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Analysis of how organizational systems and processes are managed to promote participation and independence of users of health and social care service.

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Explain factors that may contribute to loss of independence, non-participation, and social exclusion for vulnerable people

Analysis how organizational systems and processes are managed to promote participation and independence of users of health and social care service.

1.2 Analyse the presenting factors that may affect the self medicate.

Question: Identify the risks that may occur. and What measures can be initiated to minimize risks?

Question – What you would consider to be the advantage and disadvantages of Jean’s self medication

Question: Do you think Jean should be encouraged for self medication. Give reasons for your answer

Question 2: How will you support Mr H to meet his dietary needs?

Question: Analyse how will you manage the tension to enable Mr H to cook his meal safely and your responsibility to ensure his safety and that of others.

Question 3: Obtain a copy of your organizational risk assessment policy, procedure and analyse the effectiveness of policies procedure in management of risks (AC 3.2)

Question 4: Identify and review current legislation, codes of practice, policy on medication administration in a residential home. Obtain copy of your organization policy and procedure, evaluate the effectiveness of the in line with health and social care requirements (AC 4.1 and 4.2)

Question: analyse how national service standards promote safe practice in the handling of medication evaluate, using a known setting, the effectiveness of policies and procedures for administering medication in achieving best possible outcomes for service users

Question 5: Communication is vital in health and social care, analyse how you can use the effective communication to promote and maximize the right of service -users in health and social care (AC 1.3)

Question 6: Explain the factors that contribute to loss of independence, non participation and social exclusion of service (AC 2.1)

References

Case Study 1
Task -1

Explain how existing legislation and sector skills standards influence organizational policies and practices for promoting and maximising the rights of bob and other service users in similar situations. Also analyse how organizational system and processes are managed to promote participation and independence of users of health and social care service (AC 2.1 and 2.2)

2.1 Explain factors that may contribute to loss of independence, non-participation, and social exclusion for vulnerable people

Answer:

In the given case Mr Bob Small is a individual with profound deaf (God Bless him) and he is out of work due to sickness related stress. He has got diabetic, suffererred stroke. His physical condition is such that he is not in a position of communicating with general people. Only someone has knowledge in communicating him with sign language can communicate. Or if he needs to go out and mix with others he needs someone who can help him for doing this for him. This is how he would have felt better, mix with other people. In addition when any individual is not physically well they do not feel like communicating with others. Doctors also suggest to take rest. However, as someone is not deaf or not able to speak or has problem with any other physical condition they can communicate their problem which does not happen for physically disadvantaged people. They need care and support from others.

Legislation and national service standards: Care Standards Act and relevant current legislation including that for health and safety; Care Standards Commission, inspection processes

Following describes a situation of Mr. Small on different issues:

Goals of need

Desired Outcome

Ways of achieving it

Who is responsible

Time Scale

Regular support

Mr. Small’s day to day activities is smooth

Regular support

Government

Regular

Support in communication

Mr Small can communicate with others

Therapy

Government

Until he learns to communicate

Encourage Mr. Small to communicate with others

Mr Small is communicating with others

Motivation

Government

Until he is comfortable to communicate

Treatment

Mr small is feeling better

GP, Hospital treatment

NHS

Until he is well

Loneliness

Mr Small has companion in different times

Mixing with people

Government

Regular

Organizational system and processes are there to help anyone in the situation of Mr Small. Followings are the activities can be initiate to encourage individual to promote participation and independence of users of health and social care service

2.2 Analysis how organizational systems and processes are managed to promote participation and independence of users of health and social care service.

Answer

Organization system and processes can promote Mr Small’s participation and independence or anyone like him who uses the service of social care by (Richards, 1996):

1. Ensuring the performance of the workers who will provide their service are up to the high standard and professional. They do their work in sincerely so that individuals with similar problem can find it motivating to mix with other. The social worker also can help the individual needs care with learning and showing how to communicate and mix with other. This will help to build their confidence for long time.

2. Organizations can provide the information about the individual needs care. Information will help the social worker and other related parties to decide what sort of service and care is needed by the service seeker

3. The organization system and processes can empower the social worker to take decision about the individual in need. So that in terms of the situational issues they can work accordingly. However there has to b enough safety steps and also the person providing social care has to be expert and professional in the job who has detail understanding of handling similar individuals.

Case Study 2
1.2 Analyse the presenting factors that may affect the self medicate.

Answer

In case Ms. Jean Barlow following factors may affect the self medicate:

In case of Ms Barlow she was a confident person but her confidence is shaken in 7 month’s hospital stay. She became nervous and less like to prove her confidence again immediately. Thus she needs a regular support
Ms Jean Barlow usually was independent however her situation in the hospital caused her to be dependant. Which is a big factor for Ms. Barlow to affect her self medication
Usual nurse support and staffing also play good part of for Ms. Jean’s medication. If she is offered support nurse this may vary. Reason being service is not the same for all individual. It varies thus she may receive variety of service in this movement when she needs support.
Level dependence also plays a good role in case of persons like Ms Barlow. It can be seen that she needs more support in the initial stages however she is coping with the situation and learning to manage things by herself as much as possible – slowly.
Health condition of Ms Barlow is also very important. When her health will improve her confidence will also improve. Thus in addition to the social care service it is highly important that she gets proper medication so that her medical condition is getting proper care to improve in time.
Question: Identify the risks that may occur. and What measures can be initiated to minimize risks?

Answer

In case of situation like Ms Barlow there are following risks if not proper care are given. Steps to minimize the risks are also mentioned in the following table

Risks involved

What can be done to avoid the risks

Losing confidence for longer period

Enough measures and confidence building activities and mental support needs to be there to avoid this and help her recovering slowly

Not have proper medication in time

Train and show her how and when to what medicine. Be with her a for a while to show everything.

Nervous breakdown

There has to be continuous support and mental strength so that she does not reach such stage

Never learn properly to be on her own

By encouraging her to mix with others. So that she knows that she ‘can’ manager is very important

Forget full and lead to sever disease

There has to be training and care so that she can practice to increase her memory

Increased anxious person

There can be medicine to mitigate her anxiousness. But more than that there has to be constant moral and physical support so that she does not reach such situation.

Consider the results of the risk assessment and in writing accept the adequacy of the systems security, i.e., accept the residual risk and the selection of cost-effective controls.

Commit to performing on-going, periodic risk management

Question – What you would consider to be the advantage and disadvantages of Jean’s self medication

Answer

According to NCBI (2001) self medication is a very important and increasing area of healthcare in the UK. It has the following advantage according to the report of NCBI (2001) and WHO (2000):

It helps Jean to be self confident
It will help Jean to learn how to manage herself and see the result of managing herself with proper medication and feel better
With a bit of clinical training by the support worker Jean will be able to manager her, light, medical issues, by herself
Ms J Barlow will have more empowerment on herself and will also learn to take her own decision
If there is any issue of minor illness Jean will not be panicked or anxious

In the NCBI (2001) and WHO (2000) report following disadvantages are there in self medication:

Jean may take wrong medicine unintentionally
There may be mistake by Jean about the dose. She may take more or less and about the timing as well. If Jean cannot remember when she needs to and when actually does take medicine she may take more or less number and quantity of the medicine
These can lead to health risk and also the risk of losing her confidence further on herself.
Question: Do you think Jean should be encouraged for self medication. Give reasons for your answer

Answer

Ms J Barlow should definitely be encourage for self medication undoubtedly. Reasons are

She needs to learn how to manager herself for the long time and always
She must have her confidence back on herself. This is not only to reduce cost of social care on her but also to make Jean as a normal human being
Jean must not be in a satiate where she is alone but very anxious. If she knows how to handle herself alone she will be strong in any satiation

However above all the benefits there can be risk of doing that. Thus to avoid any risk proper initiatives has to be there so that it can sure that at least she knows what to do and how to seek help in case of severe situations. Her confidence needs to be built before she is on her own for the medication.

Case Study 3:

Question 2: How will you support Mr H to meet his dietary needs?

Answer

Following measures can be taken to help Mr. H with his food

Mr H can be encouraged to cook on his own with continuous supervision from begging to end
There has to be regular observation of his behaviour and someone knowledgeable and friendly, according to Mr H, has to be with him while he is cooking
Otherwise Mr H can be provided with the food he wants
Mr. H can also be discussed the benefit and the issues of the other food recommended by the dietician. But this has to be done in a time when Mr H is in proper mood
Mr H can be constantly remind about things while he is cooking and also regarding his meal
Question: Analyse how will you manage the tension to enable Mr H to cook his meal safely and your responsibility to ensure his safety and that of others.

Answer:

Safety is a vital issue for anyone. Specially when there is special medical care there is a increased need to be vigilant, observant of any risk of safety. Following things can be done so that Mr H can cook his meal safely and that does not hamper safety of others

Someone has good relationship or rapport with Mr H should be there while he is cooking
Someone knowledgeable will be there while he cooks so that the carer can identify the risk issue immediately and can take safety initiative
The carer can encourage Mr H to behave normally and give the confidence the process can be done smoothly in a proper manner from the very beginning to end
Mr H has right to learn to manage things on his own. Thus the carer must take care of that
All the risky apparatuses should be kept in a place where Mr H cannot reach easily after finished using those
Question 3: Obtain a copy of your organizational risk assessment policy, procedure and analyse the effectiveness of policies procedure in management of risks (AC 3.2)

Answer:

Agency must develop (SCEI, 2000), implement, and maintain a risk management/assessment program to ensure that appropriate safeguard measures are taken. Analysis of effectiveness of policies procedure in management of risks goes below:

It is effective in the sense that it can handle both medical and physical situation of the social care service seeker
It is safe for service seeker and providing officer
It is vast and wide to cover all the health and security related issues while providing service
It is effective overall
Question 4: Identify and review current legislation, codes of practice, policy on medication administration in a residential home. Obtain copy of your organization policy and procedure, evaluate the effectiveness of the in line with health and social care requirements (AC 4.1 and 4.2)

Answer:

For this answer I will choose Dignity Care UK (2008). I will analyse their codes of practices, which is line with existing legislation in residential home (Miller, 1996):

The support and care has to be effective, with care and professional
Centre must not work with non-trained carer
Centre must regularly monitor the situation of care providing by the carer staffs
There has to be evidence before taking any action, if necessary, against carer
There has to be regular supply of proper care to the individual needs help
Centre must appoint assessors who can assess the caring situation and environment on a regular basis
There will be proper and regular supervision and assessment
The carer must to be qualified and fit for the job according to criteria of the organization
The carer must maintain accurate record whenever necessary so that it can be evaluate later with senior staffs
Explain the legislation, guidance, codes of practice and policy that apply to the handling of medication
Question: analyse how national service standards promote safe practice in the handling of medication evaluate, using a known setting, the effectiveness of policies and procedures for administering medication in achieving best possible outcomes for service users

Answer

Aim of the policy of Dignity Care (2008) are

Ensure that proper care are given to the individuals or advice seeker. There has to be good management of the situations of the clients, proper care for their medicines and health issues whenever necessary
The policy is in line with National Service Framework for Older People, Commission for Social Care Inspection Professional Guidance for the Administration and Management of Medicines and the National Minimum Care Standards.
There is a good standard of care set by the organization and it is followed always on regular basis
Promote and maintain independence by advising service users about safety issues on their own medicine handling
Encourage patients to be self sufficient whenever applicable
Follow the rules of the UK legislation
Continuous development of the service of the care worker
Question 5: Communication is vital in health and social care, analyse how you can use the effective communication to promote and maximize the right of service -users in health and social care (AC 1.3)

Answer:

Communication helps social care providers to provide the best health service. This is very important. Communication is not in the sense of verbal discussion but also covers communicating with patients whatever forms it takes to do that. Following is the analyse how effective communication can be used effectively to promote and maximize the right of service -users in health and social care:

Understand the right way of communication with different type of care seekers
Follow the rules and regulations of the care providing agency so that a professional standards are met
There has to be enough room and encouragement to the care service providers to give feedback to their agency office so that if there is change of carer same level of service is provided. It does not make any different for the care receivers
Carer has to have the knowledge of policy of the organization
Carer has to have the knowledge of legal requirements to communicate with the service seekers
Carer must be trained properly to communicate with different types of care seekers
Carer must understand the needs of development of his/ her communication with the care seeker. So that s/he can develop accordingly with the help of their head office
Question 6: Explain the factors that contribute to loss of independence, non participation and social exclusion of service (AC 2.1)

Answer

In case of Mr H there is a room for loss of independence and non participation and exclusion from the society (Denham, 1997). Following issues can contribute to that (NCBI, 2001):

Lack of communication ability with others
Lack of ability to mix with others
Lack of self control
Health condition. Poor health condition leaves less room for the care seeker to think about other issues. Thus if Mr H is in good health he will feel good talking and mixing with others
Change of carer. If there is always new carer comes to serve Mr H he may not feel comfortable equally with everyone. This may make him down mentally and he may not act the way he should
Relationship with the carer. If the relation is not good there will not be any development in terms of providing the best care
Shift pattern of the carer may not be as comfortable for the care seeker which may cause insecurity in his mind and make him dependants
Anxiousness of the Mr H is also contribute to the fact that he is becoming less independent
Mr H’s confidence level may contribute to the fact of being self confident.
If Mr. H’s development is slow it can also cause insecurity in his mind and make him less able to manage himself.
References:

Denham M J, Continuing Care for Older People, Nelson Thornes, 1997, ISBN: 0748731822

Miller J, Social Care Practice, Hodder Arnold, 1996, ISBN: 034065516X

Richards J, Caring for People – A Lifespan Approach, Nelson Thornes, 1999, ISBN: 0748739009

Toft C, Care and Registered Manager’s Award at S/NVQ Level 4, Hodder Arnold, 2003, ISBN: 0340876050

http://www.dignityincare.org.uk/_library/Regional_Model_of_Good_Practice_Policy_for_Medication_-_Reviewed_08.pdf accessed on March 29, 2014

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11735659 accessed on March 29, 2014

http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/h1462e/h1462e.pdf accessed on March 29, 2014

http://arcuk.org.uk/publications/files/2011/03/Active-Support-Handbook.pdf accessed on March 29, 2014

http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/guides/guide17/files/guide17.pdf accessed on March 29, 2014

1

Substance misuse causes considerable harm and is presently an immense global issue of public concern. It is a wide-ranging problem, damaging individuals, families and entire communities. In general, substance misuse is not only growing considerably within the United Kingdom, but also worldwide. Simultaneously, the number of children involved in the vicious circle of drug taking and problem drinking by their parents is also increasing. Although governments, policy makers and practitioners are recognizing the problem and taking steps towards tackling the effects of substance abuse within families; the issue in general seems far from being solved.

Alcohol is legally available and easily accessible throughout England. It is positively associated with socialising, relaxing and celebrating. Although problems linked to excessive alcohol consumption are widespread and well established, it seems that alcohol misuse is somehow more socially accepted and does not have the same stigma as using drugs. Consequently, the issue of alcohol abuse, especially in families with children, often remains undiscovered, and the negative impact and effects of the excessive drinking behaviour of parents on children remain under-recognized and neglected. Estimates by the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit (2004) are that between 780,000 and 1,3 million children in England are (in)directly affected by an alcohol problem of at least one parent – in other words: 1 in 11 children live in a household where alcohol misuse is present.

While alcohol and the negative consequences associated with its uncontrolled use have been around and well documented for centuries, the drug industry has only been developing and growing rapidly over the last few years. Concordant with the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (2003) up to 300,000 children – or 3% of all children under 16 – currently belong to a family where one or two of their parents struggle with a dangerous drug issue.

Parental substance misuse is also not unheard of in social services caseloads with one quarter to one third of families known to social services as being involved with misusing drugs or alcohol (Cleaver et al., 1999; Kearney et al., 2003). Many of these children do at least temporarily not live with their addicted parents.

Putting these figures together, more than 10% of all children in England are exposed to suffer under the effects of their parental drug or alcohol misuse and it is extremely likely that these numbers will continue to grow over the following years. It seems also reasonable to believe that the official figures of affected children may be under-estimating the true scale of the problem as it is extremely difficult to calculate how many families have to cope with some form or the other of substance abuse (Templeton, 2006). First, not all drug and alcohol services take proper care to establish whether or not their clients are also parents and second, not all clients are willing to provide information about the existence of own children. Third, some institutions do not disclose figures, collect data properly or tend to under-report; and fourth, nobody knows how many substance misuser are not seeking treatment and, therefore do not appear on any official statistics (Keen et al., 2001; ACMD, 2003). Consequently, missing data and a clear underestimate of the total number of affected children by parental substance misuse seem obvious.

Substance abuse can include negative physical (such as health risks and neglect), psychological (such as attachment disorders and depression) as well as social (such as poverty and crime) influences on both parents and their children (Kroll et al., 2000). Parental alcohol and drug abuse can affect children’s health and development in the long term from as early as conception and often into adulthood, leading to varying forms of strong, adverse and complex consequences (Turning Point, 2006). Additionally, all conceivable types of child maltreatment have repeatedly been associated and clarified in various studies with parental substance abuse – including negligence (as the most common type of abuse), sexual, emotional and physical abuse (Cleaver et al., 1999; Alison, 2000; Forrester et al., 2006). The impact of alcohol and/or drugs may also significantly affect the parent’s capacity of adequate parenting (Alison, 2000). The negative impact of a dependency on the substance misuser himself can lead to chaotic lifestyles, complicating and preventing parents to support and care for their own children, meeting their basic needs and providing a safe and encouraging home environment (Keen et al., 2001; Home Office, 2008).

With the knowledge that parental misuse of certain substances can have a seriously negative impact on children’s physical, psychological and emotional health and development, it is essential that these children potentially at risk are identified as early as possible in order to arrange for appropriate protection and safeguard their welfare (Nottingham City, 2004). This is the responsibility of all professionals in different ranges of services; they all must be able to identify and treat substance misuse related problems by adults, and also focus on the problems of affected children (Keen and Alison, 2001). Therefore, increasingly more research is being done, policy initiatives started and family-supporting services and projects have developed rapidly (Templeton et al., 2006). Although considerable progress has been made in recognizing and tackling the problem of substance abuse and the issue has won much public awareness in the last years, sadly, the death of children through the hands of their parents recalls that the system still fails to safeguard children at risk.

Professionals face a variety of often complex issues and struggle with working unimpeded. The most common problems are a lack of understanding, gaining access to the substance misuser and their children, resilience, dilemmas about confidentiality and information sharing, inter-agency tensions, assessment, lack of training and the ability to focus on both, adults’ and children’s needs (Kroll and Taylor, 2000; Taylor and Kroll, 2004). Without a doubt, changes and new approaches are needed, and through joint assessment, better information sharing and inter-agency cooperation, the focus should be on effective intervention and treatment for the substance misuser as well as of the so far often “invisible” and neglected children (Kroll and Talyor, 2000; Head of Safeguarding Children, 2008).

The first section of this essay describes effects and causes associated with parental substance abuse. It highlights the impact of drug and alcohol misuse on the foetus during pregnancy and later on the child from newborn to adulthood, as well as resilience and protective factors for affected children. Part two focuses on professionals: their responsibilities regarding children’s safeguarding and the challenges they face when confronted with substance misuse. The third section covers the legal framework of safeguarding children and other related political measures. The fourth section examines the progress made so far by looking at different projects, interventions implemented and recent developments. In contrast, section five gives an insight into reality, pointing out some of the most obvious problems and recent incidents. It touches thoroughly discussed issues such as information sharing, inter-agency cooperation and training. The last section considers aims and goals, their implementation and suggests recommendations for a more effective strategy in the future.

Throughout this article substance misuse/abuse refers to the use – either dependant use or associated with adverse effects – of prescribed (such as tranquilizers, sleeping pills, pain-killers, depressants) and illicit (such as opioids, cocaine, ecstasy, cannabis) drugs as well as alcohol (Newcastle Child Protection, 2002) with critical social, interpersonal, financial, physical and psychological negative effects for both the users and those around them (ACMD, 2003).

78
SUBSTANCE MISUSE AND EFFECTS ON PARENTS AND THEIR CHILDREN

“There is reasonable basis in research to suggest that a child whose parent is misusing substances is at increased risk. Substance misuse can demand a significant proportion of a parent’s time, money and energy, which will unavoidably reduce resources available to the child. Substance misuse may also put the child at an increased risk of neglect and emotional, physical or sexual abuse, either by the parent or because the child becomes more vulnerable to abuse by others” (Lewis, 1997)

Parental substance abuse does not necessarily mean that children are at risk of harm or “in need” or receive poor parenting – in some cases they would not even be affected in a negative way (Newcastle Child Protection, 2002). However, only a few children will not have to deal with multiple, mounting and varying negative consequences and survive such a complex issue entirely unscathed. While a concrete pattern of effects can never be clearly determined due to the complexity of the issue, many of the children may be permanently affected in an adverse manner, either emotionally, physically, socially, intellectually or developmentally (ACPC, 2004). Problems include a variety of health and developmental issues, ineffective parenting, criminal activity, poverty, chaotic lifestyles and educational attainment, and have long been underestimated and an abandoned research field (Keen and Alison, 2001; HM Government, 2008).

The Children Act (1989, s17 (10)) defines a child in need as “unlikely to achieve or maintain, or to have the opportunity of achieving or maintaining, a reasonable standard of health or development without the provision for him of services by a local authority; his health or development is likely to be significantly impaired, or further impaired, without the provision for him of such services; or he is disabled”. In this context harm means “ill-treatment (sexual abuse and forms of ill-treatment which are not physical) or impairment of health (physical or mental health) or development (physical, intellectual, emotional, social or behavioural development)” (The Children Act 1989, s31 (9)).

Among hundreds of other prescribable substances, alcohol and opiates should be reduced or avoided at all during pregnancy. Although it is not possible to evaluate all the effects of drugs and alcohol to a full extend on a fetus, it is known that it can be damaging at any time during pregnancy (from conception onwards up to birth, with the first 3 months being particularly vulnerable), causing a variety of health and development problems.

Babies whose mothers were dependant on opiates or alcohol during their pregnancy are more likely to be smaller, of lower birth weight, premature and at higher risk of the sudden infant death (ACMD, 2003). Additionally the addicted mothers’ affected health and her possibly poor nutrition (high levels of sugar, not enough calcium, proteins, fruits and vegetables) often have an additional negative impact on the fetus’ physical and psychical development and the baby’s health.

If an unborn is exposed to maternal alcohol abuse, this cannot only lead to the familiar serious impairments related to substance abuse mentioned before, but also to a remarkably common developmental problem known as Foetal Alcohol Syndrome. Foetal Alcohol Syndrome includes a series of potential effects on children such as learning disabilities, heart defects, lower body weight, decreased height, facial deformities, vision and hearing difficulties, ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder), ADHD (Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity), conduct disorder and inappropriate behaviour (Dore et al., 1995).

Expecting women sharing injection equipment or working as prostitutes to finance their drug use, live with the constant threat of being infected with HIV or hepatitis B; for children born to drug dependent mothers who are infected with HIV, hepatitis C or hepatitis B, there is also a remarkably elevated risk to be also infected during pregnancy, birth or while being breastfed (ACMD, 2003).

Heavy and prolonged maternal substance abuse, both opiates and alcohol, will very likely expose the child to the Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome, which is a term for a range of problems a newborn may encounter when withdrawing from exposure to narcotics. Typical symptoms include high-pitched and excessively long periods of crying, shivering, sneezing, sweating and temperature, vomiting and diarrhea, feeding difficulties, disturbed sleeping patterns, convulsions,, irritability and hyperactivity, high sensitivity to touch, wild sucking, rapid breathing and cardiac action (Marcory and Harbin, 2000).

Despite the chance that appropriate antenatal care from the beginning would increase the possibility of a healthy and normal pregnancy and satisfactory development of the fetus, mothers involved with substance dependence often do not seek antenatal care, particularly due to their fear of being stigmatized. (Newcastle Child Protection, 2002).

As a baby grows older, the likelihood of experiencing some negative consequences due to its parents’ substance abuse is not diminished in any way and the impact will vary considerably, depending on several factors such as the child’s age and stage of development.

The establishment of a decent, confident and secure relationship to at least one caregiver in the early months has widely been recognized as the foundation of a child’s normal development. However, children of substance misusing parents often experience parental unavailability, inconsistent care and conflictual relationships (ACMD, 2003). A habit often lets a parent focus more on acquiring and using his drugs or alcohol rather than its children’s needs. Intoxication and coping with withdrawals symptoms lead to limited time, attention and emotional unavailability (Kroll and Taylor, 2000).

Further, children of drug and alcohol abusers often have to experience an enforced temporary or permanent separation or loss of a parent due to abandonment, hospitalization, imprisonment, treatment, removal or other emergencies (ACMD, 2003). All these points contribute to life-long complicated and insecure attachment.

The above-specified problems commonly also affect the nature and quality of parenting, which in turn often naturally results in further difficulties in a child’s development (ACMD, 2003). Research proves that many substance abusing parents lack exemplary models for parenting as they have received poor parenting and maltreatment themselves (Keen and Alison, 2001).

As dependence on a substance becomes central, parents are more likely to neglect their children which bears various risks and dangers them, regardless of their age group. Children may be inadequately supervised or left alone at home, exposed to preventable accidents and/or injuries (Kroll and Taylor, 2000). But not only children are at risk of accidents, also drugged or drunken adults are exposed to a higher level of self-induced incidents such as falls, forgetting food on the hob or falling asleep with still glowing cigarettes. Parents with an addiction repeatedly also tend to be unable to fulfill their children’s own basic needs so daily hygiene, a balanced diet and general health may suffer as well as stability, routines (such as bedtimes, getting up and out for school) and boundaries (Alison, 2000).

Further health risks may be provoked not taking children’s routine health appointments or problems seriously enough or careless disposal and therefore easy access to drugs, bottles, syringes and needles (Kroll and Taylor, 2000; Alison, 2000). There is also notable danger for children that have observed their parents using substances, copying them (ACMD, 2003).

“Girl, 2, dies drinking her mother’s methadone” (2002)

“Boy, 2, died after taking parents’ methadone” (2006)

“Boy, 14, dies after drinking methadone at his aunt’s flat” (2008)

Another consequence of parental unavailability is that children are often left alone with daily adult/parental responsibilities such as caring for their younger siblings, meeting their parents needs, managing finances and household chores (Kroll, 2004). Such additional and inadequate responsibilities may in turn result in the loss of social opportunities and poor academic performance of child- some research gives evidence that children miss school (regularly) by being kept at home due to caring responsibilities and left with little time to socialize.

Social isolation becomes more severe as the child grows older and starts to be careful about exposing family life to outsiders and lives in a circle of denial and secrecy due to shame and fear (ACMD, 2003).

Misusing drugs or alcohol does not only contribute to negligence but often goes hand and hand with other forms of child abuse and violence at home. The possibility of abuse and child maltreatment is enforced by the likelihood that children may be exposed to a number of possible dangerous strangers or inappropriate carers within their own home (Newcastle Child Protection, 2002). Research also reveals a lower tolerance level and moderate loss of temper associated with substance abuse, causing aggressive behaviour and resulting in violence to appear frequently (Kroll, 2004).

Emotional neglect and abuse is also an issue within a parental substance misusing environment. Children often either feel rejected and unloved by their parents as they concentrate and spend considerably more time on their destructive habit than with them, or embarrassed and often also guilty (Kroll, 2004). Maintaining an addiction is a financial burden, not only making it difficult to complete household costs, but also regularly leading to criminal activity to buy drugs or alcohol.

Children of addicted parents are also more likely to be exposed to early criminal conduct and/or its consequences – not infrequently because they have been with a parent while they had been committing a crime (ACMD, 2003). Although parents try and tend to hide their habit from their children, children sooner or later discover it and typically have to deal with it by themselves which usually adds to a variety of already existent behavioural problems due to the mentioned consequences of parental substance abuse – children tend to be more aggressive, feel upset or anxious and show anti-social behaviour (ACMD, 2003).

Negative parental examples and role models such as drug taking, alcohol abuse, crime, poor living conditions and inappropriate behaviour inevitably can lead a child to view their parents’ actions as being normal and approved so that substance abuse and outrageous conduct by themselves becomes more likely as they enter into their teens and adulthood (ACMD, 2003).

Research into child resilience has shown that key protective factors can have an enormous impact on preventing children from being damaged by parental substance misuse. The field of factors includes having a parent not misusing substances, a strong bond with a caring adult and support from extended family (Templeton and Velleman, 2007). Further to mention are a violence-free home, sufficient financial resources and an upstanding support system as well as educational success and involvement in different activities (19?). Working towards personal goals and dreams, taking education or career opportunities or even leaving the parental home are also common strategies to deal with experiencing substance abuse at home (Templeton and Velleman, 2007).

Parents generally are aware of the negative consequences and influence on their children, and they often experience a range of impacts as a result of their weakness which moreover will have follow-on affects for their children, for example in their parenting capacity. Many of them have experienced difficult childhoods and were poorly parented themselves – in this cases drugs or alcohol are often used to deal with a range of traumas and tension associated (Alison, 2000).

PROFESSIONALS

It is the reliability and function of all genres of professionals and agencies – including general practitioners, health visitors, doctors, midwifes, pediatricians, mental health services, family support services, treatment institutions, social services, police, educational settings and voluntary sectors – to safeguard and protect children. Safeguarding is equal to keep children safe from harm and abuse – both deliberate abuse as well as accidents, bullying and crime – and to promote their well-being and development in a healthy and safe environment (HM Government, 2006). Everyone having contact with children must be aware that it is not acceptable to remain sidelined if a child is in need or risk of harm (Lord Laming, 2003). However, it is noteworthy that each professional recognizes and accepts the limitations of his own roles and values the essential share of others (Keen and Alison, 2001) – otherwise everyone’s duty and the mission “to put a child’s welfare first” soon gets lost and remains no one’s responsibility (Inter-Agency Guidelines, (2008).

Challenges

When encountering parental substance abuse, all professionals face a series of dilemmas, conflicts and tensions in their work with children and adults. They often simply feel unprepared and lack the expertise, skills and training to focus and work effectively with adults and children to the same purpose, and even if they do have the proper training, professionals often just do not see their role in engaging with children or substance misusing parents (Templeton and Velleman, 2007). Professionals interviewed by Taylor and Kroll (2004) stated one after another that they lack training which covers child safeguarding and protection processes and feel inexperienced to work with children of drug and alcohol users, children in need or risk of harm. Additionally, there seems to be a common confusion among different agencies regarding their individual roles and therefore allocation of clear responsibilities. A large part of these issues lay in the individual and independent development of substance misuse services and child welfare approaches over the last years. While adult treatment services place the substance abusers first and often do not involve existing children, the primary purpose of child protection agencies are solely the children, generally not taking into account parents’ needs (Colby and Murrell, 1998 in Taylor and Kroll, 2004). But agencies working with children must also take into account the situation and the problems of the respective parents, being aware of the impact parents’ behaviour have on children. At the same time, services for adults must not ignore existing children, so a great cooperation between agencies and services is needed (Templeton and Velleman, 2007). Professionals and agencies have to deal with parents who may bot be easy to engage with, who may not want to cooperate with them, are reluctant to open up, tell the truth or prepare to change (Nottingham City ACPC, 2004). Therefore it can be a challenge to obtain, establish and maintain trusting relationships with either the parents or the effected children (Inter-Agency Guidelines, 2008). On the other hand, families with a drug and/or alcohol problem fear a range of consequences and rejection by opening themselves to professionals, which usually keeps them in a twist of silence and secrecy, thus preventing them access to support and help for themselves or their children (Nottingham City ACPC, 2004). Parents are often reluctant to approach services and seek treatment, have problems to confide in others and reveal their drug and/or alcohol problem as they particularly fear that any disclosure could lead to losing their children and that their family might be treated differently, stigmatized or denied by others (Nottingham City ACPC, 2004). Although confidentiality is a key principle for such agencies, no organization can guarantee it and in some cases, professionals have to share information, especially when a child’s welfare is at risk (The Stella Project, 2002).

SAFEGUARDING AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

As mentioned earlier in this article, agencies, services and professionals in touch with children or/and adults who are parents have a variety of responsibilities to safeguard children, assess their needs and promote their welfare. In the United Kingdom, considerable legislative framework exists for this purpose, with the Children Act 1989 and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child as the elementary and reforming pieces of child law. In general, the Children Act (1989) focuses on improving children’s lives and demands comprehensive services to all children as well as tailored ones for those with additional needs. It also clarifies that if a local authority “has reasonable cause to suspect that a child who lives, or is found, in their area is suffering, or is likely to suffer, significant harm, the authority shall make, or cause to be made, such enquiries as they consider necessary to enable them to decide whether they should take any action to safeguard or promote that child’s welfare” (The Children Act 1989, s47 (1)). The Children Act also provides the legal grounds for the five Every Child Matters (2003) outcomes in law – be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution, achieve economic well-being.

Later the Children Act (2004) implemented a requirement for local authorities and a range of agencies engaging with substance abusing parents to rank first the welfare and safety of their children. Local authorities and agencies are made responsible to determine if a child is in need and/or risk and then to take appropriate steps to protect him from (further) significant harm (ACMD, 2003). Further The Children Act (2004) focuses on co-operation to improve and secure the well-being of children. Early awareness and intervention is critical to reduce the numbers of child protection cases but assessment is an immensely complex process. When assessing the welfare of a child, practitioners must work sensitively and child-centred, analysing the parental substance misuse from the child’s position to better understand the impact upon his development and life (Lord Laming, 2003).

For a more standardized, coordinated, early and practical way to assess children’s individual needs, the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) was designed and forms part of the Every Child Matters (Lord Lamming, 2003). The Department of Health also provides the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, which is based on a more ecological approach. Further, all local authorities are required to have an Area Child Protection Committee to organize and supervise child protection measures. When determining that a child is at risk of significant harm, child protection procedures should immediately be initiated to ensure that the necessary referral is made to the social services (ACMD, 2003).

It is crucial that assessment is ongoing and changes are carefully monitored – when a parent is in treatment or free from drugs or alcohol dependence it does not necessarily mean that children do not longer suffer from any adverse consequences (Nottingham City ACPC, 2004). Further, if no concerns regarding the well-being of a child are established, professionals should remain in connection with the family and carefully observe them as harmless situations often quickly change into an unpredictable environment for the child (Newcastle Child Protection, 2002).

PROGRESS

Over the last years, there has been a wide range of Government initiatives, programmes, strategies and policies aimed at tackling (parental) substance misuse. The Updated Drug Strategy for England 2002, Models of Care for Alcohol Misusers, the Green Paper on Children at Risk, Extended Schools, the Children’s National Service Framework, Sure Start and Early Excellence Centres, mentioned above, are only some examples of key initiatives (ACMD, 2003; The Stella Project, 2002):

The Updated Drug Strategy for England in general specifies a variety of actions undertaken by the Government to tackle drug use and restrict the access to Class A (heroin, cocaine) drugs. Further it acknowledges that there is not enough attention given to children of drug dependent adults and thus more focus on helping them as well as addicted mothers is needed.

The Models of Care for Alcohol Misusers first effort is to identify, work towards and minimize negative consequences of alcohol abuse on children. In particular, this strategy also addresses abuse and domestic violence as the main associated problems with alcohol dependence.

The Green Paper on Children at Risk is a strategy addressing a series of key recommendations of the Laming Report and aiming to implement policies to improve the life chances of children.

The concept behind the Extended Schools project, initiated by the Department for Education and Skills, is that schools could create stronger relationships parents and children, motivate their pupils and so raise standards by offering a wider service such as adult education, health services and childcare.

The Children’s National Service Framework main goal is to reduce inequalities in health and social services as well as upgrading the overall standard of such services. The scheme specifically concentrates on the needs of children of drug and alcohol abusers.

Sure Start provides different services and support of all kind to all families in more disadvantaged areas and in cases of parental substance misuse, the Sure Start team will seek advice, refer to and work closely with the relevant practitioners and agencies. Early Excellence Centres were established to raise children’s welfare and development by working coordinated with other community agencies and offering advice, support, childcare, health services and early learning.

With a comprehensive legislative framework already established in the United Kingdom and several initiatives and programmes running, it does not seem especially needed to modify existing legislations or implement new ones or start more projects to protect children effectively. Nevertheless, those already existing must be fully understood and applied by practitioners in all areas, and everyone must clearly understand his responsibilities and those of the others (Lord Lamming, 2003).

However, the death of the children Baby P and Victoria Climbie are tragic examples of the failings in the child protection system.

Despite considerable commitment and progress made so far, challenges remain in the protection of children and their safeguarding as well as in the daily reality of practitioners. The issues mainly surround training, adequate levels of staffing, improvement of data systems and information sharing and better coordination and cooperation problematically (Lord Lamming, 2003).

REALITY

The exact number of minors suffering under parental substance abuse known to social services is not clearly determined. In 1999, Cleaver et al. estimated that around 25 to 60 percent of all children in child protection proceedings were living with a parent having a drug or alcohol problem. A more recent study of 290 child custody cases in four different London boroughs revealed that 34% (100 families) where affected by substance abuse, resulting in more than 50% of all children in care proceedings and over a third of all children on the child protection files being subjects of parental substance abuse (Forrester and Harwin, 2006). Both researchers also found that most affected children were under the age of five years.

Information sharing

Although the government set clear guidelines on sharing information with the publication of “Information sharing: Guidance for practitioners and managers” in 2008, breaching confidentiality, information sharing and data protection still remain some o

It is staggering to know that thousands of children are maltreated in ways that are detrimental to their developmental and psychological growth. Widespread concern about the issue was initially triggered in the 1960s to raise awareness of the plight of the ‘battered child’. Research has recognised numerous risk and protective factors commonly associated with child abuse. This essay will deal with the parental risk factors and will take into account the measures that afford protection against them.

Some forms of child maltreatment are related to parental competency due to age, temperament or a personal history with child abuse. However, a good deal of abuse and neglect is linked to sources of stress where marital conflicts, domestic violence, and the lack of a stable social network play significant causal roles. Having said that, no single factor can be definitive in determining risk and so they require simultaneous consideration. Despite the causes, family protective factors can reduce maltreatment rates by promoting positive parent-child relationships, encouraging extended family support and by building parental resilience.

When addressing the question of intervention, knowledge of the risk and protective factors implicated in child mistreatment can minimise risk. By recognising the complex interaction of factors that affect susceptibility to maltreatment, professionals can implement programmes specifically designed to protect children at risk. Therefore understanding the causes of maltreatment is crucial to preventing the problem.

Child maltreatment is a complex and pervasive problem that cuts across all sectors of society, where even defining the term ensues in an inherent complication. During the 1960s, the growing prevalence of abused children lead to the introduction of the term ‘battered child syndrome.’ This term, seen as a narrowly defined, was broadened so as not to simply infer to physical abuse. In 1997, the World Health Organisation drafted a definition of child maltreatment to encompass both emotional and physical injury but also negligent treatment.

Risk factors are characteristics where certain behaviours or conditions will likely play a contributory role in child mistreatment. Although some are not direct causes, circumstances in which these factors exist make a child highly vulnerable to experiencing maltreatment. However, there are also factors that offer a protective effect which mediate against risk and therefore can increase the well-being of children and families.

When determining risk in familial child maltreatment, it is necessary to examine the role of the parent as he is often the direct perpetrator. Temperament is significant when trying to understand why parents abuse their children. Influence of an individual’s psychological capacity on parental functioning can be found in investigations of mentally disturbed adults. Baldwin, Cole and Baldwin (1982) have revealed that families with a parent suffering from a psychotic disorder were less interactive and exhibited less warmth than families without. Mental illness can distort a parent’s judgement to a point where he is no longer competent to make decisions about a child’s needs.

Strong evidence implicating psychological factors in the etiology of child maltreatment derives from reports of intergeneration cycles of abuse (Spinetta and Rigler, 1972; Sherrod, et al., 1986). Parents who were victims of child mistreatment themselves gives rise to the common perception that being a victim is a determinant for turning into an abuser, yet there is a lack of substantial evidence. Undoubtedly, a history of abuse is a considerable risk factor alone but child maltreatment is determined by a complex interaction of rick and protective factors; factors which differentiate between repeaters and non-repeaters.

Notwithstanding, parents who were mistreated as children are less likely to become victimisers if they resolve internal conflicts related to that history of abuse. To further reduce risks, it is also important if parents have a supportive spouse and good social supports (Hunter and Kisltrom, 1979).

However, adults who were rejected as children become emotionally insulated from interpersonal relations and are unable to give affection or form a close bond with their children (Kempe and Kempe, 1978). This returns attention to the psychiatric make up of the individual abuser and shows how interrelated causal factors are.

Competent parenting can also be associated with psychological maturity; another determinant of maltreatment. Therefore, age serves as a indication of maturity and parental aptitude as young mothers may posses less desirable child-rearing attitudes than older mothers. Having said that, age also accounts for poor or inaccurate parenting skills as teen-parents will lack the fundamental understanding of a child’s needs. Having unrealistic expectations about a child’s progress may culminate in inappropriate punishments where conclusive studies presented by Straus (1992), and Flanagan et al., (1995), report that teenage mothers tend to exhibit higher rates of child abuse.

Protective factors aimed at minimising these risks should support parents with their child-rearing skills and teach sensitive parenting techniques. By providing parent education classes for new and especially for teen parents can inform them about normal child development and what to expect from their children at specific ages. Yet, this protective factor is not well-suited for all as some parents may be reluctant to attend parent-group meetings.

Social conditions create stresses that undermine family functioning where specific situations may exacerbate certain emotions of the family members affected. Hostility and frustration can resultantly aggravate the level of familial maltreatment.

Marital relationships serve as a principle support system for parents and so conflicts can elicit child maltreatment. Family dissolution can burden an individual and research indicates that children living with single-parents may be at a higher risk of experiencing abuse and neglect than children with two biological parents (Finkelhor, et al., 1997). The sole burden of family responsibilities linked together with fewer supports can contribute to the risk of single-parents mistreating their child.

Children in violent homes who witness intimate partner violence are subsequently at risk for being maltreated themselves. Appel and Holden (1998) have found that spousal abuse and child maltreatment co-exist in 30-60% of families. Even if children are not maltreated, they still experience harmful emotional consequences as witnessing violence teaches likewise behaviour or warrants it as appropriate and the child may resort to using violent action later in life. This draws attention back to the ‘victim to offender’ hypothesis.

In addition to a family system, interpersonal relations, between relatives and friends are essential when considering risks. Parents who are isolated with few social connections are at higher risk for maltreating their children. Hetherington, Cox and Cox (1977) have found that the support received from significant others exert a beneficial impact on parent-child relations. This data shows how a stable social network is positively linked with parents’ sense of competence in the care-giving role and evidently can lessen maltreatment rates. But its not merely about having several social connections but the quality of them as-well.

It is interesting however that in these cases of support, the mediating role of the parent’s psychological well-being is pivotal. Marital relations do not influence parenting directly but instead promote positive attitudes in an individual and thereby influence parenting capabilities (Gamble and Belsky, 1984). Similarly, social relations may serve to enhance the psychological functioning of the parent. Sources of stress and support thus strongly affect parental competence, as although unfavourable relations contribute to the etiology of abuse, the quality of the relationship is influenced by personality; correspondingly, they produce bi-directional affects.

Parental substance abuse, is also predictive of child maltreatment when daily stresses of raising children prove challenging especially when accompanied with multiple life stressors such as an history of abuse or marital conflicts. Substance misuse interferes with mental functioning and subsequently make parents less available to children, as Forrester (2000) confirms that substance abuse is strongly related to neglect. It may also explain some of the attachment difficulties that can occur, since healthy development requires parental responsiveness to the needs of a child. Being intoxicated can again negatively influence parental discipline choices and lead to violent tendencies towards a child. Simultaneously, these risk factors can affect a parent’s capacity to cope effectively but by reaching out to a support system can help build resilience against stressful circumstances.

The interactive play of risk and protective factors provoke familial child maltreatment but it can be prevented regardless. Early identification of causes and outlining the compensatory factors can lead to effective interventions to protect the child involved. Helfer and Kempe (1976) have argued that preventing child abuse entails predicting its occurrence. Therefore, it is clear that professionals need awareness of the several factors that create contexts for maltreatment so that intervention programmes employ a multi-sectoral approach.

By acknowledging the factors, intervention strategies can be implemented to minimise the underlying risks; encourage reaching out to family and friends, but also to strengthen the protective factors; advanced prenatal care and home-visitor networks (Halperin, 1979; Parke & Collmer, 1975). Moreover, when enforcing intervention strategies, the treatment of parents should be coordinated to that of children as the potentials for change in parent-child relationships and parental attitudes is maximised (Olds, 1983).

However, risk factors have limitations in predicting specific instances of abuse as the determinants in one family may not necessarily result in child maltreatment in another. Furthermore, an individual may not have the emotional resources to cope adequately with the demands of parenting and so intervention must be able to address these implications. Additionally, extensive evaluations need to be conducted to ascertain the effectiveness of short and long-term intervention programmes.

PARENTALE VIEW OF ACCEPTANCE ON CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

OR

STUDY ABOUT CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS PARENTALE VIEW

(NAVI MUMBAI AREA)

Introduction
Disability

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) expresses that, disability results from the communication between persons with difficulties and attitudinal and natural obstructions that upset their full and compelling investment in the public arena on an equivalent premise with others. Again it stresses that person with disabled, incorporate the individuals who have long haul physical, mental, knowledgeable or physical disabled, which in cooperate with different boundaries may obstruct their full and powerful interest in the public eye on an equivalent premise with others.

Prevalence of Disability

A worldwide figure of 335 million parent’s with moderate and extreme disabilities, of whom 70% are existing in the creating scene, has been assessed focused around the UN populace insights for 2000 (Helander, 1998).

The Census of 2001 has uncovered that in excess of 21 million individuals in India or 2.1% of the aggregate populace have one or the other sort of Disability of which 12.6 million are guys and 9.3 million are females. However the number of Disable is more in rural and urban territories. Such extent of the debilitated by sex in provincial and urban territories has been accounted for between 57-58 percent for guys and 42-43 percent females.

Among the five sort of Disability on which information has been gathered, Visual impairment at 48.5% rises as the top classification. Others in arrangement are: locomotor impairment (27.9%), Mental (10.3%), speech impairment (7.5%), and hearing impairment (5.8%). The impaired by sex take after a comparable example with the exception of that the extent of Disabled females is higher if there should be an occurrence of visual and hearing impairment (Census,2001)

Visual Impairment

As per the PWD Act, 1995, visual impairment (low vision) indicates to a condition where a person has any of the associated conditions including total lack of sight, visual activity not greater 6/60 or 20/200 (Snellen) in the better eye with redressing lenses; or confinement of the field of vision subtending an edge of 20 degree or more regrettable.

Hearing Impairment

Hearing Impairment as considered by the PWD Act 1995 suggests the loss of sixty decibels or all the more in the better ear in the routine scope of regularities. Persons with gentle or moderate listening to misfortune have not been incorporated in the classification of persons with hearing impairment. Just persons with serious, significant and collective listening to hindrance have been incorporated in this class.

Parental reaction and stereotypes to Visual Impairment and Hearing Impairment

Because of the powerlessness of most parents to comprehend the ramifications of visual weakness, it is seen as impairment. One compelling, reaction is indifference, the other great is the condition of over-assurance, in light of the fact that parent’s feel that their child with visual impairment is without all human capacities of being a dynamic part of the general public. Parents feel the beginning of a child with visual impairment to be importance of some misbehavior. Subsequently in their own dissatisfaction the child is ignored. Commonly, the expectancy forecast comes to be genuine; the child creates into an individual who can’t help socially or monetarily to the family and society. Disregard causes certain identity issues. The child needs to take in certain fundamental living aptitudes however overprotection denies the child all the common desires of society. Between the two finishes of the range containing neglect and overprotection, the discrepant conduct of parent’s, adds to the issues of the child with visual hearing impairment. Discrepant conduct indicates to the gap between what an individual says and what an individual feels and does. Genuine sentiments are once in a while communicated as they may be socially unsuitable. Obviously there is full acknowledgement of child with visual hearing impairment yet privately, it might be hard to acknowledge a child who is viewed as responsibility, a purpose behind social remark and feedback. Unmistakable dismissal is sensible yet secretly dismissal in some cases stays undetected, which harms the child mentally. It not just effects his/her development and social connections additionally his/her own self idea, the very basic of a person’s improvement.

Families who view visual impairment as a “discipline for a wrongdoing”, for instance, feel sorry and cover this “confirmation of sin” from parent’s in general, bringing about disregard of the child with visual impairment. Few parent’s feel that the family relations, for example, the marriage for different parts of the family, or even the reputation of the family itself, would be unfair, if the visual impairment child is presented to general society, again bringing about confinement of the child from formative encounters (Kundu2000).

The early years of child with basic hearing impairment regularly comprise of encounters that abandon them confused and irritate. Distressed parents hesitate between foreswearing, outrage, blame and despondency from one viewpoint and an overprotective love on alternate as they search for enchanted cures. Parental responses to the determination of the impairment parallel the pain reaction that has been depicted by Kubler Ross (1969). The vacuum hard of hearing babiesaˆY experience is best represented by Brazeltons (1974) finding that the mothers voice is additionally calming that her visual presence for babies. Consideration looking for and fits are showed by the children as they were not able to make themselves or their needs caught on. Glades (1980) in a broad survey of writing discovered frequencies of enthusiastic and behavioral issues going from 8% to 30% are extensively higher in child with hearing impairment than those experienced in the all-inclusive community of school-age child’s.

Families and their children with disability

A family having a child with disability first tries to wind up mindful of the issues their child with incapacity is challenging and searches out the reason for the issues and consequently searches for arrangements. In spite of the fact that the vicinity of a child with a physical disability require not make a family emergency, the shame of incapacity forced by society can be aggressive to the parent’s and the crew. Former examination shows that parental responses to having a child with disabled, range from disavowal, projection of accuse, blame, misery, withdrawal, dismissal and acknowledgement of their child. The folks’ religion may be straightforwardly identified with the level of acknowledgement of the child with disability. Moelsae and Moelsae (1985) contemplated the resistances of relatives to watch the responses of the family when confronted with brokenness in one of its parts and found that the birth of a disabled child interrupted on the ordinary life cycle of the family, prompting an emergency. The main response in the parent’s was frequently opposition, yet in any case acknowledgement was arrived.

Examination demonstrates that a wide mixture of components may help both the acknowledgement and the concern experienced by groups of child with disability (Singer & Irvin, 1989). These variables incorporate child qualities, for example, age, indicative class, consideration giving requests and behavioral attributes (Beckman, 1983). The capacity of the parents to cope with stressors in general (Rabkin & Steunings, 1976) and parental convictions about the reason for disability (Lavelle and Keogh, 1980) are qualities that may influence acknowledgement.

The sorts and accessibility of both formal and casual frameworks and systems of help, for example, family, companions and experts are additionally thought to help family acknowledgement (Dunst, 1983). A solid relationship between social backing and family adjustment to stretch coming about because of managing life moves and discriminating occasions has been reported (Unger & Powell, 1980).

Crisis and Acceptance

The possible responses of parents of children with disability may incorporate resentment, Humiliation, concern, tension, dissent, perplexity, dismissal, vacillation, severity, over-insurance, disgrace, self-centeredness, stun, profound torment, distress, melancholy, threatening vibe, grieving, wish to murder or suicide endeavors.

Parental responses can likewise be separated three sorts of emergency. The principal sort is called “the emergency of progress” and it originates from the event of a startling change in the individual life and acumen toward oneself. This is not a response to the disability essentially, rather to the sudden change in life circumstances. The second kind of emergency is joined with the change of individual values as an aftereffect of the particular emergency. Most parents have been taught as indicated by a moral framework that worries singular individual capacities and accomplishments. The birth of a disabled child requires parents to love a significant figure – their child, who is denied of the capacity to give a feeling of accomplishment. The result is bivalent emotions around the child. A third kind of emergency is called “the emergency of reality” and it comes from the unforgiving target conditions framed by the need to raise a child with Disability: monetary challenges, limitation of the parents’ free time, and the extraordinary arrangement of time that parent’s are obliged to give their child (Dunst & Trivette, 1986).

Groups of child’s with Disability ordinarily encounter every one of the three emergencies; however these are not so much equivalent. A few emergencies will last more than others. On the off chance that the family succeeds in meeting parent’s high expectations and persisting through these emergencies it achieves the phase of acknowledgement, i.e. – acknowledgement of the child. At present acknowledgement the family is fit for starting to support itself and for the child with disability as per an expert arrangement, to tackle the clash, and to acknowledge the child regardless of the limits. The writing does not push positive conduct of adapting, as it has a tendency to portray negative parts of the adapting methodology. There are parent’s who respond suitably to a circumstance in which they must live with a child with disability. These are parent’s who deliberately adjust to their child. So as to achieve the phase of acknowledgement and to encourage the child’s headway and recovery, the child’s genuine circumstance must be acknowledged and the issue must be recognized. To achieve a harmony between inordinate desires, which end in dissatisfaction, and “surrendering”, it is important to make a central change in methodology. For this reason it is paramount to have essential confidence in the child’s potential, whatever the Disability. At this stage the parent’s search down answers for their issue and approaches to help their child’s progress. They figure out how to admire their internal quality to manage the burden and consider elective arrangements. They figure out how to comprehend the pith of the pain and the breaking points inside which the child may create towards freedom. They figure out how to utilize existing group administrations and profit from them.

Families that acknowledge their child with Disability are characterized as being in a condition of harmony between recognition of the child’s limitations and looking to make up for these limits, while likewise abstaining from loading of intra-family correspondence forms. Four attributes of the methodology of acknowledgement have been recognized.

LITERATURE REVIEW

As per Indian registration 2011 just expand 2.21% incapacity contrast with evaluation 2001 2.13%. Instruction framework absence of mindfulness data on child with disabled. As per family structure relying upon class, cast, and customary social on otherworldly accept, philanthropy approach, and so on. Efficient class bunch, social disgrace, rely on upon experience adapting instrument, MSJ&E Govt. of India According to National Trust Act 1999 for the welfare of Person with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation & Multiple Disability Act. (Act 44 of 1999). Commonness appraisals demonstrate that there may be upwards of two million individuals in India with a mental imbalance.

Universal Classification of Disease (ICD-10; World Health Organization, 1992) these analytic develops have since ‘gone around the globe’ as confirm by the presence of national associations for extreme in excess of 80 nations (Daley 2002, p. 532) regarding India specifically, information of western psychiatry and brain science first touch base with British expansionism (Daley, 2004).a “Child demonstrating schizophrenic conduct’ was initially said in 1959 (Batliwalla, 1959, p.351) and child with special needs research particularly exploration has generously expanded since then (Daley,2004 ). Sustained proficient concentrate in a mental imbalance being in the late 1980s and 1990s (Krishnamurthy, 2008) and autism is presently broadly perceived in medicinal political, and legitimate loops in India.

METHODOLOGY

The center of this study is to investigate parental acknowledgement and adapting for parents of children with disability. This is a subjective study, families are dynamic working units over and over impelled from circumstances of dependability and parity to those of advancement and change. Parent’s and their families advance inside a solitary framework, always striving for parity. The conception of a child with disability makes a serious rupture of this parity and the family experiences a troublesome experience (Kandel & Merrick, 2003).

Parent’s are the principal and most imperative connection in the consideration, instruction, and supervision of their child with disability. Capable writing managing parent’s’s examples of adapting to rising a child with disability depicts a wide range of examples, going from responses of grieving and emergency to those of acknowledgement (Kandel, Morad, Vardi & Merrick, 2005).

Objectives:
To increase knowledge into the way parent’s understand the significance of acknowledgement of their child with special needs and the different appearances of their acknowledgement while associating with and raising their child with disability.
To investigate shifted variables that impact parental acknowledgement of child with disability.
To comprehend diverse adapting components utilized by folks to adapt to their child with disability encouraging acknowledgement.
Interview Guide

1. Demographic Information: a. Name:

b. Age:

c. Address: d. Sex:

e. Family Profile:

Name:

Relation To The Child

Age:

Educational Qualification

Occupation

Income Per Month

f. Type of Disability: g. Nature of Disability:

h. Description of The House: i. Religion:

j. Caste:

k. Do you have Disability Certificate? If no Why?

2. Reaction when they first came to know about the pregnancy

3. Questions about marriage: Consanguine, Single Parents Single Parents

4. Health of the mother during pregnancy

5. Expectations of parents for the child: Future, Gender, Physical Qualities

6. Anticipation of Disability

7. Reaction when the child was born

8. Treatment Done

9. IfAcquired, what were the causes

10. Do you consider your child as having disability?

11. Do other parent’s think your child has a disability?

12. Spiritual Beliefs

13. Perceived identity of the child

a. What comes to your mind when you see your child? b. What all do you like about your child?

c. What are the difficulties you face with the child?

14. Perceived Capabilities of the child

a. self care b. mobility

c. communication

d. interpersonal relations e. social relations

f. other talents

15. Awareness about the disability

a. What do you know about the disability? b. From where did you get the information?

16. Behavioral practices 17. Child rearing practices 18. Questions on coping

a. primary appraisal: identification of the stressor b. secondary appraisal: identify the resources

c. coping efforts

Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA), Forest Rights Act and the tribal situation in India

“The interplay of tribal friendly rights and government apathy”

Introduction

The enactment of the PESA (The panchayat extension to schedule areas act, 1996) aimed for devolution of power to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in the scheduled areas at the grass-root level. While, the FRA (Forest Rights Act, 2006) emphasizes on recognition of claim over the forestland of which the tribals have been inhabitants for generations. However, the legislation has been unsuccessful in mainstreaming the tribals; as well as there have been serious cases of violation creating uproar among the indigenous communities. Since, both the legislation have interdependence in terms of their functioning it becomes very important for one to have a clear understanding of both the acts and their implication in present settings. The paper is an attempt to discuss the so-called tribal friendly acts the PESA and the FRA. The paper starts with the historical background that lead to the formation of the acts followed by some basic features of the act laid down for identifying the basic right of the tribal population and their claim over rights. The discussion follows with a case study on violation of these rights.

Forests Rights Act 2006

Historical Background

The first enactment of the forest rights act was during the colonial periods in British India in the year 1865. The British government drafted the act to oversee the claims by different communities who used the forest traditionally for centuries to procure minor forest produce. On the other hand, the act empowered the British government to demarcate any forest as government forest and accordingly make rules for its management. In fact, the 1865 act termed the forest as worthless and the communities could use it unhindered. However, soon when the demand for use of timber in the railways rise the colonial government embarked upon the idea of bringing a new act that could curtail free use of forest produce. The previous act defined unhindered use of forest produce but the new act specified issue of unwarranted arrest of anyone found offending the new law. Thus, the new law exercised the full control of the state over the forests. Under previous act, any land that has green cover can be declared as a forestland.

However; the provisions itself restricted the state to plant trees on a barren land and declare it a forestland. The earlier act also had no mentioning of principles on which a state or certain communities could manage a forest. Similarly, rights on hunting and grazing unmentioned under the previous act, which individuals were accustomed-to. Thus, the colonial government allowed the use of forest by the communities as a privilege but with no legal sanction. In this way, the colonial Government set out to draft a new law where it could exercise full control over a forest. Thus, under the new draft the categorization of forest made (reserved, protected or village) basing upon its valuable use for future and provisions made to safeguard the same. A restriction on grazing was mandated and protection of certain species of plants maintained by the new law to disallow the communities to withdraw minor forest produce including timber. Thus, the Indian Forest Act of 1867 came into being including all the provision where the state had full control over the Indian forest.

The new act also took under consideration of the communities that practiced shifting cultivation by settlements made by the appointed settlement officer on claims made. Thus, new set of provisions clearly demarcated the category of forest to be a reserve, protected or a village forest.

However, certain amendments were made to the existing forest acts of 1867, as amended acts of 1927 that included the provisions of imprisonment to violators of the previous acts. Provisions like levying of duties on extracting the timber produce out of the forest. Nevertheless, some consolation were also made on grazing of animals because of increasing conflict between the forest dwellers and the officials.

THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF FORESTS RIGHTS) ACT, 2006

The ministry of tribal affairs implements the provisions made under the act. The act came into effect from 31.12.2007. The present act aims at recognizing the forest rights and occupations of the traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in the forestland for generations. The act also has provisions to legitimate the claims of present forest dwellers of their ancient lands whose rights could not be recorded during the colonial period and ensures the same through a framework. However, the right does not allow the unhindered use of the forestland. A traditional dweller can use the forestland for livelihoods only if sustainable for the forest and guarantees to maintain ecological balance as well as the diversity. Some amendments were also made in 2012 regarding the disposal and sale of minor forest produce with exemption from any fees or royalties.

Some basic provisions of the act are as follows:

An individual if belonging to a member of a traditional forest dwelling community has the right to reside in a forestland for the purpose of habitation or any socio-economic activities like cultivation
One can collect minor forest produce within or beyond the village boundary if a traditional forest dweller
Community rights to fishing and grazing of cattle if belonging to nomadic or pastoral communities
Provisions of community tenure for primitive tribes over a forest land
For claims over a piece of land by conversion of pattas to titles by the local authority
The act provisions conversion of old unsurveyed forest villages into revenue villages whether or not it had any previous evidence of any form of ratification
Customary rights to traditional forest dweller over village forest
Non-diversion of forest land that involves felling of not more than 75 trees per hectare for government structure like schools, hospitals, anganwadis or electric/telephone lines or any other government projects
Prior permission of gram sabha if at all such structures are built for benefit of the people
A community has to be resettled and equally compensated if displaced from a conserved or protected forest that to with prior permission of the gram sabha

Panchayat (Extension to Schedule Areas) Act 1996

Historical background of the act

The act was enacted as an extension to the 73^rd amendment act, for self-governance at grass-root level in schedule v and schedule VI areas. The formation of the schedule areas can be traced back to history during the colonial period with the delineating of extremely backward tribal regions into schedule areas. The areas were scheduled under the Scheduled District Act of 1874, further classification into two broad categories were made under the Government of India Act of 1935. The northeastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram declared as schedule VI areas whereas the rest of the tribal areas in different states delineated as schedule V areas.

The government of India during the implementation of the Panchayati Raj Act found it difficult to exclude the schedule areas under its ambit. Since, the schedule areas act does not provide legal sanctions to the 73^rd amendment. There was also huge uproar since the Tribal Advisory Council and the Autonomous District Council in the schedule V and schedule VI areas respectively holds exclusive rights to administer tribal areas. Moreover, the respective council holds exclusive power to repeal or amend any legislation regarding the administration of the schedule areas under its jurisdiction. Thus, the government of India in 1994 set up a committee chaired by Dileep Singh Bhuria to submit recommendations on providing a framework for administration of the scheduled areas. All the provisions in the 73^rd amendment are applicable in schedule areas but only with certain exceptions and modifications.

The PESA provisions for democratic participation in decision-making processes at grass-root level, the basic features of the act are as follows:

provisions for panchayat to safeguard the customary laws and traditional social and religious practices
Rights for villages or habitation to manage its affairs according to traditional and customary laws
Gram sabha to safeguard the traditions and customs of the people and resolve dispute according to the customary laws
Gram sabha to approve all government developmental projects at village level
Gram sabha to decide on the identification of beneficiaries for government schemes
Proportionate reservation of seats in panchayat elections
Gram sabha or panchayats to decide on land acquisition for development projects with proper rehabilitation of the affected person
Panchayat or gram sabha to grant mining lease and prospecting license for minor minerals
Concerned state government through panchayats and gram sabha to prevent alienation of land alienated illegally and restoration of such land
to ensure management of minor water bodies

Case studies

The case of Niyamgiri tribes

A serious violation of Forest Rights Act and PESA can be seen in Niyamgiri where the Orissa government signed a joint agreement with the state owned Orissa Mining Corporation and the Vedanta Alumina to set up an alumina refinery. The region is the place of indigenous Dongaria tribes who have lived there for almost two centuries. The company plans to extract bauxite from the Niyamgiri hills; for its proposed alumina refinery at Lanjigarh in the Koraput district of Orissa. The hills are also their place of worship for generations, to a male deity “Niyam Raja Penu.” The Dongaria tribes consider themselves the descendants of the Niyam raja. Thus, the Niyamgiri hills are not just a place of cultural heritage to the tribal community but also of economic importance to the state government for its rich bauxite mines.

The government in its series of violation granted mining lease without the consultation of the local tribes. The government also hurried in giving environmental clearance to let the company to set up its unit without studying the environmental impacts of the project. The company in its part violated the basic norms of not conducting the gram sabhas or consulting the panchayats to carry on the project. Moreover, there is no concrete plan of rehabilitation and resettlement of the tribes facing displacement due to the project. The local tribes on the other hand have no plans to negotiate with the company, since they consider it as an invasion into their homeland. The government in its obsession to pursue economic desires violated the fundamental rights of its own citizens against all legalities. The central empowered committee of the Supreme Court also found lot of illegalities against the central government in granting mining lease to the company. Moreover, the region belongs to the scheduled areas thus it becomes a serious issue since the constitution mandates non-transfer of tribal land to non-tribal.

Apart from being rich in minerals, the region is also a place of numerous wildlife animals declared vulnerable. The Dongaria known for their primitive way of life are alien to the outside world. They have been practicing sustainable agriculture depending upon the forest for their livelihood. The name Dongaria itself derives its name from dongar that means ones whose agriculture land are at the hills.

However, the Supreme Court ruling on November 27, 2007 provided some respite to the agitating tribal by putting temporary ban on bauxite mining. On the other hand, it also provided the company with an escape clause to request for fresh proposal if it abides by all the guidelines pertaining to the law. Despite regular opposition, the government is adamant to its decision to give the company a free run. Repeated protest from the civil society and Ngo’s has also undeterred the government in its stance.

Nevertheless, the government looks keen to facilitate the company in whatsoever situation or allegation of violation of any constitutional rights.

Conclusion

Although, certain legislations have been implemented starting from the colonial to the post-independence era in the name of tribals they lacked basic understanding of the tribal rights. The acts and laws on one hand guarantees to safeguard the fundamental rights as enshrined in the constitution. On the other hand, the state itself comes up as the biggest violator of the rights of its citizen. The tribal communities have been subjugated to exploitation from time to time and their voices suppressed by use of force by the state. The acts as always termed to be tribal friendly and talks of promoting their rich cultural and social values along with an aim to mainstream them with various developmental projects. However, the state has always failed in its every attempt to listen the voices of the marginalized and still alienates them from not only their land but from worldly affairs.

References

Guha, R. (1983). Forestry in British and post-British India: A historical analysis.Economic and Political Weekly, 1882-1896.
Ray, S., & Saini, S. (2011). Development and Displacement: The Case of an Opencast Coal Mining Project in Orissa.Sociological Bulletin, 45-64.
Sahu, G. (2008). Mining in the Niyamgiri Hills and tribal rights.Economic and Political Weekly, 19-21.
Sharan, R. (2005). Alienation and restoration of tribal land in Jharkhand: Current issues and possible strategies.Economic and Political Weekly, 4443-4446.
Upadhyay, S. (2003). JFM in India: Some legal concerns.Economic and Political Weekly, 3629-3631.

Discrimination is a real and distressing problem that continues to exist in modern day society. A sociological term that describes the attitudes and treatments adopted by members of mainstream society towards persons of specific groups on the sole basis of group or category, it is often translated into harmful and diminishing behaviour by members of the dominant group towards other groups (Stone, 2005, p 23-49). Discrimination takes place against various groups on the basis of a range of factors including religion, race, gender, income, sexual preference, age and disability (Stone, 2005, p 23-49). Evidenced regularly in the behaviour of the more powerful segments of society against members of less powerful groups, discriminatory behaviour stems from deeply entrenched and socialised beliefs and is often unintentionally and unconsciously expressed. The recent statement by Barrack Obama comparing his bowling skills to those of the participants of the Special Olympics starkly illustrates the deeply entrenched attitudes of ridicule and condescension with which most “normal” people, irrespective of their education, achievements, stature, and position view people with disabilities (Riley, 2009, p1).

The last few decades, especially the ones that commenced with the closure of the Second World War, have witnessed an increasing awareness among advanced western nations of the special needs of physically and mentally disabled people, their inherent right to enjoy the privileges and dignities available to members of mainstream societies and the obligations that societies have with regard to meeting their requirements (Barnes, 2000, p 17-45).

This short essay aims to examine the causes of discrimination and oppression against disabled persons, the impact of such discrimination on the lives of disabled people and their carers, and the role of social work, especially through the use of anti-discrimination and anti-oppression theory and practice, in integrating them into mainstream society.

Disability Discrimination

Disability represents an umbrella description for limitation of activity, restriction in participation, and physical or mental impairment of any kind. Discriminatory behaviour on the other hand, whilst occurring in many forms, essentially involves some type of rejection or exclusion for members of specific groups.

Barnes, et al, (2002, p 168), states that disability theory is defined by its focus on oppression and social exclusion of disabled people. The barriers that lead to such exclusion and oppression are contained in the policies and practices that are fundamental to the medical model approach to disability. The individual/medical model of disability has for long dominated service delivery. It perpetuates numerous myths about disability and impairment, chiefly that such people are ill, helpless, and incapable of running their lives and furthermore useless (Miller, et al, 2010, p 17-39). Disabled people, in terms of the medical model, are reduced to the medical circumstances that account for their mental and physical characteristics, even as little account is taken of the economic or social circumstances in which people experience such medical conditions. The medical model perceives disability as an individual tragedy needing medical solutions, personal adjustment and professional rehabilitation (Miller, et al, 2010, p 17-39). With the problems of disabled people being perceived to be a result of their impairment, disabled people are categorised as people who have inadequately functioning bodies, who look and behave differently, and who cannot carry out productive work. Such perspectives are perpetuated by an environment in which normality and abnormality is decided by experts who wish to maintain and enhance the superiority of their expertise. The control and authority of these people over the circumstances of disabled people affects them inexorably and profoundly (Miller, et al, 2010, p 17-39).

The medical model is followed by organisations like the WHO and most agencies in-charge of delivering services like health, rehabilitation and education, as well as by employers (Miller, et al, 2010, p 17-39). Assuming specific assumptions about handicap, disability and impairment, such institutions socially exclude disabled people and isolate them into institutionalised lifestyles (Miller, et al, 2010, p 17-39).

Thompson (1997) advances sociological reasons behind discrimination and resultant oppression, stating that such behaviour occurs out of deeply entrenched personal, cultural and infrastructural perceptions. Personal attitudes relate to views held by individuals about certain groups of people and are essentially based on personal likes and dislikes. Such views are supported and enhanced by cultural views that arise out of communalities or shared values and beliefs. Cultural views arise from the interaction of individuals with other people in their social, cultural and working environment. Discriminatory and oppressive attitudes are finally enhanced through structural conditions that are provided by institutions, including the media, religion and government and serve to strongly consolidate personal and cultural biases (Thompson, 1997, p 21-43).

Impact of Discrimination upon Disabled Persons

History is replete with instances of torture of disabled people. The Spartans killed the disabled under legal sanction (Macha, 2001, p 1). Martin Luther authorised the killing of disabled children because they were believed to be incarnations of the devil. European Eugenicists, influenced by Darwinian theories about the survival of the fittest, terminated the lives of disabled people. Hitler exterminated disabled people because he thought that they did not contribute to society. Approximately four hundred thousand intellectually impaired girls were sterilised by force during the Nazi era (Macha, 2001, p 1).

Disability discrimination, whilst not exercised with such virulent and criminal intensity, continues to disadvantage millions of people across the globe (Barnes, 2000, p 17-45). The physical and mental handicaps of people with disabilities are substantially aggravated by the extensive discrimination they face in different social settings, including the job market and the environment in which they work (Barnes, 2000, p 17-45). Discriminatory attitudes in western society result in numerous disadvantages for disabled people in areas of employment, access to public transportation, access to public facilities and eligibility for housing. Most employers tend to perceive disabled employees as expensive problems and the chances of a disabled person, despite disability discrimination legislation, getting a job are far less than that of someone who is not disabled (Barnes, 2000, p 17-45).

David Ruebain, (2009, p1), a disabled person campaigning for the rights of individuals with disabilities, provides some starkly disturbing facts about the plight of the disabled in the UK, arguably one of the most advanced of global societies. Ruebain reveals that discrimination continues to be prevalent in UK society. Investigations reveal that the overwhelming majority of the polling stations in the general elections cannot be accessed by independently voting disabled people (Reubain, 2009, p 1). The chances of a non-disabled person being called for an interview against responses to public advertisements are 11.5 times that of a disabled individual. A study by the Mental Health Charity, MIND found that 47% of the surveyed people with mental health impairments had been publicly abused or harassed, even as 49% had faced abuse at home, 14% had suffered physical attacks, and 25% had faced rejection from insurance companies. The average income of disabled people is significantly lesser than the general average (Reubain, 2009, p 1). Barnes (2000) identifies a number of stereotypes for disabled people, including their being perceived as (a) pathetic and pitiable, (b) objects of violence, (c) evil and sinister, (d) curiosities, (f) supercripples, (g) objects of ridicule, (h) sexually abnormal and (i) burdens.

Discrimination affects disabled people in various ways. At one level it affects their right to lives of equality and dignity by denying them access to equality in jobs, accommodation and public facilities, thus relegating them to existences of poverty and hardship (Oliver & Sapey, 1998, p 7-33). At another level it extracts a severe emotional and mental toll by subjecting them to social exclusion and thinly veiled rejection. Children and young people with disabilities are made to feel different, inadequate and deficient in comparison with non-disabled youngsters (Oliver & Sapey, 1998, p 7-33). This causes loneliness, difficulty in understanding the reactions of others around them, difficulty in competing for academic honours or getting into educational institutions of their choice, and resentment at having to go to special schools and at the treatment given to them by others (Oliver & Sapey, 1998, p 7-33).

The carers of disabled people, especially of disabled children are also subjected to various kinds of emotional and financial pressure (Banks, et al, 2001, p 797-814). The negative and curious attitudes of other people often lead to defensive and over protective tendencies. Carers resent people asking questions about their children, feel misunderstood and isolated, and begin to feel that they have to carry the burdens of their children alone (Banks, et al, 2001, p 797-814).

Role of Social Worker in dealing with Service Users

Attitudes towards the disabled started changing in the UK and USA as recently as the 1960s with the growth of various progressive movements for establishment of equality and freedom from oppression with relation to race, colour and gender (Macha, 2001, p 1).

The impact of sociological thinking produced a more aware social work with greater stress on deprivation and inequality (Macha, 2001, p 1). The 1960s witnessed the first antidiscrimination legislation in the UK in the form of the Race Relations Act of 1965. This was followed by anti-discrimination legislation in different areas like gender, age, and disability (Macha, 2001, p 1). Anti-disability discrimination legislation in the UK commenced in 1970 with the passing of the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Bill. This was followed by the Disabled Persons (Representation, Consultation and Services) Act (1986), other legislation that focused on different rights of disabled people and finally by the Disability Discrimination Act, 2005 (Macha, 2001, p 1).

The emergence and progression of radical social work brought about focus on the political and structural context of social work and impact of oppression, discrimination and ideology on the lives of the disadvantaged (Barnes et al, 2002, p 14-53). Barnes, from the results of his study of institutional discrimination, states that the policies of modern organisations lead to inequalities between disabled people and others (Barnes et al, 2002, p 14-53). He asserts that the entrenched discrimination in paternalist welfare systems result in failure in meeting the needs of disabled people (Barnes et al, 2002, p 14-53).

Recent decades have seen the emergence of anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive approaches that are specifically relevant to social work with disabled people. Thompson (1993) looks at anti-discriminatory practice as a type of social work practice that aims to reduce or eliminate discrimination and oppression of different types, including those directed at disability. Dominelli (2002) perceives anti-oppressive social work as a social work practice that tackles structural inequalities and social divisions in the work that is done with service users. It aims to provide suitable and sensitive services by tackling needs of users without regard of their social status. Such practice contains a person-centred philosophy, a classless value system, a methodology that looks at both process and results, and a method to structure relationships between individuals that benefits users by diminishing the adverse hierarchical impact of the work between social workers and users. Finkelstein (1980, p 21 – 28) states that whilst anti-discrimination legislation will help in reducing the social barriers faced by disabled people, social workers need to make special efforts in all their interventions to speed up their social integration.

“Once social barriers to the re-integration of people with physical impairments are removed, the disability itself is eliminated. The requirements are for changes to society, material changes to the environment, changes in environmental control systems, changes in social roles, and changes in attitudes by people in the community as a whole. The focus is decisively shifted on to the source of the problem -the society in which disability is created”. (Finkelstein, 1980, p 33)

Conclusion

Whilst significant advances have occurred in the UK in the last two decades for the integration of disabled people into society, especially in areas of legislation and in the provisioning of public facilities, much still remains to be done. Social workers are expected to play a major role in this integration through their mediating role between disabled people and mainstream society. It is important for them to remove discrimination from their own practice and confront it in the actions of others, as well as in the institutional constraints in which modern day society operates.

INTRODUCTION

Migration is a kind of movement of people to a new area or country in order to find work or better living conditions. But some time it creates problem for migrants and for the host country both. International migration is a common thing now days. People are moving for better living but they have to face much cultural and social diversity. It is not possible for all to adopt new culture easily and sometime for some migrants it is impossible to adjust in new social environment and in that situation they are spending very short time in that country. The migrants for whom it is difficult to live in unbearable environment they are moving to some other country or sometime they return to their homeland. But in some situations migrants cannot return back to their home countries due to some financial problem or family barriers. Then they are trying to adjust themselves in new environment. Migrants remain one of the most vulnerable social groups in any country, and women are particularly vulnerable to underpayment, sexual abuse and heavy workloads. The main aim of this paper is to highlight the social problems and social adjustment of the migrants in different areas or countries generally.. The paper concedes that although migration is not the ideal solution to come out from problems, it is an important rout to go for a better life.

The paper is presented in three sections, starting with the basic problems of migrants in which access to finance and to support services, language barrier, limited business management and marketing skills, low wage, cultural diversity and social adjustment is included. This is followed by a discussion on effects of migration on family structure which includes support of family, settlement of family, education of children, proper housing and social security. The last and main part of the paper provides social problems of immigrants in which poverty, acculturation, education, housing, employment and social functionality is discussed.

BASIC PROBLEMS OF MIGRANTS
Language Barrier

Basic problem of the immigrant is language barriers. So many problems arise due to language difference. They cannot get good job due to language barrier Migrant and the resident cannot communicate each other regarding important matters. It also affects health care. A survey conducted by Rand A. David and Michelle Rhee proved that language barrier has the great effect on migrant’s health because they cannot communicate with doctors. They cannot understand the prescription given by doctor. They say “language barriers between patient and physician impact upon effective health care.” (David. A.R and R. Michelle, 1998, p. 393). Another survey by Charlotte M. Wright proved that language barrier is the problem for patient and doctor both. (W. M. Charlotte,1983). A study by Seonae Yeo proved that difference between health care providers and patients increasingly impose barriers to health care (Y. Seonae, 2004, p. 60).

Language is the barrier which separates immigrants from native, both socially and economically. On the social side, immigrants more visibly foreigners due to lack of speaking skill or language barrier then they are easily discriminated by natives. On the economic side, weak language skills probably reduce productivity and therefore increase the immigrant-native earning gap. Strong language skills can increase the range and quality of job that immigrants can get (B. Hoyt 2003, p.1).

Language barriers badly affect the earning skills, educational attainment, social interaction and cultural behavior of immigrants.

Limited Business, Management and Marketing Skills
1.4 Low Wages
1.5 Cultural Diversity

Behavior of immigrants is always different because of their different cultural values. Cultural values are always different in different countries and people who are migrating; they have to adopt the culture of host country. But some time immigrants neither could nor accept some of cultural values of host country. The reason can be religious diversity or social system.

Social Adjustment

When immigrants come in different countries to work and live among the local people, they are bound to influence the original inhabitants by bringing in new habits, new thoughts, and a new outlook on life. Likewise, the inhabitants may influence the immigrants by the social usage of the community. The interaction between the immigrants and the local people naturally bring about various types of social change. (Chen. T, 1947, p. 62)

Intercultural adjustment

Berry and Sam (1997) have identified six types of individuals that need to deal with the issues concerning intercultural adjustment. Migrant groups that have intercultural contact voluntarily, for example, involve ethnocultural groups; permanent migrants involve immigrants, and temporary migrants involve sojourners. Migrants with involuntary contact with new cultures include indigenous peoples; permanent groups involve refugees, and temporary groups involve asylum seekers. ()

Irregular Migration

Irregular migration is the major problem for migrants and for the receiving communities both. Some irregular migrants lose their lives in transit, while all face difficult conditions after arrival. Receiving community may have inadequate resources to accommodate the needs of large number of undocumented persons. They are the most vulnerable populations. They receive low pay, have little or no access to health care and face limited educational opportunities. (T. David and G. Julia, p.31)

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON FAMILY STRUCTURE

Women are playing main role in the family. They need to pay much attention toward home and family for better environment of home. But after migration a woman get more rights in different environment like in Europe. An Asian woman can get more opportunity of work in Europe or UK than her own country. So she can move easily and work easily in new environment. Dr Priya Deshingkar wrote in her paper that:

“More women are migrating for work independently and not only to accompany their husbands. This so-called “autonomous female migration” has increased because of a greater demand for female labour in certain services and industries, and also because of growing social acceptance of women’s economic independence and mobility. In fact, the feminization of migration is one of the major recent changes in population movements.” (D. Priya, p.33)

Under the conditions of immigration, the husband loses his role of a breadwinner at least initially while the wife continues to take responsibility for running family affairs. As a result, resettlement workers often find that women adjust better and faster while their husbands often lapse into depression and become demoralized, angry, and complaining. This behavior puts a serious strain on the marital relationship, especially if the couple had experienced problems before. (B. Irene, p. 128)

If we see the family by this point of view in which a woman play an important role and she can make her home life better than support to a family is the sole duty of husband.

2.1 SUPPORT OF FAMILY
2.2 Settlement of Family

In family structure there are some important factors which matters a lot for family adjustment and settlement. These factors are family composition, existing marital problems, age , type of occupation, and expectations of each other by family members and of their new life in the host country. (B. Irene, p.127)

2.3 Education of Children
2.4 Proper Housing
2.5 Social Security

The immigrants become increasingly anxious, confused and tense when they are meeting with their caseworkers. These emotional changes occur when they begin to deal with the task of daily living: looking for an apartment, enrolling children in school, learning the basics of job hunting, etc. These tasks are new and frightening and trigger extreme emotional reactions. (B. Irene, p. 125). They feel lack of sense of social security due to these emotional changes.

3. SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF IMMIGRANTS
3.1 Poverty

Whether or not migration is poverty reducing. Migrants travel and lives under very difficult conditions. Poor immigrants usually stay in slums or even less secure accommodation. Even those who earn reasonable amounts face constant threats of deportation, disease, sexual abuse, underpayment and police harassment. (D. Priya, p. 33)

3.2 Acculturation

Acculturation is a critical factor to understand when examining the process of cultural adjustment and adaptation for Asian Americans (Birman, 1994; Liu et al., 1999). Specifically, acculturation refers to the manner in which individuals negotiate two or more cultures. It is assumed that one culture is dominant while the other culture is perceived to have less cultural value (Berry, 1995; La Fromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). Ward and Kennedy (1994) differentiated between the culture of origin, which is referred to as the national culture, and the culture of contact, which is referred to as the host culture. (Y. J Christine, P. 35)

The first scientists to study acculturation were sociologists and anthropologists, interested in group-level changes following migration. The first definition of acculturation was proffered by Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936): (J.R Fones and P. Karen, p. 216)

“Acculturation comprehends those phenomena, which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups.” (J.R Fones and P. Karen, p. 149)

Acculturation is defined as “culture change that is initiated by the conjunction of two or more autonomous cultural systems. …” (Social Science Research Council, 1954, p. 974). Graves (1967) has coined the term ‘psychological acculturation’ to refer to the changes that an individual experiences as a result of being in contact with other cultures. (L. Angeliki, 2001, p. 35)

3.3. Education
3.4 Housing
3.5 Employment

Many countries around the world are turning to international migration to solve their labor shortage problems. They are hiring cheap International labor to solve their social and educational expenditure and also solve the problem of keeping their cultural intact.

3.6 Social Functionality

Among the many losses suffered by immigrants, one of the most devastating for many is the loss of their social status. In their own countries like in soviet Union, social status -education, occupation, position- is the main source of feelings of self-worth and identity. For professionals especially, the loss of social status may be very threatening and demoralizing. (B. Irene, p. 125)

CONCLUSION

Historically, it is hard to trace the origins of social welfare or social policy in Britain. There is a debate when exactly the foundations of the welfare state were laid. Slack suggested that the welfare state was established by the end of the eighteenth century. On the other hand Roberts argued that the basis of the welfare state was laid between 1833 and 1854. However, most commentators incline to associate the term ‘Welfare State’ with the start of the modern welfare state of Britain in 1945 (Harris 2004, p.15).Contrary to this conception, in my view, the origins of welfare state could go back as the earliest medieval Poor Law which came into existence in 1349. Not to forget to mention, the idea of welfare emerged thousands of years ago in many societies and civilisations. Voluntary and charitable help was provided through individuals, the state and religious organisations (Day 2000).

The Poor Laws were introduced as a mechanism to tackle poverty amongst the poor by giving those help. Those poor people who are getting help including the sick and elderly were known as paupers. According to Oxford English Dictionary 2009 a pauper is ‘A recipient of relief under the provisions of the Poor Law or of public charity. Now hist.’ (http://www.oed.com/).The main criticism to the poor law was it paid more attention to the maintenance of public order rather than the relief of poverty. This raised a question, whether the start of the welfare system for the poor was an act of mercy and compassion or the fear that homeless people will involve in unlawful activities. Based on the historical facts, the poor laws were divided into the Old Poor Law and the New Poor Law. The 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act was regarded as the start of a new era of Poor Laws referred to as the New Poor Law. (http://www.workhouses.org.uk/)

The New Poor Law revolutionised the local and central governments relations. The Commissioners’ Report 1834 was the core of the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act. The 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act known also as ‘PLAA’ had taken the administrative power from the local authority (parishes) to the central government authorities. It also reformed the Old Poor Law which was in place. Furthermore, the act dealt with the flaws of the Old Poor Law due to the bad administration of the local parishes. However, the act faced criticism from the local parishes opposing the idea of the central control, which will put limitation on their powers. Another criticism that the act restricted the relief to the poor and the conditions inside the workhouses were harsh and repulsive.( http://www.workhouses.org.uk/) . The commissioners’ report had also recommended the building of workhouses as a vital strategy to discourage claimants of the outdoor relief. However, many Northern Local Authorities opposed the building of warehouses, because they saw it as an expensive solution for the problem of unemployment (Harris 2004).

According to (www.workhouses.org) 2009, ‘The Oxford Dictionary’s first record of the word workhouse dates back to 1652 in Exeter – ‘The said house to bee converted for a workhouse for the poore of this cittye and also a house of correction for the vagrant and disorderly people within this cittye.’ However, workhouses were around even before that – in 1631 the Mayor of Abingdon reported that “wee haue erected wthn our borough a workehouse to sett poore people to worke”

Under the New Poor Law (The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834) the workhouse unions acted as a deterrent for the able-bodied to claim outdoor relief. However , the law also introduced the outdoor labour test premised the distribution of outdoor relief to able-bodied men in return for a task of work .The initial plan of the workhouses to build different workhouses to accommodate different types of need such as children ,women and elderly . But later the plans had changed in favour mixed workhouses to accommodate all paupers. Apart from deterring able-bodied men from claiming relief, the workhouses were also intended to be institutional accommodation to accommodate various sections of the population who cannot look after themselves in their homes or in community. However during 1830’s and the 1840’s many cases of abuse and neglect inside the workhouses were reported in the media. The editor of The Times published more than a hundred cases of cruelty inside the workhouses in that period (Harris 2004, p.49 -52). Although the workhouses were not a prison, people inside were called inmates. The situation inside the workhouses was tough, the food was basic, and they had to wear rough uniform and to sleep in common dormitories. The able-bodied were given hard work such as stone breaking and picking old ropes apart called oakum (www.workhouses.org).

During the 1800’s the notion of charity in response to the needy spread rapidly throughout the world. As a result this led to the emergence of Charity Organisation Society. The Charity Organisation Society shared the same values as the Poor Law and they complemented each other. There was a debate whether the charities made the poor more dependent on the help they receiving, which might discourage them from seeking work. Later, the Charity Organisation Society spread to the USA which was helped by the lack of consistent state support to the poor (Payne 2005, p.34-8).

From the origins of social work in the Victorian Charity Organisation Society (COS)

The idea of settlement houses was to bridge the gap between social classes, In order to achieve that, it was suggested that the rich and educated should spend time and live amongst the poor. According to Payne settlements emerged as a movement to educate the working class and to maintain the moral Christian social behaviour in poor neighbourhoods in the new cities. Those students involved would use their education and moral beliefs in activities which (Payne 2005)

The Seebohm Report was regarded as a landmark in the development of social work. Initially the Seebohm committee was set to find ways to reform local authority personal social services. The committee recommended the merge of local authority into social services department .As a result social work moved to be more generic, whereas before social work was specialised such as childcare and psychiatric social work . The object was to utilise resources. Consequently, the social work was modernised social work as it brought together the separate department offering social services to different client group into a single social services departments (James 2004) .Subsequently, social work in Britain reached its peak and saw massive state social work expansion by 1970 with the implementation of the Local Authority Personal Social Services Act 1970 which was an outcome of Seebohm Report. Additionally, this period saw the birth of British Association of Social Workers in April 1970 after the merging of 8 associations (Payne 2005). However, towards the 1980’s there been a move back towards specialisation especially in mental health and childcare. As the Mental Health Act 1983 made a condition that only approved social workers should be allowed to deal with mental health cases. Also, as a result of the rise in child abuse cases child protection teams became the norm within Local Authorities. Additionally in 1989 the government put ?10 million pounds towards child protection training programme (Johnson 1990, p. 161-2).

The Beveridge Report 1942 was regarded as the foundation for the modern welfare state in Britain. Lowne R states that, Despite its somewhat unglamorous title (and author) , the Beveridge report on Social Insurance and Allied services immediately acquired immense popularity , both at home and aboard , as a practical programme for the elimination of poverty , and it has subsequently come to be regarded as a blueprint for the welfare state. (Lowne 1999, p. 130)

Beveridge stressed in his report the need to eradicate the five evils: Want, Disease, Idleness, Squalor and Ignorance. Furthermore, he suggested measures to be implemented by the government to tackle to issues. However, the Beveridge report was not fully implemented by the various governments and was abandoned by the conservatives. The conservatives criticised Beverdige for suggesting a flat rate contribution. Following his report, the National Health Service (NHS) was born on 5th July 1948 . In my opinion, this was one of the most important outcomes of the Beveridge Report and a major event in the history of modern welfare state in Britain. However, some social policy commentators had different view. Glennerster stated that Beveridge is often credited with the founding of the National Health Service, which definitely he did not do. And goes on, he is more possibly credited with the founding of post war system of social security, the subject of his great report, yet in many ways this is also a mistake. Although he acknowledge the report had a great impact at the time (Glennerster 2000, p. 18).

Payne (2005, p. 31) suggests that social work in Britain evolved from three different sources : the Poor Law , charity organisation and the settlement movement.

When Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979, social work started to decline. Different factors contributed to the deterioration of social work. There was a service failure especially in child protection. Social work was seen as a soft police. Thatcher government increased control over public expenditure.

After the child care scandals, social work got a negative image in the media and the public. Then social work was seen as the problem rather than the solution.

One of the huge dilemmas for social workers in the 21th century, the shift in social work culture. Nowadays, on the managerial level, more importance being put on budgets and targets. Social workers had massive caseloads to deal with, topped with numerous paperwork to fill, which somehow hinder the process of service delivery to the service user. The rise in the workload for social workers led to divert the focus from the quality to the quantity. It became the quantity rather than the quality.

“Academic theories about employee motivation, empowerment and performance are just that theories, they are of little practical use to business leader or their companies, with reference covered to the material cover on the OBL course, and the people management of one Employee of Choice, please evaluate the validity of this statement.

Organizational Behavior is the study of behavior of individual, group and people in the organization. It focuses in the relationship between individual and organization in the holistic manner. It focuses on meeting the social objectives, organizational level objectives and individual level objectives. (Leadership and Organizational Behavior, 2010)

In managing the organizational behavior with in the organization, there are various managerial theories being proposed by various people to meet the organizational and individual requirement. The role of business leader is to effectively manage the workforce with in the organization to achieve the maximum output from the employees. It is also required from the business leaders to increase the productivity of the organization, to reduce employee turnover, to increase job satisfaction, to reduce absenteeism among the employees, to establish organizational citizenship.

The productivity of the employees could be increased by increasing the motivational level of the employees and by imparting training and development programs. An organization is said productive if it converts its inputs into outputs at lowest operating costs. Organizational behavior studies help managers to understand the general behavior of the individuals, but not the exact behavior of the individual. For example Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y give an idea about type of people in the organization. According to Theory X, people would tend to avoid the work and are not responsible, on the other hand according to Theory Y, people are self directed and self motivated. Now this theory does not highlight the exact reasons for being lazy and self-motivated. In this way organizational studies only direct the managers about the general concepts, but could not point the exact behavior of the individual. It is so because the behavior of individual may vary from situation to situation and may also differ from person to person. (Douglas McGregor-Human Relations Contributors, Theory X and Theory Y)

The turnover of the employee is another important managerial duty to be considered by leaders. The increase in turnover costs high for the organization by increasing the recruitment, interview, selection and training costs. It is one of the essential parameter to be considered by the managers for increasing the efficiency of the organization. There could be various reasons for increased in turnover. It could be because of work environment, job position mismatch, compensation and rewards, job stress etc. It is required from the leaders to find out the reason for the increase in turnover. As there could be various different reasons for the increase in turnover, the organizational theories could not find the exact reason for the increase in turnover. The method that could be used by manager to find exact reason for the increased turnover could be interviews or survey. With the help of organizational behavior theories leaders could find out the general behavior of the group of employees in the organization, but it is required to carry out individual analysis to find the exact reason for the absenteeism with in the organization.

Increasing the Job satisfaction is another important managerial duty. It is essential for leaders to maintain the job satisfaction level of the employees with in the organization. This would not only decrease the turnover of the employees but also generate the healthy environment with in the organization. Organizational Behavior theories help the managers to understand the general behavior of the employee about job satisfaction, but it does not showcase how to increase job satisfaction for a particular employee. According to dispositional theory individual who is happy in his life is happy at his job as well. According to this theory there are the factors affecting job satisfaction i.e. positive and negative affectivity, personality attributes and self evaluation. This theory as well does not find the actual reason specific to a particular individual and hence managers would need to carry out the analysis specific to the individual.

Another important function of the business leaders is to reduce absenteeism among the employees. The reduction in absenteeism is directly related to the job dissatisfaction and improper work environment. It is required for the leaders to understand the individual needs and expectations of the individuals from the organization and meet those expectations. It is also observed that unhealthy work environment creates problem for the employee and in turn reduced their efficiency and hence productivity of the organization. Here as well leaders have to sit individually with the employees and seek out the possible hindrances for the employees with respect to work environment. The reasons for the unhealthy work environment could be racial discrimination, manager-subordinates relationship, gender discrimination, work pressures etc.

Organization Behavior theories works as the general framework for the leaders but could not act as the specific solution for a particular organizational problem. It require extensive analysis and thorough understanding of the organization and individual behavior to meet the objectives of the organization.

Question 2:

With reference to Organizational Behavior leadership on gender inequity in organization, and you own work experience if relevant, evaluate the extent to which this issue will require further attention from public and private sector organization in the UAE now and in the future. How can local organization ensure that there is true equity of opportunity for their women Emirati employees and what will be the likely commercial benefits of doing this?

Answer:

Gender Inequality means differentiation between individuals on the basis of their gender. As per gender inequality the responsibility, human and social possibilities differ from men to that of women. (Long, 2001)

It is found that most of the theories showcase the organizational structure as the reason for gender inequality. It is as per organizational structure which causes differences in roles, difference in position, and difference in behaviors between men and women.

Materialist theory: As per this theory the connection of men and women with the society’s economic structure causes the gender inequality. As per this theory, women’s role of mother and wife in the society devalued its right to access high valued resources. Women are less paid as compared to the men in the labor class market. The reason for this is the social responsibility attached to women to take care of family and children.

Division between Domestic and Public Work: Their role of mother and wife devalued their role social roles and hence high profile. Women are bound with the domestic responsibilities and hence have to take care of the family and have to invest time there as well. On the other hand men are free from domestic responsibilities and have greater access to high valued resources.

It is noticed that there is inequality in pay of men and women, and women are paid less than men. It is also found that two-third of the women works in areas low profile areas like catering, cleaning, clerical jobs, caring jobs. The reason for women being paid less than men is that their job includes discontinuity because of maternity leaves, and to take care of family and children. Moreover still the ratio of highly qualifies women is less than that of men. This gives men an edge to work in high profile jobs and so being paid more than women.

Gender Inequality in UAE: The UAE government is trying their best to reduce the gender inequality in UAE. In the year 2008, UAE is participating actively in reducing the gap of gender disparity by organizing various conferences for the same. Dubai School of Government along with Centre of Arab Women for Training and Research and World Bank, organizes a conference to narrow down the gender gap in North Africa and Middle East. The conference named “Gender and Economics in MENA: from Theory to Policymaking” (ZPRESS, 2008). The main purpose of the conference was to highlight the importance of high education over women. In the conference, Nabeel Al Yousuf, vice chairman of trustee board in Dubai School of Government, focused on gender inequality for the social, national and economic development. Community Development Authority is coordinating with various government and non-government organizations to maintain gender equality. (ZPRESS, 2008)

In the recent years UAE has worked well in reducing the gender gap in the emirates. As per a report, UAE has topped in human development chart among gulf countries. Though the ratio of educated women is increasing, but still UAE needs to improve on gender equality. This gender inequality further drags the human development index of the country.

The gender equality could be improved with the help of combined effort from public and private companies.

Protect Women Rights: It is essential to get women aware of their rights and also make them aware how to fight against the violation of any basic right. This education would help them to fight for their basic rights. It is required for both public and private organizations to coordinate with Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) to protect the rights of women.

Women Education: To increase the status of women in the society it is required to further increase the level and quality of education for women. To achieve the same it is required for public and private educational institutions to work together to achieve the common objective.

Healthy Work Environment: It is required for the private and public organizations to maintain healthy work environment for the women at workplace. It could be done by providing facilities for women like pick and drop from home, work from home etc.

The local organization could ensure the equal opportunity for women by ensuring that jobs are offered as per the qualification and not on the basis of gender. The pay should be equal as per the caliber and qualification of the individual. It is required for the local organization to create equal opportunities for both men and women and should not create any disparity between the two.

Gender equality would ensure equal status for the women in the society and would increase their standard of living. It would ensure right investment of the income and less wastage of money. It has been found that women invest 90% of her income on family whereas men only invest 35% of his income on family. This would change political and public welfare policies would increase focus on women as well. Increase in education level of women would reduce the health problems and diseases in the society.

Organisational design according to Mintzberg (1983) is defined as the “ways in which labour is divided into distinct tasks and then its coordination is achieved among these tasks”. Organisational design comprises of the component parts of an organisation such as the employees, the information and the technology and how they are integrated together. The relationship between the different parts of the organisation is a social construction. This social construction needs to be adequate to meet the goal of the organisation, in the case of social care organisations it needs to serve the service users best.

“[Social care is] a profession committed to the planning and delivery of quality care and other support services for individuals and groups with identified needs.”

Organisational design is used achieve the vision or mission of the organisation. The vision is defined by the managers and leaders of the organisation and the design is formulated around this vision. It is important to design an organisation around an agreed goal; this can be problematic if leaders cannot agree on a goal or they have different understandings of the goal. The Minister for Health, Mary Harney has a view of privatisation of service and more reliance on community involvement than state involvement in individuals care (such as care of the elderly) which conflicts with the policies in place for an equitable health care system (O Doherty, 2010). In many ways organisational structure and culture are interlinked and both must be addressed when examining organisational design. The design is often difficult to change because of the culture of agreed norms, values and expectancies within the organisation. Organisational design is integral in creating efficiency and effectiveness in the organisation therefore it is important in all organisations to implement a structure. Drucker (1999) argues that as situations vary there are no clear guidelines that can be given to identify the best structure to use and mangers must use their own judgement regarding which design to choose. The structure must however coincide with the service users needs and not what the organisation believes should be the structure.

Having an identified structure in an organisation is important to contribute to its functions. There are a number of designs outlined that managers may choose from but mangers need to acknowledge elements of the organisation when deciding which model to choose. These elements include: the specialisation of work, the chain of command, the span of control required, degree of formalisation required etc. Bureaucracy is the evident design applied in modern society. This may be influenced by Scientific Management and the military structure from history. The bureaucratic design is controlled and involves standardisation. Hierarchy is an important element of bureaucratic organisations, with departmentalisation and sub-groups evident. Having too many levels of hierarchy however can slow the decision making process within organisations, particularly social care organisations (Jones, 2007). The Quality Assurance in the Social Care sector report (2010) identifies also that an organisational design which values low levels of hierarchy is the best approach for effective communication between staff.

According to Kolb (1988) reflective practice and supervision is an important element in social care work. As an organisation adopts a more bureaucratic style the level of good supervision declines (Ruch, 2005). It is important to recognise that supervision in the context of social care works requires the supervisor supporting and guiding the employee towards best professional practice. Supervision involves reflecting on practice and recognising strengths and weaknesses of the employee in a positive way so as to improve the overall service for the service user. The lack of acknowledgement of the function of supervision in this way may be detrimental to the overall organisational goal. Social care workers are not to be seen as bureaucrats simply there to carry out tasks assigned by management but as individual problem solvers with skills for decision making (Thompson and Thompson, 2008). Therefore it is important to have an organisational design in social care organisations which incorporates supervision.

The health service in Ireland has undergone fundamental changes since EU pressure began in 1973. The Commission on Health Funding (1989) recognised that the health board system was failing due to management and administration and many layers of hierarchy and a new system needed to be implemented. Other recent reports also outline the need for changes and the need for clarity of decision making in the health care system such as the Quality and Fairness – A Health system for you (2001) report. It was outlined that the health boards operated as separate entities which led to inconsistency and did not address best practice. The Health Service Executive (HSE) was formed in 2005; it joined the former 11 health boards together. It consisted of three main parts: the National Hospital Office (NHO), the Primary Community and Continuing Care (PCCC) and Population Health. Unfortunately the HSE was not fully planned or organised. It underwent another organisational structural change in 2008 when the NHO and the PCCC were joined together under one manager.

The Health Information and Quality Authority (HIQA) was established in 2007, it incorporated the Social Services Inspectorate (SSI) to work in collaboration with the HSE. HIQA can be viewed as an affixed type of organisation, quality should have been built into the organisations structure but instead HIQA was set up to add in quality into the services provided by inspecting the level that the standards are upheld. This shows that organisation design is an important issue to be addressed. Equally important is the setting of a vision or a goal. The HSE’s budget plan is only up until 2014. Although the Quality and Fairness – A Health system for you (2001) report outlined what needs to be done, some issues are still outstanding.

The human element in social care organisations must be taken into consideration when applying a structure. Maslow’s (1943) theory of needs acknowledge that human need for self-actualisation is important for their well being. This would imply that organisations would need to involve employees in the decision making process within the structure as self actualisation means being involved in problem solving. Argysis (1957) argues that bureaucracies did not allow for this decision making process. Likert (year) also identifies that using design which involves open communications and trust is best used. There are arguments against this style of involving employees in decision making such as those by Vroom (1973) and Feidler (1967) who value the contingency style of management. Job satisfaction is difficult to access and achieve in service organisations. It is evident that work specialisation does not lead to job satisfaction in social care area; staffs need to be able to change their roles and rely on teams and supervision. The impact of staff burnout in social care is prominent.

In the Roscommon Child Care Case recently reported there are clear problems with the structure of the organisation. During the period when the health professionals were working with the families the legislation in the child care area was changing with the introduction of the Child Care Act 1991 and Children First National Guidelines for the Protection and Welfare of Children, 1999 and new implementations arose. The staff were not trained in the new developments. If they had been trained then the Roscommon Child Care incident perhaps intervention would have occurred earlier. One of the objectives of the Quality and Fairness (2001) report was to protect children and the need for early intervention. The family in the Roscommon case were known to the HSE since 1989 and the children were not taken into care until 2004. The lack of continuing professional development (CPD) was highlighted as a reason why the mistakes of the past were not learned and as to why new legislation was not implemented in this case. This can be seen as a failure of the system as well as the culture to provide CDP (Roscommon Child Care Case, 2010 4.16). The report also recognises the need for organisational change and identifies that the HSE has implemented systems of child protection in some areas but this highlights the need for it to be implemented across all organisations (Roscommon Child Care Case, 2010 5.1)

Within social care work the need for interagency work is fundamental to provide the best service possible for the service users. However the communication between the agencies needs to be clear and consistent to ensure that the best service is provided and essentially that children are safe and protected (Julius et al, 1980). Julius outlines that the structure of the organisation may hinder the interagency work and it is important to recognise this in work. The structure and culture of the organisation have an impact on the behaviour and attitudes of employees. The structure must be designed so that the employees behave in a manner that best benefits the goal of the organisation, in the case of social care it would be to best serve the service users.

When restructuring fails it leads to confusion and turmoil among those affected such as the managers, staff and service users. Models of design will unavoidably need to be changed according to the period of time. Organisations need to plan for the future, make predictions regarding changes that may need to be made by identifying opportunities and threats. Financial issues, new technology and changing population may require an organisation to change its structure. The structure needs to be examined to ensure that it is fulfilling its purpose and that is especially true in social care work where the impact of failure can lead to serious harm or even death to individuals.