient social identities?

In this research, participants are all playing a relatively unfamiliar role of being an employed person. They may not understand the appropriate behaviour of their new role and thus there may be large gap between the ideal behaviour and their actual capacity in performing those behaviours (Solomon, 1983). Therefore they may rely on external cues in guiding their actions (ibid.). Their self-image would be largely shaped by the appraisals of others on their own possessions (ibid.). They would access whom they are or their role based on the evaluations of others (ibid.).

From the literature by Kleine et al. (1993) in Section 2.2.2, the two reasons of salient identity are both about a person’s social connections. Therefore in order to explore the relationship between interaction and the salience of identity, the issue of social circle and the interactions among the group would be explored. The interactions may affect how they view themselves and subsequently their consumption patterns and behaviour, and finally their salient identity would be shaped accordingly.

To what extent does their work identity constitute to their self-concept?

In their role transition from a student to an employee, their salient identity may not be stable and they may have several prominent identities instead of just an obvious one. Thus the issue of level of importance about the working role in their self-concept would be addressed to explore if work identity is considered important in their mind. Their view towards their current job would be explored because the research from Wrzesniewski et al. (1997 cited in Walsh and Gordon, 2008) indicates that people who are more career-oriented tend to have a stronger work identity and vice versa. Their view towards their income and their general spending and saving habits would also be asked to explore how they view money and the appropriateness of the spending and saving patterns for young graduates.

In 2006, Answers Corporation explained that homosexuality is a term created by 19th century. The meaning of homosexual is, having a sexual orientation to persons of the same sex (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 2006).

Homosexuality includes two groups, which are female homosexuality and male homosexuality. Female homosexuality is described as lesbianism and the male homosexuality is described as gay (Answers Corporation, 2006).

At the beginning, some of the psychologists said that homosexuality is a mental illness and put it into the list of mental disorder. However, after some of the studies, they realized that homosexuality is not a mental disorder because it is related to psychological disturbance and is in no sense of ‘mental problem’ as well. So, homosexuality removed from the list of mental disorders (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.).

The factors that lead to homosexuality are critical and discuss by many specialist fields such as psychologists and psychiatrists.

View of Psychologists toward Reason of Homosexuality

In Robinson study (as cited in “Facts about Homosexuality and Mental Health,” n.d.), early of the twentieth century, Ellis (1901) argued that homosexuality was inborn and it was not immoral, not a disease, and that many homosexuals made outstanding contributions to society.

Sigmund Freud has a different theory of human sexuality from Ellis. He believed that all human beings were innately bisexual. Human beings become heterosexual or homosexual as a result of what they have experiences with other people or environment that surrounding of them. Freud also agreed with Ellis that homosexual orientation should not be viewed as a form of pathology (“Facts about Homosexuality and Mental Health,” n.d.).

He wrote a letter to an American mother in 1935. He said that, people can’t get any advantages from their homosexual orientation. But, they were always blamed, discriminated by other people. Actually, homosexuality is not a sin, not an illness as well. He also said that, we need to see it as a sexual function produced by certain sexual development. There are many individuals of ancient and modern times that were respect by us are homosexuality. According to him, it is injustice and cruelty to describe that homosexuality is a crime and sin. He told the American mother that, analysis may let her son feel harmony, peace and full efficiency when her son in the time of unhappy, neurotic, torn by conflicts, and inhibited in the social life whether he remains a homosexual or gets changed (“Facts about Homosexuality and Mental Health,” n.d.).

View of Reincarnation Researchers toward Reason of Homosexuality

According to Dr. Ian Stevenson, he concludes that homosexuality is a natural human trait that results from the reincarnation of a person of one gender as a person of the opposite gender. Such people must adjust to their new gender and sexuality at an early age. The difficulty of adjusting relating to the ‘sex change’ and lead to homosexuality later on in their lives (as cited in Williams, 2006).

Reincarnation means the soul occupation a new body after the death of the former body (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2006). The classic form of the reincarnation doctrine was formulated in India, but certainly not earlier than the 9th century BC, when the Brahmana writings were composed. After the Upanishads clearly defined the concept between the 7th and the 5th century BC, it was adopted by the other important Eastern religions which originated in India, Buddhism and Jainism. Due to the spread of Buddhism in Asia, reincarnation was later adopted by Chinese Taoism, but not earlier than the 3rd century BC (Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences, n.d.).

Former girls who are reborn as boys may wish to dress as girls or prefer to play with girls rather than boys. Former boys who are reborn as girls may wish to dress as boys or prefer to play with boys rather than girls. Former men who are reborn as women will be attracted to women and will therefore be lesbian. Former women who are reborn as men will be attracted to men and will therefore be gay (as cited in Williams, 2006).

“Former” means past-life or previous life and “reborn” mean present lifetime. In many cases the person begins talking about his or her life or lives before the present lifetime, about their previous death and about the time between lives including the planning of the present lifetime (as cited in Williams, 2006). So, Dr. Ian Stevenson concludes that, homosexuality is the stem of reincarnation.

Beside of the factors to cause homosexuality, the factors that influence people attitudes towards homosexuality are also very controversial.

Different people may bring out different of attitudes, thinking, feeling and behaviors towards homosexuality. The differences can be considered contribute to some of the factors such as personal and social factors.

Personal Factors that Influence Attitudes towards Homosexual

Age. Have a measure of tolerance of homosexual behaviors from attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations, such as the nations of Australia, USA, Norway, and others indicated that the higher points of tolerance scored as 100 and the lowest point as 0. The higher the tolerance scored the higher the acceptance of homosexuality. The predicted level of tolerances for young people age 20 would be 53 points. People in middle age have tolerance scores of 43 points by age 40. At age 60, the tolerance scored is about 33 and with 23 points at age 80. It showed that, as the age increasing, the tolerance scored of homosexual was decreasing.

The tolerance point of elder was low compare to younger people (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

Beside of the factors of age, the attitudes also influences by religion.

Religion background. Different religious will makes a large difference to tolerance of homosexuality. According to a test of measure of homosexual behaviors tolerance, the higher points of tolerance scored as 100 and the lowest point as 0. The higher the tolerance scored the higher acceptance of homosexuality. Ardent believers in a personal God would rate homosexual behavior at 28 points. But, staunch atheists who are totally reject the idea of personal God rate homosexuality at 59 points (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

It obviously showed that, Ardent believers in a personal God was less accepting to homosexuality which rate 28 points compare to staunch atheists who totally reject the idea of personal God which rate 59 points (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

Beside that, church goers are less tolerant of homosexuality than those who are never darken a church’s door. People who are regular going to church rate 32 points, and those who are shunning the church were rating 48 points (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

It is because according to Christians, homosexuality violating some of God’s most basic commandments for humanity. Christians’ belief in God’s condemnation of homosexuality is claimed to be so important that forcing them to treat gays equally means forcing them to violate their religious beliefs (Cline, n.d.).

In nearly all societies throughout human history, religion offers answers to fundamental questions concerning the origin and meaning of things. Religious systems of explanation offer accounts of the creation of the world, as well as specifying the rules for proper behavior-and the consequences for infractions-that have been imposed by the Creator (Gross, 2005).

Christianity traditionally forbid sexual relations between people of the same sex and teaches that such behavior is sinful (Gross, 2005).

So, religious belief and church attendance have strongly influence on attitudes towards homosexuality in almost 29 nations.

Beside of the factors of religion, the attitudes toward homosexuality also influences by faculty of study among students (“Societal Attitudes towards Homosexuality,” 2006).

Faculty of study. Students who studied faculties of Arts or Social Science had more positive attitudes toward gay man compared to Science or Business students. The result revealed that students in the faculties of Arts and Social Science had more positive attitudes towards homosexual compare with students in faculties Business and Science (Schellenberg, Hirt and Sears, 1999).

It shows that there are two possible reasons that determined these results. First, students who value traditional sex roles may be the most likely to select programs in faculties of business and sciences where political attitudes are conservative. Second, students with less value traditional sex roles may be the most likely to select programs in faculties of Art and Social Science. It is because they thought the departments are more liberal (Schellenberg, Hirt and Sears, 1999).

In academic field, beside the factor of different faculty of study, the educational level also plays a very important role to determine the attitudes towards homosexuality.

Educational level. The higher years of education people involve, the higher scored of tolerances people have. The higher points of tolerance scored as 100 and the lowest point as 0. The higher of tolerance scored sign that it is more acceptance of homosexuality (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

The point of tolerances was 34 out of 100 rating by people who with 8 years of education. Those with 10 years of education were rating 38 points and people who have complete 2 years master’s degree after 4 year bachelor’s degree was rating 51 points. So, the gap between the least educated and the most educated is 17 points. (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

This tolerance-enhancing effect of education actually is link to other forces which importantly depend on the independent of age, so the lesser censure of homosexuality among the highly educated cannot be attributed to a changing social climate. The age effects themselves suggest that there is a changing social climate, but the education effects are in addition to that (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

Other than that, gender also likely to have strongly influences on the attitudes towards homosexuality. Many researchers conducted researches that related to gender differences and their attitudes towards gay men and lesbians.

Gender. Gender belief system is the pattern of masculine or feminine behavior of an individual that is defined by a particular culture and that is largely determined by a child’s upbringing (Answers.com, 2006).

Kite and Whitley suggested that men rating the gay men more negative than women, but they were same in the rating of lesbians. Within the male and female, women made approximately equal rating of lesbians and gay men, but men’s rating of lesbians were more positive than rating of gay men (as cited in Louiderback & Whitley, 1997).

According to Kite and Whitley study, it is because people who have strong gender belief system have more negative attitudes towards homosexual because homosexuality violates the norms of that belief system. Also, men held more traditional sex-role attitudes than women. So, in the perspective of men, male should be act more masculine and aggressive. They also strongly hold the traditional sexual orientation which is heterosexuality (as cited in Louiderback & Whitley, 1997).

Beside that, a study (as cited in “Schellenberg, Hirt and Sears” 1999.), it also showed that male hold more negative attitudes towards gay men than lesbians, and, they also hold more negative attitudes to homosexual compare with female.

Different attitude towards homosexuality is the impact of personal factors. But, the social factors also have certain level of impact on the attitudes towards homosexuality.

Social Factors that Influence Attitudes towards Homosexual

Media. Dissemination of information about homosexuality in marketing, television shows, and public opinion polls, will affect the attitudes of public toward homosexuals no matter it is accurate or inaccurate.

The information of “homosexuals will lead to AIDS” has strong impact on attitudes towards homosexuality. The perpetuation of homophobic attitudes such as the treatment of people with HIV, “moralistic interpretations of people with AIDS,” certain conceptions about the methods of HIV transmitted, media representation of AIDS, and even the way in which medicine’s “objectivity” reinforces a moral view inimical to gay men, lesbians and bisexuals (Anderson, Fakhfakh, & Kondylis, 1999).

Many of the researches have approved that some of the factors influence attitudes towards homosexuality. There are also some of the researches conducted by researchers to approve whether the stereotypes of people towards homosexuality is correct or not.

Social differences. Social differences in the tolerance of homosexuality are quite large. This can help to explain why people living in different social circles have different perceptions of what ‘the average Australian’ thinks.

For example, 70 years old had left school at the end of year 10, and who holds strong religious beliefs and attends church regularly would rate homosexual behaviors at just 1 point out of 100 or “always wrong” (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

Stereotypes towards Homosexuality

Characteristics. Normally, people would like to believe that gay men are effeminate and lesbians are tomboys while there are some homosexual people who fit these stereotypes. But, actually they are not representative of all homosexual people. So, the stereotypes of characteristics of homosexual people are not correct at all (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.).

Duration of relationship. Studies indicate that people would have the stereotypes that homosexual person will not involve in long-term, stable and close relationship with their partners. But, it is not unusual to find homosexuality couples who had been together for over twenty years (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.).

Homosexual parents. Some people believe that children of gay or lesbian people are more likely to grow up to be homosexual as their parents. Beside that, people also believe that these children will grow up without appropriate ethical values. In fact, homosexual parents would like to teach their children the values of kindness and charity because they are the victims of hate and discrimination in society (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.).

According to Family Research Report (2001), children who have homosexual parents would be expected to do less well than kids in general in school, on the job, in marriage, raising their own kids, and others. Normally, children of homosexual parents cannot do well in sex identity, language skills and mathematics fields compare to children of heterosexual parents. But, children of homosexual parents hold strongly social study than children of heterosexual parents.

However, they have tries to be successful in life. So not every child with homosexual parents would be expected to be ‘a failure,’ nor would every child raised by a homosexual parent be expected to fail. Likewise, not every child rose by a married mother and father would be expected to succeed (Family Research Report, 2001).

Religion. The vast majority of the world’s churches take the stance that homosexual acts are a sin. To cite an example of a religious viewpoint, the Roman Catholic Church in a passage from its Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, states, “As in every moral disorder, homosexual activity prevents one’s own fulfillment and happiness by acting contrary to the creative wisdom of God.” Homosexuality is labeled as a “moral disorder;” it is not regular or acceptable (The Scientific Debate on Homosexuality, n.d.).

People believe that Christians are disagreeing homosexuality. Some religious groups interpret certain biblical passages as injunctions against homosexuality, while others view these passages in the light of historical context, much like slavery. Actually, many Christians were condemning discrimination and prejudice. They welcome and affirm homosexual Christians into the body of Christ, with unique gifts to offer (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.).

Beside to conduct researches to reveal the stereotypes of people towards homosexuality is correct or not, there also a research on how the public opinion towards homosexuality among different nations.

Public Opinion toward Homosexual among Different Nations

In study of Societal Attitudes towards Homosexuality (2006), it showed that the result of acceptance homosexuality in Africa and the Middle East are tend to strongly disagree. But, major Latin American countries such as Mexico and Brazil accept homosexuality.

At Australia 1999, the result showed that 28% of people think that sexual relations between two adults of the same sex are not wrong at all, 15 % think that it is wrong only sometimes, 9 % think that it is almost always wrong, and 48% think that it is always wrong (“Attitude towards homosexuality in 29 nations,” n.d.).

According to Robinson (2003), Apoll by the Gallup Organization from United State has conducted a research of acceptable of homosexuality in the public. The result showed the percentage of the survey result: “do you personally believe that it is acceptable or not acceptable for gays and lesbians to engage in same-sex behavior?” as in 1982-JUN, there was 34% people accept homosexuality and by 1992-JUN, there was an increasing percentage which is 38%. In 1992-MAR, there was 44% and by 1997-APR, there was 42%. In 1999-FEB, there was 50 % and by 2001-MAY, there was 52%. There was 51% in 2002-MAY and 54% in 2003-MAY. It showed that the percentage of acceptable towards homosexuality in the United State is increasing by year of 1982 to 2003.

The Pew Research Center’s 2003 Global Attitudes Survey found that, people in Africa and the Middle East strongly object to societal acceptance of homosexuality. But there is far greater tolerance for homosexuality in major Latin American countries such as Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil. Opinion in Europe is split between West and East. Majorities in every Western European nation surveyed say homosexuality should be accepted by society, while most Russians, Poles and Ukrainians disagree. 51% of Americans believes homosexuality should be accepted, while 42% disagree (as cited in “Societal Attitudes towards Homosexuality,” 2006).

Significant of This Study

Based on the above introduction, one can see the important of understanding of students’ attitude to homosexuality.

Firstly, according to Lisa Lamar and Mary Kite (1998), it said that males have more negative attitudes towards gay men and this is due to gender roles factor. However, Schellenberg, Hirt & Sears (1999), found that males who study in Arts and Social Sciences have more positive attitudes towards gay men. So, this study want to know UTAR Psychology course students’ attitudes towards gay men is affected by gender roles or the faculties that they have chose.

Second, according to research of Brownell, he found that religions are related to negative attitudes towards lesbian and gay men. Malaysia have many types of religions include Islamic, Buddhist, Indian, and others. This study wants to know are there having differences of attitudes between religions in Malaysia or not. This will make us know more about how the attitudes of different religions people towards lesbian and gay men. This can reduce conflict or make different religions people can communicate easily.

Third, Many students have confused or varying opinions on homosexuality. It is important for all students to come to terms with what they currently think and feel about homosexuality (Tozeland, Loewen, & Monteith, n.d.). This study want to let them conscious about their attitudes towards homosexual and let them decide they want to change it or not.

Beside that, through this study, students of psychology course can more concern about issue of homosexuality and conduct or do further research on it. The further research can help public know about homosexual such as why homosexual, what reason to make them become homosexual, and others. Once public know more about the homosexual group, they might change their attitudes towards homosexual as well as reduce their discrimination perception towards homosexual.

This study will determine whether the result of this study same with the result of previous researches or not.

For this study, it should make a clear distinction of attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women with divide the “homosexual” to “lesbian” and gay men”. For example, many of previous research conducted research by using the term “homosexual” but do not divide the term “homosexual” into “gay men” and “lesbian women”.

Research Questions

For this study, it will explore the gender influences on attitudes towards homosexuality among university students. We would like to understand more about the gender differences of acceptance of homosexuality among university students.

Beside that, this study will determine whether the result is same with the result of previous researches or not.

The research questions in this study are as follows.

First, are there any gender differences in the attitudes towards lesbian and homosexual?

Second, is there any gender difference in their knowledge of homosexual?

Third, are there any religion differences in their attitude towards lesbian and homosexual?

Fourth, is there any religion difference in their knowledge of homosexual?

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Participants

118 Psychology students from year 1 to year 3 in University Tunku Abdul Rahman were selected as the sample of this study. Simple random method was used in the selection.

There are 82 females and 36 females. All of the students who participated in the survey are simple random sampling.

Materials

Questionnaire. The survey conducted using questionnaire (see Appendix 1). All participants completed a 4 pages questionnaire consisting of two sections. Instructions accompanying the questionnaire guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality.

The first part is about the respondents’ demographic such as gender, age, year, race, and religion. The second part is about respondents’ attitudes toward lesbian and gay. There are 32 questions in this test.

In this test, the first 4 questions are asked about the general attitudes towards homosexuality such as a) I know about homosexuals, and b) Sexual orientation is caused by genes, but not the environment (see appendix 1). Question 5 to 18 is asked about the attitudes towards lesbians such as a) Lesbians just can’t fit into our society, b) exual relations between two female is wrong, c) Female homosexuality is a sin and, d) Lesbians are sick (see appendix 1). Question 19 to 32 is asked about the attitudes towards gay men such as a) I think male homosexuals are disgusting, b) Male homosexuality is a perversion, c) Sexual relations between two male is wrong and, d) Homosexual behavior between two men is just plain wrong (see appendix 1).

Participants had to rate on the Likert Scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree) according to their attitudes towards homosexual which include lesbian and gay man.

Software. SPSS for Windows (12.0) was used for all statistical analyses.

Procedures

The survey was conducted by using simple random sampling design. A sampling frame, which is the numbered name lists of students from Year One to Year Three Psychology class at UTAR was obtained from the Faculty General Office.

All the name of the students were mixed and came out with a new name list (see Appendix 2). A sample size of 118 was selected.

The simple random sampling was conducted as follows:

A starting point in the table of Random Numbers in the Appendix 4 was chosen using a finger stab. The stab came down at column 6, row 15 at the entry 13916.

As the sampling frame ranged from 1 to 301, the left three numbers in each set of five were used when drawing the sample. The number “0” was ignored if that number over 301. The numbers to be included in sampling were been identified by moving across the table from left to right every alternate line started from up and down. The numbers got were highline in yellow color (see Appendix 3).

We distributed the questionnaire to the samples that have been selected by simple random method through UTAR lecturers. The survey took between ten to five-teen minutes to complete and then collected back by lecturers after the respondents completed it in the same day. Instructions accompanying the questionnaire guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality.

CHAPTER III

RESULT

Reliability Test

There were five dimensions in the questionnaire. First, the dimension of “Negative Attitudes toward Lesbians”, it consisted by 10 questions which is from question 5 to question 14. The Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.81 after questions 5, 7, 9, 13 were deleted (Table 1, pg 16). Therefore, the mean of these 6 items was calculated to represent the respondents’ negative attitudes toward lesbians.

Second, for the dimension of “Positive Attitudes toward Lesbians, it consisted by 4 questions which is from question 15 to question 18. There were 0.49 alphas when question 16 was deleted (Table 1, pg 16).

For the dimension of “Negative Attitudes toward Gay Men”, it consisted by 10 questions which is from question 19 to question 28. There were 0.87 alphas when question 20 was deleted (Table 1, pg 16).

For the dimension of “Positive Attitudes toward Gay Men”, it consisted by 4 questions which is from question 29 to question 32. There were 0.64 alphas and none of the questions being deleted (Table 1, pg 16).

The reliability alpha of the question 1 to 4 was 0.01 alphas. So, these 4 questions cannot compute as one dimension and will be analyzed individually (see Table 1, pg 16).

Table 1

Reliability test

Dimension

Cronbach’s Alpha

N of Items

Items

Negative Attitudes toward Lesbians

0.81

6

6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14

Positive Attitudes toward Lesbians

0.49

3

15, 17, 18

Negative Attitudes toward Gay Men

0.87

9

19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28

Positive Attitudes toward Gay Men

0.64

4

29, 30, 31, 32

I know about homosexual

Sexual orientation is caused by genes, but not the environment

I have ever thought to myself when I found that an attractive person of the sex was homosexual-“what a waste”

0.01

4

1, 2, 3, 4

I have ever said,” I don’t mind homosexuals, as long as I don’t have to see it” or something similar

Gender Differences toward Homosexual

Negative attitudes toward lesbians. The results of Independent t- Tests showed that there was no significant difference between gender negative attitudes towards the lesbian, t (118) = 0.08, n.s. , where the mean for the negative attitudes toward lesbian for male students is 2.60 ( SD = 0.81), and 2.59 (SD = 0.71) for female students (Table 2, pg 19).

Positive attitudes toward lesbians. The results of Independent t- Tests showed that there was no significant difference between gender positive attitudes toward the lesbians, t (118) = – 0.31, n.s., where the mean for the positive attitudes toward lesbians for male students is 3.29 (SD = 0.66), and 3.32 (SD = 0.54) for female students (Table 2, pg 19).

Negative attitudes toward gay men. The results of Independent t- Tests showed that there was a significant difference between gender negative attitudes toward gay men, t (118) = 2.24, p< 0.05, where the mean for the negative attitudes toward gay men for male students is 3.03 (SD = 0.83), and 2.72 (SD = 0.63) for female students (Table 2, pg 19).

Positive attitudes toward gay men. The results of Independent t- Tests showed that there was no significant difference between gender positive attitudes toward gay men, t (118) = -1.520, n.s., where the mean for the positive attitudes toward gay men for male students is 3.11 (SD = 0.80), and 3.30 (SD = 0.52) for female students (Table 2, pg 19).

Knowledge towards homosexuality. The results of Independent t- revealed that there was no significant difference between genders in their knowledge towards homosexuality.

For the “I know about homosexual”, t (118) = 0.82, n.s., where the mean for the knowledge towards homosexuality for male students is 2.31 (SD=0.82), and 2.17 (SD=0.83) for female students.

For the “Sexual orientation is caused by genes, but not the environment”, t (118) = -0.890, n.s., where the mean for the knowledge towards homosexuality for male students is 3.28 (SD=1.19), and 4.85 (SD=10.57) for female students.

For the “I have ever thought to myself when I found that an attractive person of the sex was homosexual-“what a waste” “, t (118) = 0.921, n.s., where the mean for the knowledge towards homosexuality for male students is 2.83 (SD=0.97), and 2.65 (SD=1.03) for female students.

For the “I have ever said,” I don’t mind homosexuals, as long as I don’t have to see it” or something similar”, t (118) = 0.403, n.s., where the mean for the knowledge towards homosexuality for male students is 3.97 (SD=0.61), and 3.92 (SD=0.76) for female students (see Table 2, pg 19).

Table 2

Gender differences

Dimension

Mean

t-Value

p-Value

Males

Females

Negative Attitudes toward Lesbians

2.60

(SD=0.81)

2.59

(SD=0.71)

0.080

0.94

Positive Attitudes toward Lesbians

3.29

(SD=0.66)

3.32

(SD=0.54)

-0.31

0.76

Negative Attitudes toward Gay Men

3.03

(SD=0.83)

2.72

(SD=0.63)

2.24

0.027*

Positive Attitudes toward Gay Men

3.11

(SD=0.80)

3.30

(SD=0.52)

-1.520

0.13

I know about homosexual

Sexual orientation is caused by genes, but not the environment

I have ever thought to myself when I found that an attractive person of the sex was homosexual-“what a waste”

I have ever said,” I don’t mind homosexuals, as long as I don’t have to see it” or something similar

2.31

(SD=0.82)

3.28

(SD=1.19)

2.83

(SD=0.97)

3.97

(SD=0.61)

2.17

(SD=0.83)

4.85

(SD=10.57)

2.65

(SD=1.03)

3.91

(SD=0.76)

0.82

-0.89

0.92

0.403

0.42

0.38

0.36

0.69

Note: * p<0.05

Religion Differences toward Homosexual

Negative attitudes toward lesbians. The results of Independent t- Tests showed that there was no significant difference between religions have negative attitudes towards lesbian, t (118) = 1.46, n.s., where the mean for negative attitudes toward lesbian for Buddhist is 2.65 (SD=0.76), and 2.42 (SD=0.67) for Chris

Recently, almost all cultures have witnessed increasing trends in homosexuality. As a result, more and more organizations protecting gay, lesbian, and bisexual rights have emerged. One factor that seems to affect the emotional and social development of gays and lesbians is the attitudes of society toward them (Bowen & Bourjeois, 2001).

Much research has been conducted since late 1970s focusing on the factors that affect heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gays and lesbians (Whitley, 1988). Gender, religion, education, as well as race are some of the factors that play a role in determining these attitudes (Whitley, 1988; Negy & Eisenman, 2005; Landen & Innala, 2002; Grapes, 2006). Studies conducted in the United States, Australia, Turkey, Hong Kong, Sweden and Canada have indicated that most attitudes towards gays and lesbians are negative in general (Negy & Eisenman, 2005; Landen & Innala, 2002; Hopwood & Connors, 2002; Schellenberg, Hirt, & Sears, 1999).

It is suspected that the prevailing attitudes in Lebanon are similar to those in the countries mentioned earlier. However, because of the lack of concrete research on this topic in Lebanon, it is necessary that a study be conducted in order to investigate the attitudes towards gays and lesbians among university students in Lebanon.

The purpose of this study was to determine the attitudes that students at universities in Lebanon have towards gays and lesbians. Since previous research have shown gender and choice of major to be of great importance in determining university students’ attitudes towards homosexuality, this study also compared the attitudes of male vs. female, as well as Social sciences and Art students vs. Natural sciences and Business students.

Review of the Literature

One of the main problems associated with homosexuality in the Middle East is the negative attitudes that Arabs have towards gay men and lesbians. These attitudes are further complicated by international politics which slow down social progress in Middle Eastern countries. As a result, strict Arab morality is imposed in these countries as a means of defense against Western trends that promote female nudity and homosexuality. However, these negative attitudes could not be generalized as “homophobia” because they are directly linked to political, social, religious and cultural issues (Whitaker, 2006). Contrary to what many people believe, the attitudes towards gay men and lesbians are rather negative even in western countries such as the United States, Australia, Sweden and Canada (Negy & Eisenman, 2005; Landen & Innala, 2002; Hopwood & Connors, 2002; Schellenberg, Hirt, & Sears, 1999). Previous studies on attitudes of undergraduate university students specifically indicate mostly negative attitudes, with fluctuations that depend on factors such as gender, education, religiosity, as well as, race (Whitley, 1988; Negy & Eisenman, 2005; Landen & Innala, 2002; Grapes, 2006; Jonathan, 2008). Because of the lack of empirical evidence on the attitudes in Lebanon towards gay men and lesbians, it is important that this study be conducted so as to set stable grounds for this issue. The purpose of this study was to measure the attitudes of undergraduate university students in Lebanon towards gay men and lesbians.

Hopwood and Connors (2002) examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward homosexuality at a university in Australia. The first hypothesis was that homophobic males were most likely to be religious and politically conservative. The second hypothesis stated that levels of homophobia would be more prevalent among business majors than humanities majors.

The sample consisted of 104 students from two faculties; 58% were registered in a humanities class, while 42% were registered in a business class, and 65% of the sample was females. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire composed of three parts. The first part included The Heterosexual Attitudes to Homosexuals questionnaire which measured the attitudes of the participants toward issues such as befriending or social equality for homosexuals. The second part of the questionnaire measured the participants’ fear of AIDS/HIV with the use of the Fear of AIDS scale by Bouton et al. The third part involved the measurement of demographic variables intended to ascertain participants’ religiosity and political views.

The results validated the hypotheses tested in this research. Fear of HIV/AIDS seemed to be the most powerful indicator of homophobia among men, with a correlation of 0.64. Gender was also a predictor of homophobia; males exhibited more negative attitudes towards homosexuals than women. The results also showed that religious individuals expressed more homophobia than nonreligious ones. Last but not least, academic major aided in predicting homophobia; as hypothesized, business majors expressed higher levels of homophobia and fear of HIV/AIDS than did the humanities students.

In another similar study conducted by Schellenberg et al. (1999) at the University of Windsor in Canada investigated the attitudes of undergraduate university students toward gay men and lesbians. Comparisons were to be made on the basis of the participants’ gender, faculty, and year at university. One hypothesis was that participants enrolled in Arts or Social science faculties would have more positive attitudes than those enrolled in Science or Business faculties. Another hypothesis was that females were more likely to have positive attitudes than men toward gay and lesbian individuals.

This study’s sample consisted of 199 undergraduate students (101 males and 98 females) enrolled at the University of Windsor, who were hired so as to increase the chances that they would be enrolled in different faculties. Participants were asked general questions such as their year at college, their major, as well as their age and gender. Their attitudes were measured using the short form of Herek’s Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay men scale which was designed to yield a subscale which measures attitudes toward lesbians, and other that measures attitudes toward gay men.

The results of this study indicated that attitudes toward gay men changed as a function of the students’ faculties; that is to say that students in the faculties of Arts or Social Sciences had more positive attitudes than those in the faculties of Business or Science. Moreover, gender and year at university had a big role; women had more positive attitudes as compared to men regardless of their year at university. However, although new male students held negative attitudes toward gay men, these attitudes improved with the years spent at university. As for attitudes towards lesbians, gender and faculty played little or no role in determining the attitudes. However, the attitudes became more positive with the time at university.

Along the same lines, Negy and Eisenman (2005) studied the attitudes and affects of African American and White college students toward lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals. More specifically, this study aimed to investigate how enculturation and religiosity might control the attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexuals. Because of inconsistent findings in the past, no formal hypothesis was made. Previous studies regarding African Americans showed that they seem to be more probable than whites to both see homosexuality as incorrect and to support gay rights laws. As a result, this study aimed to investigate African American attitudes while considering variables which may influence homophobia such as culture, religiosity, and sociodemographics.

The study’s sample consisted of 77 African Americans (22 male, 48 female) and 143 non-Hispanic whites (38 male, 105 female) who attended a public university in Southeast U.S. 90% of the African Americans and 94% of the Whites were exclusively heterosexuals, and 89% of the African Americans and 76% of the Whites were Christian. In order to measure the three variables mentioned previously, several questionnaires were handed out to the participants. Questionnaires included a Demographic Sheet which inquires the age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and sexual orientation of the participants. It also inquired the level of parental education as well as the years of education of the participants’ parents so as to infer the socioeconomic status of each. Moreover, participants’ commitment to religion was assessed based on two measures; one of which is the frequency of church attendance, and the second includes reasons for believing in a religion. The third questionnaire was a Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding, constructed to measure social desirability. The fourth questionnaire was the Index of Homophobia by Hudson & Ricketts which measured homophobia among the participants. A fifth questionnaire was the Heterosexual Attitudes Toward Homosexuality (HATH) which measured attitudes and beliefs regarding gay and lesbian individuals. Finally, a sixth questionnaire, African American Acculturation Scale, was handed out to the African American participants only to measure how much African American respondents were absorbed into a traditional African American culture.

The results indicated that even though African American participants’ affective and attitudinal reactions to lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals may be more negative than those of White students’, this difference faded when regularity of church attendance, religious dedication, and SES were considered. So for both, African Americans and Whites, the three variables church attendance, religiosity and SES served as predictors of homonegativity.

Bowen and Bourgeois (2001) examined the attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals based on certain social psychology theories. They first hypothesized that having had more LGB acquaintances in the past would yield more positive existing attitudes. The second hypothesis was that respondents were more likely to rate their personal attitudes toward LGB more positively than their friends or typical students as a result of pluralistic ignorance. The third hypothesis predicted that students’ attitudes would change with regards to the residence halls (i.e students from the same residence hall would share the same attitude) based on the Dynamic Social Impact Theory. The last hypothesis stated that present contact with LGB individuals would yield more positive approaches regardless of the respondent’s past contact with LGBs.

Questionnaires were sent out by mail to 240 undergraduate students in two residence halls (6 Floors in building A and 5 floors in building B), however only 109 students completed them (48 females and 51 males). The questionnaire included only a Gay/Lesbian/Bisexual Attitudes questionnaire made of a 7 point Likert type scale. Respondents were inquired to provide three responses: the first about his/her attitude toward LGB, the second about his/her beliefs about how friends would respond, and third they had to rate how they thought the typical student would reply. Respondents were also asked about the number of previous LGB acquaintances, as they were asked to indicate how many openly LGB individuals resided in their residence halls and on their individual floors.

The results of this study confirmed the hypotheses constructed at the very beginning. Respondents actually did represent themselves as having more positive attitudes towards LGB individuals than their friends and the typical student, proving the pluralistic ignorance theory. Moreover, consistent with the contact hypothesis, respondents who referred to as few as one or two explicitly LGB students in their residence halls or on their floor held considerably more positive attitudes than students who knew none. Some limitations of this study could be the small sample, the ethnic homogeneity of the respondents. Moreover, the low response rates could have been an indication of bias since it is possible that the students with more negative attitudes did not respond.

In an interesting research article by Landen and Innala (2002), the effects of a biological explanation on attitudes towards gays and lesbians in Sweden were examined. The purpose of this study was to test whether attitudes towards homosexuals differed between people who supported the biological explanation and those who supported a psychological explanation. Comparisons were also to be made between the attitudes of men and those of women, as well as between an old age group and a young age group.

A sample of 992 people was randomly selected from the National Registration and was sent questionnaires by mail. 668 out of the 992 people returned the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of ten questions that covered the participants’ beliefs about the origin of homosexuality, the integration of homosexuals in the society as well as homosexual friendships. Participants ranged between 18 and 70 years of age, with the median age being 44 years.

The results of this study supported previous findings that proposed that individuals supporting the biological explanation of homosexuality had more tolerant attitudes toward it (CITE). Moreover, the more participants were acquainted with gays and lesbians, the more liberal attitudes they held toward them. Also, the results of this study showed that women and the younger age group tended to have more positive attitudes towards homosexuals than those who believed in a psychological explanation of homosexuality. Out of the 668 people, a little more than half of them (51%) believed in a biological explanation, whereas the remaining 49% believed in a psychological explanation. This study supports theories of the prominence of positive attitudes among people who believed that homosexuality had a biological origin, as well as people who had more personal contacts with homosexuals (CITE).

In an attempt to inspect the prevalent attitudes towards homosexuals among Turkish university students, Cirakoglu (2006) aimed to examine the students’ beliefs regarding the causes of homosexuality. The study also aimed to compare how participants’ attitudes varied towards the labels ‘gay’ and ‘lesbian’. Finally, the attitudes of participants who had had previous social contact with homosexuals were measured. Cirakoglu (2006) hypothesized that the label ‘gay’ would elicit the most negative attitudes, whereas the label ‘lesbian’ would trigger more positive ones. And, in relation to previous studies, he hypothesized that participants who had prior social contact with a homosexual would have more positive attitudes than those who hadn’t.

Participants of this research included 334 private university students (140 women and 194 men) in Turkey. Students were given questions regarding their demographic information, as they were also given a 50-item scale for the causes of homosexuality and a 19-item attitude scale. When asked about previous contact with at least one homosexual, 41.82% of participants reported having had contact with a homosexual.

The results of Cirakoglu’s study seemed to verify the hypotheses stated at the beginning. The label ‘lesbian’ seemed to elicit more positive attitudes than did the term ‘gay’ or ‘homosexual’. It seemed that the term ‘gay’ triggered the most negative attitudes among the three labels (CITE). Moreover, men had rather negative attitudes towards homosexuals, unlike women who held more positive attitudes. As hypothesized earlier and in accordance to previous research, participants who reported having previous social contact with homosexuals held more positive attitudes than participants who reported no prior social contact. It is interesting to note that, participants who had no social contact with homosexuals seemed to believe that homosexuality stems from a psychological or physiological disorder; participants who reported prior contact, however, believed that homosexuality is a choice of lifestyle (CITE).

Since South Africa became the fifth country to legalize homosexual marriages in 2006, Mwaba (2009) studied the attitudes and beliefs of South African students regarding homosexuality and same-sex marriages. Even though South African law protected its homosexual citizens’ rights and bans any sort of discrimination against them, the general attitudes of students remained negative.

Mwaba’s sample was made up of 150 undergraduate students at a university in Western Cape in South Africa. These students were hired during a time of intense debate after the validation of homosexual marriages in 2006. The sample’s mean age was 18.3 years, 83% of which were females. Also, 68% of the sample students were Christians. An 18-item questionnaire was used to measure the attitudes toward homosexual marriages and homosexuality.

The results signified rather conservative attitudes among the sample, as almost 44% thought that homosexuality should be socially unacceptable rather than acceptable in South Africa. However, when it came to granting homosexuals equal rights, 41% only believed that the government was right in doing so, with the majority of the sample (59%) opposed it. 37% thought there was nothing wrong in discriminating against homosexuals, and 71% indicated that they thought the marriage of two people of the same sex to be strange. But overall, those who believed that homosexual marriages should be legalized were almost equal to those who were against it (51% and 49% respectively).

One of the factors that seems to affect people’s attitudes towards homosexuality is their level of education. In one of her studies, Grapes (2006) investigated the relationship between the level of education and the attitudes towards homosexuals and their rights. Grapes hypothesized that as the level of education increases, the attitudes towards homosexuals become more liberal. She also hypothesized, in accordance to literature, that females will have more tolerant attitudes than males.

Grapes obtained data from the General Social Survey which was conducted by the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago (Grapes, 2006). Her two independent variables were gender and level of education, and her dependent variable was the attitudes toward gays and gay rights. The attitudes were measured by choosing four specific questions that address homosexuality in the General Social Survey (Grapes, 2006). The sample consisted of 740 participants.

Consistent with previous studies, Grapes’ (2006) results prove that gender plays a big role in determining the attitudes toward gay rights and homosexuals. Females held more positive attitudes than did males. Moreover, Grapes established a multivariate relationship between level of education, gender and attitudes toward gay rights (2006). She found that males who had a degree lower than high school were 36% more inclined to be against equal rights for homosexuals. Whereas females with a graduate diploma are 28% more likely to be supportive of homosexuals’ rights than females with an education lower than high school (Grapes, 2006).

Congruently, Herek (1988) used a sample of 405 students to study what contributes to heterosexuals’ reaction formation to gay and lesbian individuals. First, he wanted to determine how heterosexuals’ attitudes were affected by gender. Second, he inquired about the contribution of social psychological factors to the attitude formation toward homosexuals. Last, he questioned whether attitudes differ toward lesbians and gays men (Herek, 1988).

Herek’s sample included 405 students (226 females, 179 males) from six different universities in the United States. The participants presented information about their religious backgrounds and how often they attend religious services, as well as the number of their gay/lesbian acquaintances. An Attitude Toward Lesbians and Gays (ATLG) scale composed of a 20-item likert scale was developed by Herek (1988). The scale had two ten-item subscales: half of which measure attitudes toward lesbians, whereas the other half measures attitudes toward gay men.

Herek’s results (1988) proved that male participants held more negative attitudes than females on both the ATL (Attitudes Toward Lesbians) and ATG (Attitudes Toward Gays) scale, yet they held less negative attitudes toward lesbians. Herek’s study also verified that attitudes toward homosexuals are influenced by participants’ loyalty to traditional gender and family values, as well as by the level of their religious commitments and previous experience with gay men and lesbians (Herek, 1988). Last but not least, and in accordance to the Pluralistic ignorance theory in Bowen and Bourgeois’ study (2001), participants who held negative attitudes were likely to presume that their friends had similar attitudes towards homosexuals.

Likewise, attitudes of undergraduate university students toward gay men and lesbians were investigated in a study conducted by Engstrom and Sedlacek (1997). The study aimed to investigate whether heterosexual college students at a southeast university held negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Moreover, the study investigated the type of situations in which negative feelings toward homosexuals were expressed (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1997).

The study’s randomly selected sample consisted of 224 heterosexual university students; half of which were males, and half of which were females. Engstrom and Sedlacek (1997) administered the SAS Sexual Orientation Survey to measure the students’ attitudes toward gays and lesbians. The survey contained a likert-type scale ranging from one to five; it consisted of ten statements that covered personal, social, and academic situations. Three different forms of the survey were produced and mailed to participants: one referred to “student” (with no specified sexual orientation), the second referred to “Gay male student,” and the third referred to “lesbian student,” (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1997).

Engstrom and Sedlacek’s study confirmed that male students’ attitudes were more negative toward gay men than toward lesbians. It seemed that participants displayed more intolerant attitudes in situations where they must interact with gay males in public. Moreover, despite the fact that women hold more negative attitudes toward lesbians, in this study, females had surprisingly more negative attitudes toward gay males (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1997). However, and despite the negative attitudes toward homosexuals, participants seemed to be infuriated at the thought of the physical assault of a homosexual. This study gives insight as to how and in what situations stereotypical attitudes could be formed and allows further implications for practice (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1997).

Theories of why crime, atrocities and violence against women occur provide insight into the changes necessary to prevent and eradicate that. At the fact that the vast majority of crime atrocities and violence committed against women is committed by men. This raises the question, “Why do men batter women?” We believe that a root cause of woman abuse is the pervasive social belief system that posits male superiority over women as natural and preferred. Moreover, there exists a broad-based social belief that women are inferior and that it is their role to be subservient to men. We also acknowledge that this belief system of “domination over” can be adopted by women as a framework for relationships to men as well as their relationships with one other. Because these beliefs pervade so much of our society and its institutions, eradicating violence against females will require changes at the most fundamental levels of society. These changes must eliminate policies and practices perpetuated by the male-dominated culture that sexualize women as objects, demean their value, restrict their participation in decision making, dehumanize them with labels, control their rights over their own bodies, and marginalize and demean their presence.

Explanations of crime, atrocities and violence against women that focus on characteristics of individuals use a micro-level or individual-level perspective. Theoretical explanations of crime, atrocities and violence against women that reflect the micro perspective include social learning theory; psychopathology, psychological, and physiological explanations; resource theory; and exchange theory. Social learning theory is one of the most popular explanatory frameworks for crime, atrocities and violence against women, suggests that individuals learn how to behave through both the experience of and exposure to violence. Biological and physiological explanations suggest that the crime atrocities and violence against women is related to the process of natural selection, such that men, who are biologically driven to reproduce as much as possible, will resort to rape when they have difficulty finding consensual female partners. Alcohol has also been cited by researchers as a frequent factor in violent acts against women.

Under exchange theory, individuals are viewed as engaging in certain behaviors either to earn reward or to escape punishment; under this theory, men’s violence against women can be interpreted as a means for men to maintain their position in the social structure. Resource theory is situated within the framework of exchange theory, which views men as using violence within the family to establish power over women within family dynamics when other resources of persuasion are lacking. In contrast to micro theories, macro or socio-cultural theories focus on the social and cultural conditions that make violence against women a likely occurrence. A psychopathological explanation of crime, atrocities and violence against women suggests that individuals who are violent toward women have some type of personality disorder or mental illness that might get in the way of otherwise normal inhibitions about violent behaviour.

More recently, the trend in theory development regarding crime, atrocities and violence against women has moved toward the development of multidimensional theories of crime atrocities and violence that take into account both social structural factors and individual characteristics. As well as social theories which consider external factors in the perpetrator’s environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning. As with many phenomena regarding human experience, no single approach appears to cover all Factors.

Some of the theoretical propositions on criminal violence against Women generally are:

it can be an instrument useful in obtaining some end or reward,

it is a some psychopath, and

it can be a response that is consistent with norms supporting its use, and so forth.

A few social scientists have attempted to explain criminal violence types of violence against women. These associations and correlations howsoever do not provide a scientific theoretical insight into the causes of violence against women.

Theories of Crime, Atrocities and Violence against women

The analyses of various types of crime, atrocities and violence against women and their varied patterns presented in this study, therefore, calls for examining and testing some important theories.

So far as Indian scene is concerned, in the past few decades, with increasing evidence the phenomenon, domestic violence has drawn the attention of several concerned feminists, human rights groups, social scientists and social work practitioners. Many scientists have also attempted to study the phenomenon and have proposed several theories to explain the same. An overview of various theories that have been put forward is as follows:-

Feminist Theory and violence

The Family System Theory

Psychological Theory: A Focus on Individual

Physiological theory

Psycho-Pathological Theory

Socio-Psychological Theories,

Perversion Theory,

Self-Attitude Theory,

The Cycle Theory of Violence and Psycho-social theory of Learned Helplessness,

Survivor Theory,

7. Socio-Cultural theories,

Structural Theory,

System Tension and Feedback Theory,

Resource Theory,

Patriarchy Theory,

conflict and control Theories,

Inter-actionist deviance Theory,

Social Learning Theory,

Cognitive Behaviour Theory,

Exchange Theory

8. Multi-Factor Theory,

Integrated Approach Theory,

The Multi-factorial Systemic Theory

Feminist Theory and Domestic Violence

Feminist theory in domestic violence emphasizes gender and power inequality in opposite-sex relationships. It focuses on the societal messages that sanction a male’s use of violence and aggression throughout life, and the proscribed gender roles that dictate how men and women should behave in their intimate relationships (Pence & Paymar, 1993). It sees the root causes of intimate partner violence as the outcome of living a society that condones aggressive behaviours perpetrated by men, while socializing women to be non-violent.

Proponents of feminist theory acknowledge that women can also be violent in their relationships with men; however, they simply do not see the issue of women abusing men as a serious social problem, and therefore, does not deserve the same amount of attention or support as violence against women (Kurz, 1997).

Treatment Approach

The “Duluth Model” represents the dominant treatment approach aligned with feminist theory. This model was created following a serious domestic violence homicide that took place in Duluth, Minnesota (Pence & Paymar, 1993). Community and government officials wanted to address the problem of domestic violence, but did not know where to begin. They wanted to create a treatment approach that involved the courts, police services, and ‘human services’. Guiding the model’s development were the following questions:

“Why is she the target of his violence? How does his violence impact the balance of power in their relationship? What did he think could change by hitting her? Why does he assume he is entitled to have power in the relationship? How does the community support his use of violence against her?” (Pence & Paymar, 1993, p. xiii).

As one can begin to see, much of the Duluth model revolves around the power dynamics inherent in opposite-sex relationships, which is a reflection of the different ways men and women are socialized on issues of power and equality. The goal of treatment is to educate men about gender roles, and how behaviours and values identified as ‘masculine’ have been shaped by societal messages and attitudes that reinforce patriarchal privilege and unhealthy ways of relating with women.

Limitations of Feminist Approach

Limitations of feminist theory can be found when trying to explain violence in same-sex relationships (Lawson, 2003). While issues of power, control, and autonomy have also been identified as reasons for intimate partner abuse in lesbian relationships, issues such as dependency and jealousy also exist (Renzetti, 1992). The point is that partner abuse in same-sex couples requires a more comprehensive analysis and theoretical explanation.

Secondly, a feminist approach is also limited for explaining abuse perpetrated by women. Feminist theory typically explains women’s use of violence in the context of self-defence and retaliation for previous abuse. Yet, by doing so, a strictly feminist orientation denies that women can also feel angry and enraged without provocation in their relationships with men (Nolet-Bos, 1999). Additionally, while much of a woman’s use of violence does exist within the framework of retaliation and self-defence, feminist theory does not explain why women perpetrate violence outside their intimate relationships (e.g., at work, with children, or with peers).

The Family System Theory [7]

Family systems theory has had a significant impact on the study of families and on approaches to working with families. Such as understanding traumatic events or chronic health issues and their impact on individuals and families, substance abuse intervention and treatment modalities, and kinship networks. It has provided a useful lens through which a greater understanding of families has emerged. However, as with any lens, critics have challenged the clarity of the lens in certain areas. Some critics have argued that issues of gender inequality are not fully articulated or addressed within family systems theory.

For example, in patriarchal societies, where power lies primarily with men, equality of influence between men and women cannot be assumed. Critics of family systems theory argue that such inequality is often overlooked or understated (Goldner 1989; Yllo 1993). The application of family systems theory to issues of family violence has been criticized.

For example, a systems perspective on family violence will focus on the family dynamics that contribute to the violence, and less attention will be given to the characteristics, motivations, and attitudes of the perpetrator of the violence. Critics argue that the utilization of family systems theory in this area can lead to the perception of a shared responsibility for violence between the victim and perpetrator and less accountability by the perpetrator for his or her actions (e.g. Whitchurch and Constantine 1993; Finkelhor 1984).

Over the years variants in family systems have emerged. The communications model focuses on the communication patterns found within family systems, specifically on the role of inputs and outputs in communication and the consistency between these in explaining family communication patterns in functional and dysfunctional families. Such a model was heavily influenced by the work of Gregory Bateson, Don Jackson, Paul Watzlawik, and others at the Mental Research Institute in Palo Alto (Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson 1967). In contrast, Salvador Minuchin’s (1974) work with family systems theory has focused more on the spatial nature of families. Central to this orientation is an examination of the social contexts and structures in which families find themselves and their interaction with those contexts and structures.

Criticism:-

Family systems theory will be challenged to consider and integrate the increasingly important role that genetics and neurobiological structures have on personality traits and individual behavior. Family systems theory is also being challenging to consider cultural and broader contextual issues that influence families. The integration of family systems theory into the medical realm, the study of ethnic and cultural differences, and broader systems is a testament to its continued utility.

Psychological Theory: A Focus on Individual [8]

There are many different theories as to the causes of crime, atrocities and violence (abuse). These include psychological theories that consider personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender, as well as social theories which consider external factors in the offender’s environment, such as stress, social learning and drug and alcohol abuse. These are following:-

Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. According to this theoretical approach, characteristics associated with individuals who abuse their partners include low self-esteem, isolation from social support, a manipulative nature, and a desire for power and control (Suman Kakar 1998).

These individuals are likely to be unwilling to take responsibility for their own actions, have extreme feelings of jealousy and possessiveness, be overly dependent on the victim, and/or have certain mental or psychological disorders. These

Important aspects in the psychological theory are power and control. In some relationships, violence arises out of a perceived need for power and control. This are the abuser may use violence as a strategy to gain or maintain power and control over the victim. Abusers may feel the need to control their partner because of difficulties in regulating anger and other strong emotions, or when they feel inferior to the other partner in education and socioeconomic background.

Stress may be one most cause of the crime, atrocities and violence against women, increased when a person is living in a family situation, workplace and social level with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to reason for sometime inadequate finances or other such problems in a further increase tensions. Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some (but not all) people respond to stress.

Families and couples in poverty may be most likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects. Some speculate that poverty reason hinder a man’s ability to live up to his idea of “successful manhood’, thus he fears losing honour and respect.

Social learning theory suggests that the people are learning from observing and modelling after others’ behaviour. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent behaviour, one is more likely to imitate and there are no negative consequences (e.g. victim accepts the violence, with submission), then the behaviour will likely continue. Oftentimes, crime, atrocities and violence is transmitted from generation to generation in a cyclical manner.

Drug and/or alcohol abuse may be a precursor to domestic violence. Substance abuse leads to out-of-control behaviour. A drunk or high person will be less likely to control his or her violent impulses. However some have argued that abusers use drug and alcohol as an excuse for their action. Yet, alcohol is an important risk factor for partner abuse., many of the most gruesome murders and sexual violence are linked to mental disease brought about by drug and alcohol addiction, respectively.

For instance, a young boy may see his father come home from work and his activities;- first he drunk and angry, screaming at his mother and second outside home abusing neighbours and fighting others. He watches his mother attempt to please and placate his father’s drunken behaviour and outside others to see shameful. The young boy is being taught that crime and violence gets results. He is developing his own ideas about what makes a man.

Physiological theory

Another theory emphasizing on individual is physiological theory. There are several variants of physiological theory. One focuses on evolution and the genetic characteristic that predispose men to violence. Others emphasize brain structures, chemical imbalances, dietary dellciencies and hormonal factors such as testosterone. Genetic and hormonal explanations reasons for the greater pre-disposition towards violence in men than in women, but this not apply to chemical imbalances or dietary deficiencies.

Criticism

Physiological theories are not context specific. They purport to explain all forms of violence and they contribute little to the understanding of specifically domestic violence. Their main deficiency, however, is that they play down both individual responsibility for violent acts and the influence of structural and political factors, Such theories always more commonly encountered are now deservedly out of fashion. [9]

Psycho-Pathological Theory

According to this theory, men who abused their wives were mentally ill and could be cured through medication or psychiatric treatment. Comparisons were made between the “typical” batterer and severely mentally ill, primarily schizophrenic, men (Dobash and Dobash 1979). The researchers found that the behaviour of batterers did not correspond to profiles of persons who were mentally ill. When the battered women’s movement began in the United States in the early 1970s, the prevailing theory of why men batter was based on psychopathology. [10]

From this perspective, domestic violence is rooted in individual psychopathology or dysfunctional personality structures, which are more likely than biological factors to be learned and shaped by early childhood experiences. Research is this area includes studies of male batterers, showing that witnessing domestic violence or being the victim of abuse undermines one’s ability to trust and to regulate emotions and results in hostile, dependent, insecure individuals with ability to develop healthy relationships. Similar research shows that male batterers are more likely than non-batterers to score poorly on mental health tests (for example, anxity, depression, mania, psychosis) and criminality indicators (for example, antisocial personality and stranger violence). [11]

Feminists criticized this theory because they believed it excused the batterers and did not take into account the patriarchal structure of the society. But today, psychopathology has once again become a popular. Since the mid-1990s, researchers have been investigating the psychological roots of domestic violence.

A number of recent studies have found a high incidence of psychopathology and personality disorders, most frequently antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality organization ( or post-traumatic stress disorder), among men who assault their intimate partners (Dutton and Bodnarchuk 2005).

Studies have included the Million Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) as a personality evaluation tool (Million, Davis, and Million 1997). These studies found that almost 90 percent of batterers had MCMI scale elevations for at least one personality disorder, and more than a third of these men had such elevations on four or more MCMI personality scales (Million, Davis, and Million 1997).

Most recently, researchers have studied the role of antisocial personality characteristics in understanding intimate partner violence by men. The most conclusive studies have been conducted by researchers studying large, preexiting data samples for subjects originally recruited in childhood to examine development of delinquency, criminal behaviour, and aggression. This work demonstrated a relationship between antisociality and intimate partner violence by men (Holtzworth-Munroe and Meehan 2002).

Dutton and Bodnarchuk (2005) describe an “abusive personality” as one that is characterized by shame-based rage; a tendency to project blame; attachment anxiety manifested as rage; and sustained furious outbursts, primarily in intimate relationships. This abusive personality is constructed around characteristics of the borderline personality. According to this theory, men become violent when they fear abandonment, given their great dependency on their intimate partners.

In a 1999 study, Gondolf found that a smaller percentage of men than in previous studies had high enough scores on any personality subscale to indicate a ” clinical disorder” (i.e., 48 percent in his sample versus up to 80 percent in other samples). He concluded that batterers are “less pathological than expected” and that too much attention has focused on the pathology of batterers (Gondolf 1999). However, a significant number of researchers have drawn attention to the potential importance of personality characteristics, often at a sub clinical level, in understanding batterer violence. [12]

Socio-Psychological Theories,

The Socio-psychological theories assumes that criminal violence can best be understood by careful examination of external environmental factors that exercise impact on an individual offender. This theory also examines the types of everyday interactions (say, stressful situations or family interactional patterns) which are precursors of violence. Theories such as the Frustration-Aggression theory, the Perversion theory and the self -Attitude theory approach criminal violence from a socio-psychological level of analysis. [13]

Frustration-Aggression theory

This theory first stated in 1939 by Dollard, derived many of its basic postulates from Freudian theory. It explains the process by which aggression is directed to the source of frustration. Whenever something interferes with an individual’s attempt to reach some goal or end, he feels frustrated and frustration in turn leads to some form of aggression (John Dollard). After taking various criticisms into account, this theory was modified. Today it is recognised that an actual display of aggression may be inhibited by either internalized norms of external controls, even though the impulse for aggression may be strong following some frustrating experience. It is also recognized that frustrations can be cumulative and that they can remain active over a long period of time. It is also acknowledged that people perceive frustrations in varying ways, with those deemed arbitrary or unreasonable most likely to trigger aggressive responses. Further, it is recognized that responses to frustrations can be learned. In short, aggressive actions are not an automatic consequence of frustration, and their occurrence depends upon numerous factors. [14]

Criticism

According to the Frustration-Aggression theory, aggression is always directed towards one who is believed to be responsible for frustration. If this is so, this theory does not explain criminal violence in the types of crimes we have analyzed here. Take for example the case of a dowry-death. Why does the mother-in-law/husband kill the daughter-in-law/wife, when the source of frustration is not the girl who is killed but her parents who fail to fulfil the dowry demands?

Thus, theory is criticized on the ground that aggression is not always directed to the source of frustration but also because it is often directed towards some other object. It is also criticized on the grounds that:-

the relationship between frustration and aggression is not innate,

a wide variety of responses may result from frustration and aggression is not the only response, and

aggression may be an adaptive response and a rational choice of behaviour.

Yet another criticism against this theory is:-

human behaviour is not an extension of animal instinctive or innate behaviour but the product of a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors. An individual’s social behaviour depends upon his social and cultural milieu;

responses to frustrations are learned just like any other social behaviour and what is learned has a lot to do with socialization practices which themselves differ from group to group and society to society. [15]

Perversion Theory

The psychoanalysts explain violence on the basis of the Theory of Perversion (Giles Pie, 1952) and the Theory of Symptom Formation. They do not regard perverts as constitutionally inferior people but maintain that perversion develops from instincts (see, Menachem, Amer, Patterns in Forcible Rape, 1971). According to Freud’s early theory (1949), perversion essentially means persistence in the adult of infantile instincts and behaviour at the expense of adult behaviour. In the pervert, infantile traits fail to undergo the normal process of integration during puberty but are not converted into neurotic symptoms. Violence can be the product of strong inborn drives or of pathological experiences in infancy or early childhood ( Johnson, 1956). In the latter cases, childhood conceptions of the relations between the sexes as being aggressive and sadistic and the idea of pleasure as a negative process, essentially achieved by relief from a state of “unpleasure” are carried into adulthood.

Explaining different kinds of perversion, psychoanalysts point out that maturation involves leaving early aims and objects and choosing new aims. Perversions can therefore, be conceived of as distortions of aims and objects and in the absence of the distortion of appropriate feelings towards these objects ( see, Freud Three Essays).

Fenichel (1945) consolidated the approach that aggression arises from castration fears which in turn are derived from earlier oral sadism. This was later accepted by most psychoanalysts as a possible explanation of the etiology of perversion, in particular violence against the weak. This theory was considered important because it was supported by the clinically established fact that there is a higher incidence of perversion among males than among females.

A discussion of the dynamics of perversion has included the objects of aggression and the operations of the ego and superego. One theory suggests that the ego mechanisms, the object splits. Klien (1946) suggests that a ‘good’ object6 is idealized by the pervert while he uses aggression towards a ‘bad’ object. [16]

Criticism

The present theory is rejected because of the limitations of its approach. While explaining psychoanalytical hypothesis of ‘infantile instincts’, inborn pathological drives’, ‘distorted feelings’, ‘childhood sadism’ or ‘split ego’ about causes for committing an offence by individual male offenders it ignores an important dimension of environment in the causation. Wife-beating, rape, bride-burning, and even murder cannot be the result of a mere primary institutional component of a personality or a means of solving psychic conflict. Though aggression is b basic element in personality structure, its origin and direction in social relations, especially between the sexes, cannot be explained only as a result of personality pathology.

Self-Attitude Theory

This theory maintains that in a society, a culture, or group that-values violence, persons of low self-esteem may seek to bolster their image in the eyes of others and themselves by carrying out violent acts. It explains the propensity to violence of those for whom society makes it difficult to achieve an adequate level of self-esteem (see Gelles and Straus, 1979)

Accepting this theory would mean that all individual who use violence against women (that is, rapists, abductors, murderers, and batterers) suffer from low self-esteem. [17]

The Cycle Theory of Violence and Psycho-social Theory of Learned Helpless

Two of the most often discussed theories on battered women are Lenore Walker’s, ‘The Cycle Theory of Violence’ and ‘Psycho-social Theory of Learned Helplessness’.

The cycle theory of violence comprises three distinct phases in the cycle of violence- the tension building stage, the acute battering incident and kindness and contrite loving behaviour. In the first stage, when minor battering incidents occur, the woman adapts, rationalizes and externalizes the problem. Tension mounts in the second phase leading to the acute battering incident leading to severe repercussions on the woman physically, emotionally and psychologically. Phase three is welcomed by both the partners, which is marked by uncontrolled love, affection and promises by the husband never to repeat the incidents again. This cycle keeps repeating itself in the lives of almost all battered women. The psycho-social theory of learned helplessness focuses on the factors which reinforce battered women’s victimization. According to this theory, battered women operate from a premise of ‘helplessness’ which further serves to only aid passivity and a fatal acceptance of the exploitative situation. [18]

Criticism

Walker talks of immobilizing terror leading to learned helplessness. Dobash and Dobash reject the notion of ‘learned helplessness’ which has ‘negative implications for public perceptions and actions associated with the problem of violence against women’ and is ‘based on false premises and unsubstantiated evidence regarding the predicament and actions of women experiencing persistent violence’. [19]

Survivor Theory

As opposed to the cycle theory, E.W. Gondolf and E.R. Fisher proposed the survivor theory in 1988 which views women not merely as passive victims but proactive help-seekers and survivors. The assumptions of the survivor theory are in sharp contrast to the above theory of learned helplessness. The survivor theory credits women with the capacity to innovate newer strategies of coping and acknowledges the efforts of the survivors in seeking help from formal and informal sources. In addition, the survivor theory stresses the need for accessible and effective community resources for the woman to escape from the batterer. As mentioned earlier, the survivor theory takes cognizance of several help-seek behaviour in women in the face of increased violence. Further, it also lauds the ‘female survivor instinct’ which focuses on nurturing rather than destruction, the willingness to adapt and the efforts directed at furthering of self-growth. [20]

Socio-Cultural Theories

The sociological or socio-cultural model provides a macro-level analysis of criminal violence. This model examines criminal violence in terms of socially structured inequality, and social and cultural attitudes and norms reg

The Machismo, how is it called in Mexico and latinamercia “is a set of beliefs claiming that real or alleged differences between women and men establishing the superiority of one sex over the other. Also known as discrimination or devaluation based on a person’s sex, as in restricted job opportunities; especially, such discrimination directed against women”

Mexican society in general has been classified in the past as a male-dominated society in which women did not have the same rights as men to be categorized by their sex. In the year of 1953 was the first time in Mexico that women could exercise their vote in the elections, only a few years ago in our country, women did not work and just took care of the housework, was battered and bruised, in most cases the authority ignore the abuses of force by the male.

57 years ago women voted for the first time in elections and in this short spam of time we have seen dramatic changes in the thinking of society, although there are still so many people that have the same ideology that years ago.

“According to the First National Survey on Discrimination say that one in five Mexicans believe that it is natural to prohibit more things to women than to men, one in three believe that it is normal that men earn more than women, and almost one in ten Mexicans agree that women are raped because they provoke men. In addition, one in five women believes that women themselves are responsible for discrimination against them”

As we can see in these Survey, even if the ideology or mentality has changed over the decades we can notice that there are still a huge percentage of the population that still discriminate women

It seems that in 2012, gender equality in society is already a thing of the past. Although macho culture is still dominating society as we can see in the survey, it is hard to believe these results, when it is said that in Mexico is making progress on issues of discrimination and gender inequality. When looking at the results of this poll. I think Machismo/Sexism in Mexico would be very difficult to remove if we don’t change the way of thinking directly from our homes to treat in the same way boys and girls, so we finish the custom that has been inculcated from generation to generation and has been the first reason that made Mexico a Sexism Society.

It is very disappointing to find these results and know that many men feel that women are inferior and deserve different treatment.

because as can be seen the man is still seen as the work figure, while the woman is still seen as the one that have to care and raise children and do all the housework.

The aim of this work is to find a better way to live along between men and women which lies not only in respect but also in equality, although the society has evolved there are still traces of discrimination against women.

This paper will release how Sexism against women affects the society, touching the theme of gender roles as well as the consequences of this.

The Sexism/Machismo traditionally has been associated with subordination of family roles and favor and welfare to men, therefore it is deemed to assign less tiring work for men, because they are the breadwinners of the house.

A part of Sexism is the use of some type of systematic violence against women in order to maintain an emotional or psychological control on them, further it punished any feminine behavior (some examples as: Men don’t cry, men cannot express their feelings, etc) in a men and from these mentality is the base of Homophobia, the worst punishment a sexist could receive is to have a gay familiar, because it demonstrate that their blood and family name is weak and from these idea the discrimination against homosexuals is huge.

Sexism has been an element of social control and sexist exploitation in many cultures. Some factors that have contributed to its survival and continuity

-Discriminatory laws against women.

-Treatment difference in the case of adultery:

-In some cultures adultery and pregnancy before marriage is punished with death.

-Permission from male for economic activities

-Denial of right to vote or other civil

-Sexist education in school and home

Religious discrimination in different religions all over the world as example of some are in Muslim countries predominated as the old Taliban regime of Afghanistan, in certain branches of Christianity as Mormonism, in the orthodox Jews, Hinduism, etc.

Sexist division of labor, whereby men prefer other men in decision making jobs position (originally the sexist division was based on the difference in physical capacity and muscular), in which men had comparative advantage. However in modern technological societies force is irrelevant, being more important intellectual abilities and social skills. It also refers to a payment of lower wages to women than men in exchange of the same work.

Now at days rarely we heard stories of men who do not allow their wives or daughters to study or work. Almost 40% of women of working age are in employment, the number of students enrolled in colleges and universities is divided equally between the sexes, Women are increasingly aware of their rights and demand equal treatment in the workplace and in politics.

Under these conditions, Machismo has mutated. Today is based more on control and psychological coercion or discrimination in physical restraints. In a sense, machismo has gone underground. Deeply buried in our daily habits, is almost invisible in the educated or high classes, invisible but always present.

It is possible that in many areas women are consider as equal to men. In Mexico, women do not own their time. When they go out, spend money, see their friends, they are still expected to tell with detail their schedule of their daily activities to their Parents, brothers, boyfriends and husbands, but men do not accept to be asked. At home, men can say “Do not bother me, I’m watching TV,” but women do not, because they are supposed to be available night and day for her husband and children.

These double standards are now a pillar of machismo. Surveys show that men are willing to go to the supermarket or children take over for a while, but refuse to iron, sew, cut vegetables or clean the oven or bathroom, because these tasks are considered unmanly. The men help, but within rigidly defined parameters.

This division of labor in all areas of life means that both men and women are still surprisingly inept for the tasks assigned to the opposite sex. We can see educated and successful men who don’t know how to make a cup of coffee and professional women who have no idea about how to change a fuse. So machismo creates people with only half of the

Conclusion to end of Sexism/Machismo.

Share the work that has traditionally been considered “women’s work”.

Challenge the notion to both men and women that boys are by nature aggressive and violent. Stand firm that it is only hard conditioning that makes anyone act this way. Stand firm that boys are just like girls, and girls as boys

Encourage men to feel and express all our feelings. Men’s largest conditioning comes from being forced to act like we have no feelings (like “Big boys don’t cry”, “You’re acting like a girl “). This conditioning is what eventually makes men take on all of the inhuman roles we are expected to play in society.

Support women’s leadership.

Model non-sexist behavior everywhere. Tell and show men and women that eliminating sexism is a primary focus in your life. The presence of sexism in society is hurtful to everyone, not just women. It’s elimination will enhance every human being’s life.

Educate the new generations with the idea that boys and girls are equal with the same rights and responsibilities, and are able or capable to do anything.

Societies consist of men, woman, and children and of various age groups. If these components are not present there can be no society. They make up society collectively. Our society responds differently to recreation and leisure and in turn so do the individuals. The individuals play an important part of how they function in society and how they react to recreation and leisure. The way in which we perceive our roles in society impacts on our recreational and leisure activities. We must consider the way in which we as individuals and our society come together in terms of recreation and leisure. As individuals we need to ensure that our roles in society impact positively. Society in general does not consider the impact of their roles and how it affects leisure. They both are two different entities but function together. I will consider the factors that affect us as individuals in society and how it relates to our leisure in the following discussion.

Leisure as a Social Phenomenon

Leisure is considered to be a complex social phenomenon that affects many social institutions and should not be considered as just past time activities. Recreation and leisure significantly affects several social institutions. However if utilised incorrectly they can have negative effects on many aspects. Within our societies leisure can be practised in different ways. It can be undertaken alone or in solitude, or it can be occur in a social environment that can be private or community based.

We can all participate in leisure in its different forms and this does not necessarily mean that it is not influenced or affected by other people. Our leisure is in fact more often than not affected by other people.

Our surroundings and environment can affect our privacy in terms of leisure in three ways: namely by supporting it, by infringing on it and by forcing us into it. Parents can support the leisure activities of their children by purchasing toys for them, which can inspire them to pursue a specific career or cause in life.

Our leisure can also be infringed upon by others, for instance competing over the television with an older brother or sister when your favourite show is on.

Circumstances can also force us into solitary leisure, for example writing. A famous example is J.R.R. Tolkien, the author of the, The Lord of The Rings novels. In the trenches of World War I, he began recording the episodes of war that brought horror to him. He used this as escapism from the harsh reality he was facing. These recordings of the harshness he experienced were later transferred into the books, The Lord of The Rings. The writing of his books not only provided a sense of recreation and leisure to him. It has also provided these benefits for millions around the world. This demonstrates how one person’s leisure can directly and indirectly affect people around them. His books have been developed into multi – million dollar earning movies. The movies have lead to memorabilia and figurines being collected by children and adults as hobbies. People have flocked to the premieres of these movies. This indicates the domino effect of his recreation and passion on the rest of the world. This has also positively affected numerous people and economies.

In contrast to this an individual’s solitary recreation can also have negative consequences. In February 2004, Warren le Blanc murdered his 14 year old friend by savagely beating him with a claw hammer and stabbed him after luring him to a park in Liverpool, England. Warren re – enacted violence from a popular video game that he used to play called Manhunt. Warren played this game as a recreational past – time but there was a negative transfer from his experience. The game gained interest for all the wrong reasons. It was played on the personal computer and Sony play – station platforms. These are both popular past – times for all age groups. This demonstrates how a video game, a popular past – time, became a societal hazard which stemmed from a persons solitary recreation. This emphasises the need for control of technology in our societies in order to alleviate negative consequences. However it must also be remembered that the positives of solitary recreational experiences outweigh the negatives.

Leisure does not only occur in solitary settings. It can also directly involve other people. They can take the form of bystanders and participants. Both bystanders and participants collectively contribute to the activity.

People can further be divided into primary and secondary groups. Primary groups are small groups in which there are face to face relations which are fairly intimate and personal in nature. These primary groups consist of two types namely: family and cliques. Secondary groups are defined as a larger relatively temporary, more anonymous; formal and impersonal group based on some interest or activity and whose members interact on the basis of specific roles (Henslin, 1993). Secondary groups can be a cooking class, book club or Sunday golf league.

Primary groups have several factors such as social custom, family beliefs and kinship which influence leisure activities. Secondary groups on the other hand are not only influenced by the group but the individuals in – turn can affect the group.

The type of groups that we as individuals form part of will have an influence on our leisure activities. It will also affect the people in that group. Our role in these groups will affect our societies in which we exist. It will have individual implications as well as group implications.

Leisure, Recreation and Gender

In our post – modern era the categories of gender are gradually being broken down and multiple categories of gender are arising. With post – modernism people are able to express their gender and sexuality with fewer boundaries and constraints.

As history suggests men have been the superior sex in most western cultures. In past centuries recreational activities were reserved for men only. There was also a general segregation of genders.

Males were the bread winners and woman in were in charge of the household. Due to this most of the woman undertook their recreational activities at home. In recent times the expectations of woman and men have changed. Men and woman tend to change and share roles within our post – modern society.

Men have a desire for leisure as it is motivated by their hard work. They consider it as a reward for the work they endure. Women generally have a weaker motivation for it as they have to deal with the constraints of the household first. Women tend to combine their leisure with household chores, such as decorating or supervising activities for the children.

I certainly feel that leisure opportunities do exist for women outside of the household but other duties and concerns take precedence. There may be cases where equal opportunity exists for men and women but women still tend to perform the feminine tasks. They will naturally be concerned with meals and care of children at various activities.

Another problem facing women’s participation in these activities is that they find it difficult to participate in them. Other woman may be too busy with family, lack physical ability or merely not knowing where to learn the activity. It is important that women empower themselves in aspects of leisure and recreation. This will ensure that they will also reap the benefits of recreation and leisure. Men need to accept them into programmes and provide equal opportunities in our communities.

In recent times there has been an increase in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals. People now feel free to disclose their alternative sexual identity. In the past however leisure did not deal with issues of sexuality. These individuals are now being openly accepted into communities; however few opportunities exist for them in terms of recreation and leisure. They are increasingly becoming parents, which indicate that they also have families. All families need to enjoy the benefits of recreation and leisure including the gay and lesbian families. There are few programmes that are designed for them, which re-enforces that they need to be accepted into all programmes without discrimination. There have been programmes such as the gay games and Olivia cruises but this creates segregation. We should design programmes that accommodate everyone irrespective of their sexual orientation. In this way we eliminate any misconceptions and preconceptions that people may have within our societies.

Leisure, Recreation, Race and Ethnicity

Involvement in recreational and leisure activities is influenced by ones race or ethnicity. These factors also contribute to how programmes are provided for communities’ people. Race and ethnicity both influence recreation and leisure but have different meanings.

Race refers to the genetic make up of a person. This includes characteristics such as eye colour, skin colour and hair. Ethnicity refers to our social and cultural heritage. Ethnic groups can be identified by language, customs and religion; this is what distinguishes them from other groups.

There continues to be racial and ethnic stereo types in our society despite the ongoing struggle against discrimination. This impacts significantly on recreation and leisure due to the fact that most programmes do not cater for all races and ethnicities. It also creates segregation amongst groups in programmes. This is one of the reasons that the department of Sport and Recreation of South Africa has created the indigenous games project. The project is trying to trace and bring in indigenous heritage to life amongst people of South Africa. Western cultures predominantly oversee these programmes. Leisure services should aim to merge the different groups in order to give people the opportunity to learn about the different races, cultures and ethnicities collectively. This would create an understanding between the differences that people may experience. This would also prevent under representation in the diverse races and ethnicities. We need to ensure that all groups feel comfortable and feel a sense of belonging when participating in these programmes. Everyone should be invited, included and involved. By having programmes that include these factors we can create understanding and positive relationships between groups. This will enable us to overcome the prejudice and racial discord that may be still present in our communities.

I feel that one way in which we can alleviate the problem of under representation is for the so called minorities to give themselves another identity. They must no longer consider themselves as a minority. By constructing an alternative identity they can give themselves a new representation. This would lessen the perception of them being minorities by others. This in turn would make them more open to participation in programmes. This may develop an attitude in them in which they believe that they are part of the group. We must strive to provide programmes that alleviate inter-group misunderstandings and promote favourable relations.

Socio – economic Status and its Influence on Leisure and recreation

Socio – economic status is a means of classifying people into categories based on their income, education, occupation and wealth.

People within a specific class have similar attitudes, values and interests. These things can impact on recreation and leisure choices. Socio – economic status can affect leisure in a number of ways.

Firstly, the amount of education and/or the amount of money that a person has influences the amount of free time and income available for recreational purposes. In general the lower classes have been minorities when it comes to participation in recreational activities. They also seldom participate in health and fitness programmes. Those in higher classes who have more education and disposable income look for more refined and prestigious leisure. For example, in the United States it has been discovered that the poor working class and middle class have been the predominant users of public and non – profit services. The agencies that function in the various sectors provide programmes for all income levels but target the lower and middle class particularly. This is a rational approach as it provides opportunities for those who cannot afford the more expensive recreational options. However the upper – class may have access to these programmes but often choose to go the commercial route. They may utilize these services as most consider it as providing a higher quality of service. The upper class may also choose the option of commercial services due to the issue of status. Status may be assigned to things such as exclusive club memberships or exotic travel destinations.

There are also activities that may appeal to all social classes such as reading or socializing but there are others that can be placed in each social class exclusively. For example, attending the opera or yachting may most likely be assigned to the upper class, where as a camping trip would more likely be an activity of the middle class. Sometimes there are activities that are popular to all classes but may be enjoyed in different ways.

Socio – economic status has a significant effect on recreation and leisure activity choices. If we are to be justified providers of recreation and leisure we need to understand these impacts and supply services that meet the needs of everyone. It may not always be possible to provide these services to all people but we need to understand the variations in needs and leisure patterns for those that we target. In this way we can ensure that no one is denied and unrepresented of recreation and leisure opportunities.

An important factor that has restricted many people lately is the global recession. The ability to fund recreational or leisure services is an issue that all socio – economic classes have faced. With the current state of the economy all service providers have to generate income to stay alive, even the non – profit and public organisations. The concept of pay to play is becoming more prominent and this eliminates the poor and working class almost entirely. Many programmes are being kept alive by sponsorships and in – turn keep our much needed recreational programmes alive and accessible to all.

Is leisure good or bad?

Most if not all leisure activities we can do have positive outcomes. There are really good leisure activities, however, only if they are carefully moderated. Some of the activities that people participate in during their free time include sports, cultural activities, technology as well as socialising with friends.

Sporting activities e.g. swimming or playing soccer provide great positives in the sense that we exercise, we relax, forget about our problems for a while and meet people. I feel that leisure activities which involve sport should keep the element of competition as low as possible. The emphasis should be on having fun and taking in the experience. When it develops into a serious competition it could deter others who are simply there for the fun aspect. Everyone should be included at all times with the intention of providing some sort of satisfaction to all involved.

Cultural activities like learning to play a musical instrument, reading or writing can provide a host of positives. Many people use music as a mode of personal expression of their thoughts and emotions. This can help provide an outlet for the individual. There are many traditional instruments that people can learn to play despite being of different ethnic or racial backgrounds. The instructional classes educate people on the culture behind the music as well as provide them with the skill of learning how to play these instruments. This also allows us to overcome barriers of race and ethnicity in the sense that people spend more time with other races.

Technology provides us with alternatives to traditional leisure and recreation. It sometimes eliminates the physical component but can stimulate the mind. Playing video games, web browsing and watching television can be very interesting as well as educational. There are video games which can give us an idea of what it takes to pilot a plane or be a front line soldier during the Second World War. It creates experiences similar to the actual thing and provides escapism from the reality of life. We should however be very careful with these activities; they can make people socially incapable, by making them shy or quite and restrict face to face encounters. It can also make people spend too much time indoors. We must draw a firm balance when participating in these activities in order to extract the positives. Television has numerous good or bad programmes which can educate, provide relaxation and relieve stress in an individual. It also has negative influences, which means we must select what we watch carefully.

Most individuals enjoy spending time with friends, such as going to the movie theatre, going out for dinner or going out at night. These activities provide a lot of benefits to us but there are problems associated with it as well. A major problem is the abuse of alcohol and drugs at night time meeting spots. People tend to over drink on nights out with friends and engage in substance abuse. Substance abuse can have serious emotional and physical implications. Self – control will lead to happy and enjoyable experiences in these situations.

Science and technology has provided our societies with the highest levels of comfort. Technology has also made much more time available to us. Holidays and vacations have also increased and the duration is much longer.

If we do not control our leisure and recreation it may become the core of our existence. Our free time must be spent constructively rather than being detrimental to us. It is the responsibility of our societies to make recreation and leisure an asset rather than a liability.

How is leisure beneficial to the individual in Society?

Leisure has many implications to the individuals in our society and it does not discriminate against race, class or gender when providing people in our society with positives. Society needs to be educated on how recreation and leisure programmes can be beneficial to them. This will promote participation and emphasise the importance of it in our societies. Leisure is a major force in our lives, to the extent that it has become a major concern for governments, parents and leaders.

People are now spending more money each year on activities such as sport, tourism, outdoor recreation and many other past – times. There has also been a drift towards organised leisure with changes in basic living and competition between our interests. However leisure can still be spontaneous, solitary and surprising.

Apart from physiological needs such as sleeping, leisure is what we engage in mainly. According to Leitner and Leitner (2004) if you are 18 now, of the probable 60 years that you will live for, you will spend 18 years in full time leisure. This might be an alarming statistic but it is quite precise. Recreation and leisure has the ability to educate and provide us with vital components for our health and growth from our birth to our death. It is in this sense that leisure provides us with a sense of wellness, satisfaction and improved quality of life. Recreation and leisure can provide the potential to significantly contribute to our physical, social and emotional well being.

Having considered the importance recreation and leisure I will now discuss the benefits that it can provide us with.

Emotional well- being is an important component for a good life. If we are mentally healthy we are filled with positive emotions. Recreation and leisure can provide us with positive emotions.

Recreation and leisure provides a channel for us to improve self – definition, self actualization and a sense of empowerment. It provides us with opportunities for self – exploration of our talents, capacities and our potential. Recreation and leisure do not possess any constraints and can be used to reinforce our identities. Being actively involved in Recreation and leisure relates to our mental health in way that leads to our intrinsic motivation being enhanced in daily life. Iwasaki and Mannell (2000) found that by simply believing in it, it can contribute to our emotional well – being and is enough to reduce mental illness symptoms. This may be quite precise in the sense that in what ever we do we have to think positively in order to achieve our goals. On the other hand, active leisure and recreation may be more stimulating than passive recreation and more beneficial to our psychological health. If the both are linked the outcomes may be even more positive.

Stress is a major issue for everybody. Numerous studies have pointed out leisure’s ability to help people cope with stress. Stress can often make us very sick and can lead to complications such as heart disease, hypertension and body pains. The effects of these complications can be reduced by recreation and leisure.

The research in the field of recreation and leisure has confirmed that enjoying life’s pleasures, having satisfying social relationships and pursuing self – expressive behaviour can help to lower stress and have positive effects on our immune system. This suggests that we should support our recreation and leisure in order to avoid these complications. Psychological well – being can be promoted by activities that are meaningful, fulfilling and active. It provides a balance for the demands of life even during times of crisis.

Our physical health is strongly related to emotional health. Our physical health can benefit greatly from leisure and recreation. By staying active in recreational and leisurely activities we can gain numerous physiological benefits. The cardio – vascular, respiratory, musculo – skeletal and metabolic systems benefit greatly. Recreation and leisure can help the body respond favourably by reducing the risks that of coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon cancer and diabetes.

An active lifestyle also helps decrease fatigue, provides us with protection against obesity, maintains bone density and joint mobility and may even protect us from urinary tract infections. Constant physical activity promotes enjoyment, encourages support from others and enhances our confidence in our ability to regularly participate. It also helps to reduce any negative perceptions of being physically active.

Technology and peoples life styles have made life in general more sedentary. This emphasises the importance of activity during recreational and leisure activities much greater. It does not matter on the type of activity that has been chosen. It can be a game of Frisbee, surfing, group exercises or even tai chi. They will all provide some sort of physical benefit. Numerous studies have also confirmed that regular participation in these recreational activities provide the necessary aerobic benefits.

Recreation and leisure also provide benefits such as social well – being and social development. They both contribute to our friendships and the ability to get along with others. Recreation and leisure promotes social interaction for both children and adults.

Participation in activities that are highly sociable promotes social support. Our social well – being requires social support. This can help test connections or relationships amongst individuals an can also strengthen and test the relationships during recreational experiences. When people feel that they are being cared for and supported they tend to feel better about themselves and their lives. This can help people to develop and maintain their family lives.

With the developments in technology activities that emphasize sociability are not as common as they used to be in our societies. People are moving further away from the concept of socializing. Some prefer to watch a movie alone at home on the DVD player rather than at the movie theatre with others. People invest in home gym equipment instead of attending a gym at a recreational centre or a health club. It is important to preserve the older methods in order to promote social benefits to the individuals in our societies.

The many benefits of recreation and leisure converge to create a sense of well -being in people. It is important as it emphasizes the vitality in our surroundings and the world. It helps us develop vigorous and caring communities and has the power to create harmony among the diversity in which in exist.

Life satisfaction is what we strive for everyday. It is difficult to define but we can recognize it when we have it. It is an emotional and internal experience. Recreation and leisure helps us achieve this satisfaction. When we are satisfied with our lives we focus less on our selves, become less hostile and abusive and generally less vulnerable to disease. These are qualities that need to be eliminated from our societies. We need to be more loving, forgiving, trusting, creative and sociable. Recreation and leisure can help provide these qualities for us. This will in turn provide a snow ball effect as happy people tend to be more positive about their leisure activities. They feel positive and accept the belief that these activities are in fact helping them and the people around them.

In order for the importance and benefits of leisure and recreation to be experienced by people in society, we need to have leisure professionals who possess the necessary skills to ensure it is executed effectively. Whether you are employed at a hospital, camp, theme park, national organisations or a resort, you must be able to deliver positive experiences for people. You must be able to personify qualities that reflect professionalism. He should also possess qualities that enable him to deliver the programme or activity successfully.

The leisure professional must base his efforts on the needs and interests of the focus group. He should try to develop programmes based on their needs rather than his own. Even if he is employed in a profit making organisation he must focus on the desires and needs of the consumer or else he will fail in his attempts. He should possess the willingness to listen and learn to people in order to provide the correct aspects of the programme. He should embrace the diversities of race, culture, gender etc. Respect should be given to himself and the participants.

Recreational experiences require precise organisation and planning. He must be able to provide a sustained effort in the provision of activities. A willingness to put in long hours and hard work is imperative. A lot of recreational activities occur on weekends, after hours or public holidays. This means that he must be willing to work during other people’s free hours. This is a major sacrifice that most people are not willing to make so it is important to consider.

The leisure professional should possess a high degree of integrity. Our world is constantly faced with acts of misconduct and improper behaviour. When delivering a service you must maintain a high level of ethical responsibility. This is important especially when dealing with the diversities amongst people. Participants should be treated with dignity and fairness by the leisure professional. This will transfer between participants; they will learn to treat each other graciously and with respect.

The leisure professional must possess the ability to project the direction of the programme or activity. He must be able to visualise the positive outcome of the service. The plan will only come together if he can first see it happening. This provides direction and intention. The participants will generally expect an excellent service but he muse try to exceed those expectations.

CONCLUSION

The importance of recreation and leisure to the individuals in our society has a number of implications. As discussed earlier it relates to race, gender, socio – economic status etc., it affects a wide array of people and institutions. We must try to educate people on the importance of these types of activities in order to overcome the various barriers that our societies face. It is one of the best developments in the last century to help overcome barriers such as diversity and health related problems. The reality is that recreation and leisure programmes do work. This is correct to the point where specific projections of what recreation and leisure can achieve have been put forth. There are national departments that have multi -million dollar budgets around the world in order to make it a part of everyone’s lives. It has been making a difference to millions of lives around the world.

REFERENCE:

1. Jarvie, G. & Maguire, J.A., 1994. Sport and leisure in social thought, Taylor & Francis.

2. (Organization), H.K. & Kinetics, H., 2006. Introduction to recreation and leisure, Human Kinetics. Champaign, Illinois, USA

3. Russell, V.R., Jamieson M.L., 2008. Leisure Program Planning and Delivery. Human Kinetics. Champaign, Illinois, USA

4. Moran M. J., 1979.leisure Activities for the mature adult, Burgess publishing company. Minnesota. USA

5. WWW.SRSA.GOV.ZA

Gun violence take a heavy toll both in the lives of its victim and in the quality of life of the victim’s relatives and friends, many of the stories of the victim do not capture the headlines of the newspaper, but each violent statistic is a headline story to the loved ones of the victims. Of the 25,000 homicides in the United States last year, an estimated 70% were committed with firearms. And thousands of other Americans are wounded form gunshots, often with long term effects on their health. To put statistics into a context, every two years more Americans die from firearms injuries in the United States that were killed in the entire Vietnam War. Since 1933 more Americans have died from gun wounds here at home that in all the wars our country has been involved in since – and including – the American Revolution.

Criminal activity, then takes a heavy toll in human life. But guns kill and maim not only because of crime but also because suicides and accidents. In firearm fatalities, more people die from suicides than from homicides. In 1999, for example firearms were involved in 18,547 suicides. And firearms cause fatalities unintentionally through accidents, either by misfiring of weapons, inaccurate shooting, carelessness, or recklessness.

Although Americans use firearms in ways that are criminal or sinister, they employ guns in the ways that are often regarded as law-abiding and good. The second amendment ensures “the right of the people to keep and bear arms.” People should have every right to think and judge, and act for themselves, but not all people do this in the most responsible way. When immoral, irrational, or unethical decisions are made the government needs to intervene. Inside the home, one should be able to do what he wishes on his property, but even there, an invisible line must be drawn. For the good of the whole, people need to abide by certain laws, and when those lines are crossed, the government has to step in to protect its people.

As a society, we put our safety into the hands of the government by employing police officers and firemen, and by trusting the men and women of the military. We should therefore, trust the lawmakers, by allowing them to make stiffer gun control laws. There are some gun control laws presently in effect, while some are waiting to be pass in Congress. The ones that are passed are mostly state and local levels. There are ‘place and manner’ laws, which prohibit the firing of a gun in certain places, such as within city limits, and some state restrict carrying a concealed weapon anywhere in public. There are also ‘restricted ownership’ laws that prohibit the sale of any typed of gun to convicted felons, aliens, minors, alcoholics, drug users, and mentally or emotionally disturbed people. In some states, buyers must fill out an application and there is ten day waiting period, while their background are checked before the purchase of an firearm. These laws are helpful, but they are not in effect everywhere, and they do not always fulfill the purpose. One of the most prudent gun control law has been idling in Congress for the past two years. This law requires a person before purchasing a gun to take classes on the proper ways to store and handle a firearm, and it also require the consumer to take this course to renew their firearm registration every year. By pressuring your local congressmen we can set in motion some of these laws.

Where children are concerned, parents need to put guns out of reach, and to teach our children of the dangers of guns. Guns should not be a taboo subject that is not to be discussed. Minors should be one group that guns are illegal to. A person cannot drink until he reaches the age on 21, so if the law states that liquor could harmful to an adolescent who may not be equipped to deal with its effect, then shouldn’t that also hold true for a deadly weapon? But guns can be purchased from pawnshops, or a dealer who ignores the laws, or stolen from a relative. The laws need dig deeper, beginning with manufacturer. Tobacco companies and liquor distributors are held accountable for the dangerous effects of their products.

Bar owners and even bartenders can be sued and jailed if a customer they serve harms someone under the influence. So maybe the firearms producers should also be held responsible.

Firearms have been an important feature in American life since the first Europeans settled in the new World. Although most people who use firearms in the United States do so in a peaceful manner, the illegal and violent use of firearms remains a great problem to civilized society, as does the role of firearms in suicides and accidents. It would be foolhardy to predict a solution in the near future; however, stricter gun control laws would be an effective start. Education is the key. Educating people about the firearm related accidents that that occur every year is the first step. People have to govern and be governed, in order for a city or nation to work side by side to end violence and fear associated with handguns. We need to find a solution to end the problem, not promote it.

Bibliography:

1) Levine, Herbert M. American Issues Debated Gun Control. Austin: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1998.

2) Bender, David, ed. Gun Control Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhave press, 1997.

3) LaPierre, Wayne R. Guns, Crime, And Freedom. Washington DC: Regency Publishing, 2000.

This paper is going to briefly delve into the meaning of gang violence and its implication. The word gang can be described as a group of people within an organization and share a common identity, it must be noted that the meaning of this word has undergone change and has increasingly been associated with criminal activity or has basically been branded as a criminal organization.

Thesis statement

In the recent past, the name gang has become synonymous with violence. This is indeed a sudden change of events; this is because more and more youths are getting closely affiliated to these gangs. The truth is that gang violence actually a social problem in many aspects which simply means that the society is increasingly coming under the potential threat of violence that is perpetrated by these gangs. The gangs are increasing in numbers because most of the youths who fill that they have been rejected by the society find a false sense of belonging within these gangs. A sociological study and survey that was conducted by a sociologist from the University of Massachusetts (Andrew v.papachristos) revealed that the younger members join the gangs for the purpose of being recognized and achieving a certain class status, protection is another reason for membership. The threat of the gang violence cannot be ignored since it is slowly tearing families apart either directly or indirectly through deaths, incarceration of some of the gang members, rape, murder et cetra.Andrew pointed at the fact that gang violence is indeed a social problem and not a police issue that must be addressed from a larger context.

Gang violence

It must be remembered that most of the gang violence are majorly driven by the gang codes, which drives or pushes the members not to appear weak any time they are wronged i.e. they must appear turf and therefore tend to retaliate any time another gang violates or trespasses on their gang territorial borders (American journal of sociology July issue).Gang violence has opened a new chapter in criminal activities and is proving to be a complex and challenging vice for the police to deal with simply because it cannot just be eliminated or be made to disappear. Gang violence has a root cause within the society and must therefore be critically examined in order to understand what sustains these gangs if a solution is to be found.

The common approach of incarceration of the violent gang members seems to be failing and simply escalating the problem e.g. the gang members after incarceration consider them selves fully initiated and are only much more violent and dangerous that indicating that the ‘Lock them up’ approach only seems to be failing and pushing the violence levels up. Once the fact that gang violence is part of bigger social problems is adequately understood then there will be some progress made towards finding a solution to this problem.

A nation wide survey conducted in the year 1995 by the National Youth Gang Center under the directive of the U.S department of justice, office of juvenile justice and delinquency prevention, revealed the following trends; the existing communities within the 50 states did report that there were about 652,000 gang members who were affiliated to the 25,000 gangs within the Nation. These numbers are very startling. There is evidence that there is an increased gang and gang related problems of 48% in the communities, this is an indication that the gang problems are only worsening with little improvement of about 10% witnessed in some states. The number of sheriff and police agencies that reported the gang related activity stood at 1,974 out of the 34,447.Gang membership usually fulfills a number of factors namely; the search for love, a feeling of belonging or commitment, a degree of recognition, the feeling of power and authority, and finally an environment of acceptance for the gang members. Based on sociological research findings the following are some of the risk factors that are associated with joining gangs that are majorly involved with violent and illegal activities; drug addiction, possibility of death as a result of illegal arms dealing and usage. The factors that drive these youths to join these gangs include racism, poverty, influence from the media and lack of support network (Source, research, 1994, 2)The evidence from the state of Los Angeles has revealed that more than 10,000 African American and Latino young men have been killed as a result of gang war fare (source, vigil, 2002).

Conclusion

Many researchers have shown that many youths join the gangs at an early age of between 9-11 years old (Knox, 2002).The studies also revealed the need for these youths to feel some kind of belonging, this would help them avoid getting involved with these gangs. The gang members were mostly from families that had subjected them to abuse, neglect or had simply ignored them. There was evidence that there was reduced possibility for youths from stable and loving families to be members of gangs for example those youths from a two parent family and were actively involved in community activities were less likely to join these gangs. Gang violence is an issue of national concern that has negatively impacted on the society; it has led to the rapid degeneration of social values and erosion of the traditional cultures. This problem must be addressed and this can only be done through an extensive and intensive preventive measures.

REFERENCE

American journal of sociology (July issue)

National Youth Gang centre (National survey 1995)