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In my opinion, that I believe the most pressing problems in our country is the teenager social problem. That affects our country, because teenagers are the hope of country in future. After that, the letter write to local education authority is about compulsory school uniform for all pupils. Pupil wears school uniform that is more advantage for them in the school life.

This assignment has three sections that are introduction, content and conclusions and recommendations.

The teenager problem can prevent by parent, counselor, doctor and police. When our teenager is in a problem they cannot settle, parent must give enough concern, confidence, believe what they say and find the solution to fix the problem together or give recommendation to then. The society must feel tolerance to teenager, because they are growing in grey area between childhood and adulthood. It many advantange if all of pupil wear school uniform . Wearing school uniform mean everyone is the same , no one can set fashion or teased for wearing weird or out of fashion clothes . Also, it can avoid some bullying cases because of wear school uniform.

Teenager and parent need to have a good communicate, parent give good enough love and support, teens are feel themselves is very important. Pupils have to compulsory wears school uniform because it can show more discipline and look smart. Therefore, school uniform is very important to pupil.

1.0 Introduction

The teenagers are very important for development of one nation. But now, we can heard that students damages discipline teacher’s car, inject drug .The increasing rate of student bully and drug abuse among youths is indeed of great concern. The causes of problems came from various factors. The main problem arises from teenager’s parent. The parent is a main character for their child, sometimes parents didn’t know about their children ability, that’s because the teenagers feel stress and tense. Sometimes, some parents put high expectations on their children like gets the excellence in their study or become high achiever in their school. By the same time their parent too control on their activities. Therefore, teenagers feel burden with their parent’s hope and aim on them. When they cannot achieve their friend’s level their self-esteem become low and they think they are not accepted in school’s society. The solution is, they find another community that can accept them. The society expressly blame on the teenagers when they making mistake. This kind of pressure from society put teenager in stress. The societies are not aware why does teenager react like that. Moreover the society doesn’t give them chance to change their behavior and feel they are the worst people in society. Adults sometime act in poor manner for example drunken parents or drug addict parents. They become the most important cause to what have happen on teenagers.

Teenage Bullying

Bullying includes a wide variety of behaviors, but all involve a person or a group repeatedly trying to harm someone who is weaker. It can involve direct attacks such as hitting, and stealing or damaging belongings, indirect attacks such as spreading rumors or encouraging others to reject or exclude someone. Bullying can start at any age and can continue through high school. Most of teenager bullying cases happen in school, because the people who bully and the victim both of them are lack of social problem solving skill. There are many problem solving skill to prevent bullying. Parents are should try sitting down with teenager and brainstorming some solution to the situation. And parents are also can discuss about what they have tried before in similar situations, and what outcomes they experienced. If a child ask to parent he is a victim of school bullying, parent are cannot ignore about this, because it is very serious case. First, believe and listen what the child say, this is very important step to make child believe you can help him. Second, most children are deal with bullying behavior, so let the child know he is not alone in this situation. Third, if the child being threatened psychic or illegal way in school, don’t complicate report to school or police. Even the child do not want to do this, but bullying is cannot be tolerate. Fourth, teach the child courage say “NO” if being bully. The school counselor and teachers have responsibility to prevent the school bullying, they should always take a look on student who has unusual behavior in school. The discipline teacher must increase the punishment on bullying cases.

Teenage Drug Abuse

Drugs and Teenagers Drug use is the increasing problem among teenagers in today’s high schools. Most drug use begins in the preteen and teenage years. Why the reason teens are drug? There are many causes about teenager have a contact with drug. Family problem is one of the cause of teenager drug abuse, may be in family member who are the drug abuser, so teenager will influence by family member. Friends also is a reason of contact with drug. If a friend in the social group use drugs , the person may be offered to try drugs, which is direct pressure. Indirect pressure is when someone sees everyone around him using drugs and he might think that there is nothing wrong with using drugs. Even if a person had no intentions of using drugs one might do it just to be considered “cool” by his friends. Here is a personal example of drug use from a teenager, “When I started using, was only on weekends, at parties. I used drugs ‘recreationally’ and therefore thought I had no addiction problem. I used drugs like nicotine, marijuana or LSD to be happy or to have fun. I needed drugs. I kept using drugs, I used drugs like marijuana to fit socially. I had problems in my life, emotionally, that drugs only seemed to solve. Drugs made my problems worse. I started snorting cocaine. I injected heroin into my veins. I almost died. I was addicted.” Therefore drug is very harmful to everyone, especially teenager. Drug can destroy the teenager future or everything. The overcome method is parent must take some time to give enough concern to their children for avoid them from drugs. The school should hire a lecture to give a talk to teenager, let them know how about the drugs destroy our body and disadvantages of drug. The society must cooperate with police fight against drug dealer, without drug dealer, there are no drug to deal with buyer.

Teenage Suicide Problem

Teenage are caught in grey area between childhood and adulthood. Therefore, they experience strong feelings of stress , confusion , self-doubt , pressure to succeed , and other fears while growing up . For some teens , suicide may appear to be a solution to their problems and stress. Most of teenage are suicide because of unsettle problem, such as breakup relationship, pressure of homework , worry about their future and making a serious mistake they feel cannot settle , these are the reason of teenager suicide. Teenage suicide making many problem and this is an alert to society. When the teens are thinking about suicide they have some unusual behavior. They will always talking about suicide or death, feeling hopeless, give hints to people around his life he might not be around anymore . After that , teen also lose their interest in school or sport, and pull away from friend and family . What adult can do when their teen think about suicide? Parent must keep a close eye on teen want to suicide , understanding depression in teens is very important since it can look different about depression . Try to keep the lines communication open and express concern , support , and love. If teen doesn’t feel comfortable talking with parent, suggest more neutral person , such as school counselor, or a doctor.

Conclusion

The role of parents is crucial in giving serious attention to their children. Parents must consider the movements or the movement of their children. Parents should always know and identify the problems faced by their children and are willing to take the time to solve the problem. After that, establishing legal system in the school, student must more discipline and responsibility. Counseling at school level is important in helping teenagers overcome their problem too . Parents and Teachers Association (PTA) should play an important role . More frequent meetings between parents , guardians and teachers should be held especially for students that influenced in social problems . Parents should discuss students problem with teacher and get ready to receive an advice from a teacher with an open and positive attitude. Teenagers also need the attitude of change , if the teenagers can change their attitudes by selecting a good friend , they will not be trapped in social problems.

2.0 Introduction

School uniforms should be compulsory for all students at all grade levels . There are many reasons, which justify this including discipline , discrimination and to give the students a sense of identity .

If all students at a particular school didn’t wear school uniforms , there would be discrimination between the financially advantaged people and the disadvantaged people . The wealthier people would tend to look down the poorer people as it gives them a chance to flaunt their wealth .

When students wear school uniforms , it shows the similarities between them , and not the differences . Each school has their own rule of law and based on that , students need to obey on that law and respect . When student wears a uniform , it shows a sign of dignity and it means that that student has confirmed the school expectations and that student feels that he or she belongs to that school . School uniforms also indicate what degree or grade the students are in , and what kind of school they go to . School uniforms are good because some children would become bullied if they did not wear the most up to date fashions . A school uniform makes it easier for the school authorities to recognize students belonging to their school . So everyone wearing the same uniform everyday that type of degrading is avoided . In short , wearing school uniform is very important and bring a lot of advantage to student .

2.1 Letter

22, Jalan Cempaka,

Taman Gemilang,

31450 Ipoh,

Perak .

Head Of Education Authority

1, Jalan Raja,

Taman Cemerlang,

30100 Ipoh,

Perak. 1 June 2012

Dear Sir,

Compulsory School Uniform To All Pupils

I am writing this letter is to attract your attention to the above title. As the representative of the community, I am calling to tell you that many parent are claim for their children to wear a formal school uniform . There are many reason and advantages for all pupil if they wear uniform .

2. There are many disadvantage if pupil are not wearing school uniform . Teenager will wearing a expensive brand name to school to show that he or she has much money to spend on these clothes . Many of teenage feel that without wearing uniform and wearing follow own stlye is individuality and self-expression , this is a wrong concept to teenage , they never know school uniform is very important to them . Recently , there are two gang of pupil fighting on street after

school time , but they are not wearing school uniform , so the people who saw the pupil fighting on the street , they cannot identify which school the pupil came from .

3. It many advantange if all of pupil wear school uniform . Wearing school uniform mean everyone is the same , no one can set fashion or teased for wearing weird or out of fashion clothes . If pupil wear school uniform , pupil can be identify by the public . If they need to make complain , public will know which school are the pupil come from . Often makes kids behave better as they’re in uniform linked to work not casual clothes they use for socializing . Also , wearing school uniform can promotes good discipline of a school . This naturally reduces incidents of violence . Pupil can come to school without worrying about personal safety . Teachers don’t have to double as guards, and can concentrate on teaching .

4. Wearing a uniform gets the pupil ready for the job market , because at a job they might have to wear a uniform or dress up and this gets them accustomed to this . Also , they see their parents dress clothes for work and may take learning more seriously. Pearent don’t have to spend a lot of money for new and fashion clothes to their child everytime . A school uniform apparently also saves students from putting their fashion tastes . When they don’t have to spend time wondering what to wear and how to make a fashion statement , they can spend more time to getting an education . Also , pupil saves time in the morning because they already know what they are wearing to school .

5. Therefore , there are most advantage then disadvantage to wear school uniform to schoo l. Pupil can focus on education without spending time to wear fashion clothes . If pupil wear uniform , they are more save because the guard can easy identify pupil and stranger not in school .

Parent also can save money to buy clothes to pupil . When a student wears a shirt with the school’s symbol, everyone knows where the student studies .

6. Finally, I hope sir will quickly establish a new school uniform to all of pupil . Thank you .

Yours faithfully ,

(VOO JI HEN)

2.2 Conclusion

To conclude , in the point of the above , school uniform has more advantages than disadvantages. I strongly believe that the school uniform is important and has benefits . However , I think that each school should design its school uniform from time to time and let pupils decide on it . School uniform is not expensive , most of parent can pay for school uniform, if the uniform in good quality , can buy it once a year only . If pupils are not wearing school uniform to school , there are many problem to society . The pupil in rich will bully classmate who poor , because of the poor pupil didn’t wear a brand name clothes . In short , pupils are wear school uniform is good for them , school uniform is very important and has advantages .

3.0 Referrence

Unknown (n.d) conclusion of school uniform [online] Available at:

http://www.oppapers.com/subjects/conclusion-on-school-uniforms-page1.html

Unknown (n.d) advantages of wear school uniform [online] Availaible at:

http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Why-School-Uniforms-Should-Be-Required/680461

Unknown (n.d) advantages of wear school uniform [online] Available at:

http://www.ask.com/questions-about/Advantages-of-School-Uniforms

Unknown (n.d) advantages and disadvantages of wear school uniform[online] Available at:

http://www.greatschools.org/find-a-school/defining-your-ideal/121-school-uniforms.gs

Unknown (n.d) causes of teenage suicide [online] Available at:

http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_mind/mental_health/suicide.html

Unknown (n.d) Teen Suicide Warning Signs Main Source Material [online] Available at:

http://www.teensuicide.us/articles2.html

Unknown (n.d) Sign of teen drug abuse [online] Available at:

http://www.newportacademy.com/teen-drug-abuse/

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Bullying and Problem Solving

Unknown (n.d) Social problem among teenager [online] Available at:

http://www.studymode.com/subjects/social-problem-among-teenagers-in-malaysia-page1.html

In this paper I reflect on my ability as an early years practitioner in supporting children as active learners. In addition I will analyse my observations and illustrate how support was provided for children in their active learning.

The objective of my role was to support children as active learners and contribute to the nursery’s combined approach of organising and evaluating children’s learning. I took part in regular routines of arranged activities, observations and planning meetings and used approaches that enabled the children’s learning to be taken forward.

I also used Building the Curriculum 2 Active Learning in the Early Years as guidance for my personal reflection. These guidelines support practitioners in their approach to learning and deliverance of high quality learning experiences for children’s active learning. Using the guidelines enabled me to evaluate my use of appropriate resources, review my teaching and helped me to plan for change.

Building the Curriculum 2 Active Learning in the Early Years emphasises the importance of active learning and defines active learning as:

Active learning is learning which engages and challenges children’s thinking using real-life and imaginary situations. It takes full advantage of the opportunities for learning presented by: spontaneous play, planned, purposeful play, investigating and exploring, events and life experiences, focused learning and teaching supported when necessary through sensitive intervention to support or extend learning. All areas of the curriculum can be enriched and developed through play.

It works within Curriculum for Excellence which is about the enjoyment of education that produces learning activities which have real meaning for children in their own lives. Early years and Primary 1 have been combined to create the new early level in Curriculum for Excellence and the challenge for practitioners is to maintain the feeling of play whilst ensuring that children experience the whole of the curriculum. In addition, it emphasises the importance of active play as a curricular approach.

Active learning involves the child being at the centre of their learning so practitioners must listen to them and by using resources like a floor book or mind map, the child’s interests can be documented and acted on. Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child states “Children have the right to express a view about things that affect them” and one of the principles of The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 includes the right to be heard too.

Another efficient way of listening is by observing children as this helps practitioners to understand the children’s stage of development. Documented assessments influence what staff can do to improve the quality of learning for children and it is done by generating focused learning and providing activities.

This information about children’s interest and further learning has come directly from the children themselves enabling the children to be put at the centre of their learning. By identifying the learning needs of the child staff are meeting and implementing the requirements of the provision of early education as stated by The Child at the Centre, 5.3 Meeting learning needs.

During my three weeks in placement I used observations to influence me in the provision of support I could offer to the children in their learning and I have spoke briefly about them and evaluated how this support helped children in their active learning.

Children learn about their world through play with active learning and the greater the variety of experiences the more stimulating their engagement and learning will be. They are seen as participants in their own learning, are independent in their own actions in everything they do and are able to make connections in their learning. However, when their independent learning requires support, they become co-constructors of learning. Adult intervention can help children construct their knowledge by building on the knowledge that the child already has.

This theory relates to social constructivist Jerome Bruner where he indicates how adults can “scaffold” what the child already knows by building on their prior knowledge enabling them to learn and develop and I used this theory in providing support in two observations.

In observation 1, during group time, the keyworker asks the children to share the knowledge they have about fireworks. I built on this knowledge by creating an expressive arts activity for the children and they were able to their thoughts and interests in a creative way. This observation also relates to the theory of active learning by providing activities and learning that have real meaning in the lives of children helps them to make sense of the world. (Observation 2)

In observation I used my judgement in deciding when to sensitively intervene or interact when the children were involved in self-directed or free flow play to enable them to build on their knowledge.

I knew that S was trying to get my attention and took the right moment to interact with him and give him the support to build on his knowledge of “putting on a show” and continue in his play. By listening to him and then interacting with him, I provided him with support to develop his language and communication and optimise his learning potential. Moreover, this observation allowed me to tune into S and assess his stage of development and provided me with an insight into what his interests, knowledge and experiences were.

This activity also shows how Piaget’s theory of cognitive development evolves. S used maracas to represent his microphone and according to Beaver M et al, Piaget’s theory implies that S is in the pre-conceptual stage of his cognitive development and this stage enables him to develop his language more rapidly. I had already planned to provide a role play activity for the children and this planned activity would continue S’s active learning and language development. (Observation 1 and )

In her explanation of free flow play, Bruce T (2006 page 470) implies that there are 3 stages in the development of free flow play. As children enter the 3rd stage called more elaborate play, they have already begun to pretend and develop impulsive creative and imaginative play. The third skill requires more skill and includes social interaction, props and stories. She also agrees with Beaver. M (et al) page 174, that this type of free flow play is very important for the child’s overall development. I believe that S had already entered the 3rd stage of free flow play.

In the fruit and vegetable shop activity I observed two different types of play and learning. In the first observation, a group of three boys were content to be involved in their own solitary play but the second observation showed how role play can promote learning and encourage social interactions. Standard 5 of the National Care standard states that children and young people will have opportunities to exercise choice and the first observation showed that these boys were exercising their choice to play alone.

The afternoon observation showed social interaction between the boys and this role play gave them the chance to use their imaginations to explore, discover and organise their thoughts in order to make sense of their world. This activity also allowed them to develop their language and social development. By creating this activity I provided the next step in their active learning and according to Beaver. M (et al) page 174 “an important step part in their all-round development.”

Active learning has been establish in my nursery for a number of years and the nursery works within Building the Curriculum 2, guidelines. It provides a general idea of active learning and shows the relation of the four capacities in Curriculum for Excellence to what we already know about children. I visited the nursery prior to starting and discussed the play feature in the nursery with the nursery teacher. We spoke about how the children experience their free flow play but there is also structured play and focused learning for some children to give them support in their overall development.

Appendix 1

In addition to providing activities that would provide support for the children in their active learning, I suggested to my mentor that we could create a wall display to share and celebrate the children’s learning. Our display carried pictures and photographs of the children’s work and also included printed text relating to some of the learned outcomes and experiences from Curriculum for Excellence. This “making learning visible” which was inspired by Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy, enabled the children to continue in their learning and share it with other children, parents and staff with a sense of pride and confidence.

The struggle of the Canadian aboriginal people is based in education. The struggle is for them to regain the control of their livelihood as communities and as nations. The aboriginal people’s population has been on the increase for the past decade. Their largest population lives in the main population centers of Canada. The overall education standards of aboriginal people lag behind the overall education standards of Canada. According to Levin, (2009), there are an estimated 40 % of aboriginal people that dropped out of secondary school as compared to 20% of the total population of Canada. For the 20 years, the attainment of education among aboriginal people has improved though still quite low. The growth in numbers of aboriginal people with completed high school in the past decade led to the improvement of their public image. Despite the improvements, aboriginal education is still not much successful (Levin, 2009).

Aboriginal education and obstacles to understanding

The history of the aboriginal people and the non-aboriginal people dates back many years ago. The non- aboriginal people (Europeans) came to the aboriginal’s land. They started to coexist with the aboriginal people teaching the non-aboriginal people so many things for effective coexistence. Friendship and peace treaties enabled them to stay peacefully. With the royal proclamation of 1963, the distinction was made between the need for land and the need for the protection of the aboriginal people’s rights. As time moved on, more Europeans arrived outnumbering the native aboriginal people which was characterized by poverty and diseases. With the British war of 1812-1814, the aboriginal people were declined of their position as the allies to the military. This implanted into their heads the idea that the British people were superior than they were. This explains the dominion and assimilation by the non-aboriginals (Levin, 2009).

The aboriginal people make up many nations in Canada. These people have unique culture, beliefs and values. Within a specific region, there could be diverse number of people with different and diverse cultures. The Indian act of 1876 imposed oppression against the aboriginal people. The federal government controlled the schooling of aboriginals’ children (Antone, (2003). Through the system, the government did not educate the children but was rather transforming their minds (Battiste, (1995). The aboriginal children were exposed to forces of cognitive imperialism which are very distractive. This resulted into the children losing the world view, their language and their culture. This caused an upheaval in the aboriginal communities socially and psychologically. The major cultural aspects of the aboriginals were lost. They included the cultural aspects in relation to hunting, fishing, medicine and religion (Antone, (2003). According to Eileen and Tania (2005), the colonialism history disrupted the aboriginals’ way of transmitting knowledge. The effect is long-lasting. The original aboriginal education and literacy and the philosophies were historically passed down the lineage by oral means and they wee kept by the old men (elders). The non-aboriginal education programs are characterized by the radio, the TV, and the video games. All these have replaced the traditional aboriginal ways of passing knowledge from one generation to the other (Smith, 1999). The non-aboriginal systems of education have resulted in the loss of respect for the aboriginal traditions and elders and the language. Despite all these challenges that aboriginal education is facing, the elders are trying to find where they belong in the society as they try to bring reinstate the aboriginal culture (Eileen, & Tania, (2005).

The aboriginal education differs fro the non-aboriginal education in various ways. The literacy levels among the aborigines are quite low with many adults being illiterate. According to Richards (2008), the performance of aborigines in on-off-reserve schools is quite low. Richard (2008) reports findings from the census data that the non- aboriginal young people (under 45 yrs) have high education as compared to older Canadians. He adds that there is a universal demand for high school certificates. More so, there is an increased gap between aboriginal and non aboriginal high school education qualifiers with the gaps more being more pronounced at those levels that are beyond the secondary school (Richards, 2008).

The non-aboriginal education system does not uphold the aboriginal language and literacy. The system elevates the understanding of certain foreign competencies as it undermines the competencies of aboriginal education system. This has led to the feeling of low self esteem and inadequacy among aboriginal students hence high school dropout rates and the poor performance. Therefore, the non-aboriginal system of education dos not values the aboriginal’s language, culture and their traditions (Richards, 2008). The literacy system that is used is foreign and is one of the reasons as to why the aboriginals perform poorly in academic institutions. A holistic approach to this issue will go a great way in solving the aboriginal’s literacy. The literacy leaning process to be used should include all the aspect of the aboriginal’s culture including the language. To overcome the challenges, the aboriginal students should be taught by aboriginal teachers using their own modes of teaching like storytelling, observation and by the use of performed knowledge (Richards, 2008).

The implication of the low aboriginal high school education is seen in the productivity levels of Canada. It is also seen in poverty and the racial tension that exists. The fertility rate among aboriginal students is high thus characterized by many school dropouts (La Prairie, 1995).

Transition to urban environments

The aboriginal people underwent a lot of problems resulting from colonization. The children were forced to under a foreign literacy system that affected them by far. Through the non-aboriginal education system, the aboriginal children were taught in foreign language that they did not understand. They were also taught foreign cultures and alienated far away from their culture. Though the literacy system, they were taught that their culture is inferior. As a result of that, they suffered from colonialism, many of them suffering from low self esteem. They were characterized by poverty and poor lifestyles (Malatest, 2004).

According to Gallant, (2003), the poor aboriginal children were vulnerable to alienation from culture and their society. They also suffered from hopelessness. She argues that the children live in poverty and in a world that is full of violence and racism. The above problems that the aboriginal youth are susceptible to are accompanied by other social problems like high school drop out rates, high suicide rates, high crime rates and poverty rates. In her report, Galant (2003) finds a multitude of problems that the youth experience as they move from the poor rural areas to urban areas. These problems are as a result of colonialism. They include:

Problems of lack of identity: This is accompanied by the lack of culture and the native language. With this problem, the youth experience isolation and alienation which make involvement in gang and illegal activities very attractive for the aboriginal youths. These aboriginal youths face the challenge of trying to cope with the many different cultures of the non-aboriginal nature that are very hostile to the aboriginal culture (Galant, 2003).

Education: due to poor school attendance be cause of inadequate funding, there are high dropout rates among the aboriginal youths. They end up with low education levels and high unemployment t rates translating to job prospects that are poor hence increased poverty (HRSDC, 2009).

Parental care: given the poor settings of the aboriginal families, the parents are busy fending for their children as the children go to school. These parents rarely get enough time for the family. These families are dysfunctional with absentee parents (Evans, 1998).

Early maturity: the poor lifestyles hat the aboriginal children lead makes them mature faster since some of them are left to work and feed themselves at tender ages. This makes them mature faster resulting in becoming parents early with poor parental skills (Gallant, 2003).

Substance abuse: the aboriginal children who come from many rural places have little parental care. Due to low self esteem and alienation, many become victims of substance abuse. This they take believing that it will reduce the stress and the depression while boosting their morale (Gallant, 2003).

Poverty: these children are vulnerable to poverty because of the poor socialization process that they receive. Their parents are poor and are rarely there for them. They are rarely monitored and advised on the best way for the future. The low self esteem they gain frustrates them thus making them lead poor lives (Friedel, 1999).

Racism: this is accompanied by discrimination. It really lowers their self esteem and their confidence fostering hostility against their broader society (Smith, 1999). They feel alienated and marginalized.

The above problems that face the aboriginal youth require a solution. The solution is not definite. They need support by every body and is comprised of every element that touches the holistic approach to life like recreation, proper parenting skills, good literacy and education standards, readiness for the labor market, transition services in the urban settings, support from the family and the family and very strong backing of the community. Without these support, these young aboriginal people will find it hard to deal with the daily life challenges hence living low quality lives as compared to non-aboriginal youths (HRSDC, 2009).

Action plan

The transition period for the aboriginal youths is very crucial. This is because it determines the future of a person. What a person gains in his youth will either built on his future or destroy it completely. The urban aboriginal youth face many challenges as seen above ranging from poverty, racism, alienation to poor performance academically. The only solution to these problems can be done during their transition stage as they move from the rural setting to the urban setting. The following are some of the recommended action plans:

Establishing of urban centers for the aboriginal youths.

These are important because they help the aboriginal youth to come together in a more welcoming environment that is more comfortable than when they are left alone. The place should be free from alcohol and drugs. Gallant (2003) in her report argues that every urban center should have a youth centre that provides a sense of belonging for the desolate aboriginal youths. Through these centers they are able to share their personal experiences freely and have a sense of belonging. The many social-cultural dislocations that the youth have could be counteracted by the youth centers. The aboriginal youth centers act as an alternative to street life since they provide a forum where the aboriginal youths are in a position to interact with their fellow youths, their culture, elders and be in a position to explore the many opportunities that the urban life provides for them (Gallant, 2003).

Since the youth centers for the aboriginal youth are very helpful, the federal government should provide funding for their establishment and development. It should do this in collaboration with the respective aboriginal youth representatives together with the provincial counterparts of the government and the aboriginal youth development agencies. These centers should be located in easily accessible areas. This would be a step in helping the future generation of aboriginal youth (Smith, 1999).

Establishment of urban aboriginal youth transitional programs

Many aboriginal youths move to the city seeking to advance their studies among other reasons like seeking for reemployment. With the move to the city, they are culturally dislocated, powerless and incompetent. Despite the challenges, they are determined top make out a living and better their future. With insufficient t resources and inadequate education, many turn to alternative means of earning a living (Alberta Report, 2001). Accompanied by racism and discrimination, it becomes very difficult for the aboriginal youth to handle these situations in the urban settings. Gallant argues that there is nothing that is such devastating to a young person than the racist claim. The lack of knowledge on the original aboriginal culture together with racism and discrimination are the major aboriginal youth challenges in many urban settings. The effects of all these are manifested through isolation which leads to low self esteem (Smith, 1999).

Gallant (2008) argues that there has been scanty attention paid by the government to these problems that are facing the aboriginal youth in transition. Basing on the above problems that are faced by the aboriginal youth in transition, the government should take initiatives to establish major transition services in major Canadian urban centers. This will ensure that the aboriginal migrants to the city are positively supported and proper discretion towards organizations that are appropriate in dealing with transitional issues is given. Services to be provided should include houses, training, provision of literacy skill in English, guidance and counseling among many others. The supervision of the services should be linked to the specific communities that the youth originate. The establishment of the transitional services and centers by the government should be done in collaboration with the rural communities of the respective communities (Prochner, 2004).

Creating recreation in sports and arts for the aboriginal youth

A recreational ground provides a positive release of excess energy by the youth. Through sports and recreational activities, the youth can be relieved from boredom, drug abuse and drinking. Sports are made with creativity, discipline and team work that enhances the way the youth make goals. This has far reaching results on the future performance and life of the youths. With the many aboriginal youths that migrate to the cities, given their poor backgrounds and settings, there are no recreational facilities that they can afford. The government should increase its efforts in availing recreational facilities to the aboriginal youth in transition. This will lower the vulnerability of the youths’ dysfunction both physically and socially.

According to Gallant (2003), there is a strong relationship between the involvement in recreational activities and anti-social behavior. Lifelong bad behavior is as a result of lacking anything constructive to do. The youth gets more pressure from the peers to engage in harmful anti-social activities. The establishment of these facilities in schools is very essential because such skills are vital for equipping the students with lifelong skills like leadership skills, training and academic tutoring (Smith, 1999). Thus school attendance is mandatory. Through school programs that are fitted with recreational and sport facilities, the healthy behavior of students are enhanced.

The government should work close with other agencies in the provision of recreational and sports facilities to schools. In addition to that, in order to cater for the aboriginal youth in transition, the government should establish the recreational and sports centers together with the urban aboriginal youth centers (Gallant, 2003). The centers established by the federal government should be community based and should not have a short term perspective. The projects should be sustainable in the long run and it should be designed for the offering of instructions to the aboriginal youths accompanied by the offering of leadership and training in life skills. Through these programs, the aboriginal youths will be able to overcome racism and discrimination hence building on their self esteem. This will go along way down the life of the young aboriginal people (Alberta Report, 2001).

Health and sexuality program for aboriginal teens.

Aboriginal homes lack good quality sex education. With the parents rarely at home and not involved in their children affairs, aboriginal youths are experience high rates of pregnancy which also contributes to high school drop out rates. In addition to that, aboriginal youths experience involvement in drug and substance abuse (Alberta Report, 2001). This contributes to the high pregnancy levels and school drop out and poor academic performance. Due to this, the federal government should initiate programs that alleviate the effects of drug and alcohol abuse. This will lower the number of children borne with fatal alcohol syndrome. The government’s initiative should both be in rural and urban settings so the aboriginal children in rural and urban areas benefit. The federal government should also increase federal funding towards the initiative to reduce fetal alcohol syndrome among aboriginal youths (Alberta Report, 2001).

In addition to the above, it is observed that there is very little use of contraceptives among aboriginal youths. This can also explain the high pregnancy rates which translates to high poverty rates. All these are accompanied by high unemployment rates among aboriginal teens. The federal government through its health minister and community based organizations for aboriginal youths should implement a public awareness policy that targets aboriginal teens. This policy should target to address the problems of sexual health of aboriginal teens hence promoting sexual practices that re healthy. The federal government should also set aside sustainable funding for the programs (Gallant, 2003).

Gang life: coming up with better alternatives.

Given the poor background setting for the aboriginal youths, as they move to the urban setting they become vulnerable to anti social activities which also are criminal in nature. The youths are usually discriminated. The gangs are readily acceptable for them since they provide for them a sense of belonging and identity since the youths are desperate. Though these gangs, the youths feel greatly empowered with renewed purpose and belonging. According to Carol, (1995) the aboriginal youths that live deeper inside the city are more vulnerable to engaging in criminal activities. They are also prone to processing of justice. Therefore, gangs do provide protection for them and thus giving them safety. They accord them the basic needs (Carol, 1995).

It is recommended that the federal government while working together with the municipal and the provincial administration should help in the identification and provision o safe house for the aboriginal youths in urban centers. This will help them leave the gangs and engage in better life (Gallant, 2003).

Alcohol and Substance abuse

Many aboriginal youths in transition to urban life abuse substances like alcohol, solvents and smoking. This is one of the most risky lives. According to studies, aboriginal youth are six times riskier in abusing alcoholic substances than heir non- aboriginal counterpart. The federal government should come up with programs that help the aboriginal youth not to indulge in drug abuse. An example is the NNADAP program put in place by first nations. The program should be target all aboriginal youths both in rural and urban settings. Sustainable funding should also be provided by the federal government. In addition to that, there should be treatment centers that provide treatment for cases related to substance abuse. These centers should be age specific (Alberta Report, 2001).

Training and Employments for the Aboriginal Youth

Many aboriginal youths posses low education levels due to the poor backgrounds they come form. They rarely complete high school. With low education, many end up being jobless. Thus many aboriginal youths risk being unemployed (Smith, 1999). Being unemployed is risky for the youths as they are likely to engage in antisocial activities. The federal government should set up programs that will reduce the aboriginal youth unemployment. Given the fast population growth rate of the aboriginal people, the government should move fast in bringing Canada’s shrinking labor force to the required levels. The barriers to employment of aboriginal youths include factors like little job experience, low education levels among the aboriginal youths, lack or inappropriate skills among the youth, high transience and mobility levels amongst the aboriginal youths and poverty and discrimination (Smith, 1999).

To solve the above obstacles, the federal government should initiate employment and entrepreneurship programs for the aboriginal youths. These programs will help them develop the necessary skills, and experience fro the required jobs. All those programs that are undertaken to help alleviate the youth unemployment should have a long term perspective. Therefore, the federal government should not only initiate but sustain the programs through sustainable funding and increased human resource development. In addition to that, the partnership of transitional urban aboriginal youth and the private sector employers should be encouraged by the federal government and the stakeholders (Gallant, 2003).

Provision of professional development

Aboriginal education requires the use of professional development for it to come out successful. The aboriginal youth have suffered so much under the non-aboriginal education system. They have undergone the torture of the mind with many negative thought being implanted in their minds (Gallant, 2003). They were taught using foreign language that they do not understand well. They were alienated further from their culture and their traditions. Through this, they faced racism hence discrimination. The discrimination they faced affected their self esteem that they lost focus in life. They are still suffering from neocolonialism since their parents still believe that they are inferior to the non-aborigines. With this mentality, they are poor lacking a sense of direction in life (Tunison, 2007).

There needs to be established a special education program that caters for aboriginal children. Aboriginal youth face many challenges as they study. Coming from a poor background where parents struggle to feed ad take them to school they face a lot of hardships. The parents can’t afford better schools to take them. At the schools that they are taken, they are taught the non-aboriginal literacy where they are further alienated from their culture. As they move to urban settings, they are faced with the challenge of racism and lack of identity which leads to discrimination. Through all these tribulations, the aboriginal education is characterized high drop out rates, truancy and poor performance in academics (Kanu, 2005).

There is very little parental involvement in the education of their children. According to the Ministry Of Education (2005), parents have an important role to play in the education of their children. They assist their children in doing home work, provide them with good parenting and also get involved at school projects and trips for their children. They should help the school in the better management of their children. Aboriginal parents are too busy that they find no time to spare for their children. Since parents also advice their children and influence their future life, the youth’s from aboriginal backgrounds do not experience that. This explains the poor performance at school, poverty, truancy, involvement in gang activities and high school drop out rates. The children lack a sense of belonging (Ministry Of Education, 2005).

Since the system of education for the non-aboriginals does not favor the aboriginal children, the government should initiate the curriculum that favors the aboriginal students and culture. The government should also engage trained aboriginal teachers to teach aboriginal children. This is because they best understand the aboriginal culture and language (Gregory, et. al. 2008). This will break one of the barriers of poor performance among aboriginal children. More so, the government should develop aboriginal schools in urban areas that are exclusively for aboriginal students. This will reduce the instances if racism and discrimination hence the self esteem for the children will be raised resulting not only to better academic performance but also better future life. The government should come up with guiding and counseling programs that support secondary school going aboriginal students (Alberta Report, 2001).

The outcome of poverty in aboriginal families is poor parental responsibility with many parents not taking part in the up bringing of their children. The children, due to low self esteem indulge in many antisocial activities that ruin their future. They engage in alcohol and abuse of substances in addition to participation in criminal activities. Their parents also do not know their culture.

The future of the aboriginal people lies in the employment of professionals to come up with a system that suits them. The new system should make use of aboriginal teachers to teach aboriginal youths.

Conclusion

The aboriginal people are the natives of Canada. With coming of the Europeans, the aborigines were marginalized. They were imposed to foreign culture and education system that doe not value the cultural and the language of the aboriginal people. They were taught in foreign language that they did not understand. Through the non-aboriginal literacy programs, they were taught that they are inferior to Europeans. As a result they became inferior and poor. Their children performed poorly in schools.

During the transition stage where the aboriginal youths move to urban setting, they experienced many problems that range from high school drop out rates, truancy, high rates of pregnancy, racism and discrimination and involvement in antisocial behavior. All this conditions accompanied b a very low self esteem impact negatively on the aboriginal children and they end up leading a very poor lifestyle.

The federal government should engage in several activities to save the aboriginal people. It should work in collaboration with other community groups in the establishment of urban centers that care for the aboriginal youth in transition. Through the centers, the youths engage in sports and other recreational activities that will boost the self esteem of the aboriginal youth hence improving their future. It should also establish training centers and initiate awareness for the aboriginal youth in terms of drug and substance abuse, and sexual and health behavior. With these the aboriginal youth will contribute much to the labor force in Canada. All these programs that are initiated by the government should have a long term perspective otherwise, they will not be effective.

The phrase ‘neighbourhood renewal/regeneration’ relates to a series of programmes in place to ascertain local needs and develop ways to deal with poverty and deprivation in the United Kingdom which are known as Super Output Areas (SOA’s). Local area based initiatives have been a universal approach to the problems that deprived neighbourhoods have endured in Britain since the 1960’s. The majority of programmes at that time were very short term and tended to focus on single issues. In the late 1980’s an integrated approach was tried. (Imrie and Raco, 2003).

Initiatives started to increase in the 1990’s and as a result of this, the number of ‘the governance of neighbourhood regeneration came to be characterised by a series of interlinked and spatially overlapping partnerships’ (Imrie and Raco, 2003: 85). Labour introduced the neighbourhood renewal strategy plan in 2001, this was a new approach to tackle social exclusion and poverty in the most poorest neighbourhoods in UK. Tony Blair talked about the purpose of The Neighbourhood Renewal Strategy in his speech to the nation:

“where no-one is seriously disadvantaged by where they live, where power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many not the few. This action plan is a crucial step in creating one nation, not separated by class, race or where people live the purpose of the strategy was ‘to narrow the gap between outcomes in deprived areas and the rest’ (Social Exclusion Unit, 2001:1)

The main aims of local based anti-poverty and community development programmes are to tackle the issue of social exclusion in the more deprived areas of the country.

“In relation to British social policy, the term social exclusion is relatively new. The government has described social exclusion as a shorthand term for what can happen when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime, bad health and family breakdown. (www.socialexclusion.gov.uk).”

There are many different explanations for social exclusion, and many different factors which add to social exclusion, by examining the different factors programmes can be developed in order to address the problems and try to promote a more cohesive community. The individual can contribute to social exclusion by the nature of their race, gender, culture, beliefs, disability etc.

Lack of resources

Lack of opportunities to work

Learning opportunities

Health issues

Decent housing

Disruption of family life.

Living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods (Haralambos and Holbron, 2004:253)

Anti-poverty and community development programmes are targeting these areas with improvements in social housing, re-developing existing social housing, increasing education opportunities (such as access to education and grant schemes for students), making health care more available, targeting the younger generation to educate on matters that will effect their future, raising the profile of neighbourhoods.

One of the projects I am more familiar with is the “Sure Start programme” (now known as “Children’s Centre’s”) and I am going to discuss the strengths and weakness of the centre’s.

Governments Policies

In 2003, the Government published a green paper called Every Child Matters. This was published alongside the report into the death of Victoria Climbie. The Green Paper prompted discussions about current services for children, young people and families. There was a wide consultation with staff that worked in children’s services, and with parents, children and young people. Following the consultation, the Government published Every Child Matters: the Next Steps, and passed the Children Act 2004.

“The Act provides a legislative spine for the wider strategy for improving children’s lives. This covers the universal services which every child accesses, and more targeted services for those with additional needs Department of Education and Skills, Children Act 2004.” http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/childrenactreport

Indeed, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown MP, speaking about child poverty at the Sure Start Conference on 7 July 1999, acknowledges that poverty is a many-sided problem which requires many-sided solutions:

“First, we must tackle child poverty at its source – the absence of work, in work poverty and providing increased financial support for families to tackle child poverty, so that by our actions we lift a million and more children out of poverty.

Second, what I want to concentrate on today, because improving public services – health visitors, nurseries, playgroups, childcare, learning support – in the poorest communities is vital to tackling child poverty, our Sure Start programme will invest in young children in areas of greatest need.

Third, we must mobilize not just government, local and national, but voluntary help and community action – and in the programmes we are introducing – not only in Sure Start but in the New Deal for Communities and our expansion of childcare provision – we must mobilize the forces of concern and compassion in new partnerships to tackle child poverty.

Fourth, as David Blunkett has said, we must make sure that all our schools are as good as our best. In the old economy it was possible to survive with the old inequalities – an education system that advanced only the ambitions of the few.” http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/633.htm

Key achievements:

“Labour has undertaken the biggest expansion in early years education since 1945; investing ?21 billion since 1997.

Every three and four year old has the right to a free nursery place, which we will extend from 12.5 hours a week to 15 hours by 2010.

Since 1997, the number of registered childcare places is up by around 644,000 from a place for one in eight children to one in four children.

Delivered nearly 3,000 Sure Start Children’s centre’s, reaching two million children and their families.

Labour has expanded nationally the Bookstart scheme which gives every one and two year old a satchel of books and every three and four year old a ‘treasure chest’ of books and crayons.” http://www.labour.org.uk/early_years

Sure Start

Sure Start was the Labour Government’s programme that aimed to deliver the best start in life for every child. They bring together early education, family support, childcare, health and welfare advice. It aims to develop services in some of the more disadvantaged areas (identified by the multiple of deprivation indices. In Sure Start there is a normally a central office where all the team work together to support children and families in the local areas. The sure start programme was initially a ten year programme but was abolished in favour of “children’s Centre’s”. The change from “Sure Start” has not really been noticed and is still referred to as “Sure Start”.

“Amid all the hullabaloo about the government’s 10-year childcare strategy, one quite momentous change has gone relatively unnoticed: the government’s much-lauded Sure Start programme has been abolished”. N. Glass, The Guardian, Wednesday January 5 2005

The Sure Start centre’s, provided integrated services including health services and family support services, as well as childcare. The different services that children centre’s provide for children and families contribute to the Every Child Matters outcomes. Local authorities lead in planning and implementing centres.

Some of the services I have seen implemented at RoseHill include, support that has been individually tailored to meet the families and their children’s needs such as, parenting assessment, working with families in the home or at the centre based on a one to one basis, providing parenting courses that aim to improve parental skills so improve the life and chances for children. There are also family workers at the centre that deal with over 11’s and their families and carers, this service aims to work through problems the family may have and keep the children at their homes with their parents. One big issue the centre faces in relation to families is that of extended families and the centre provides a much needed support framework and advice for children and families that are going through divorce and separation issues, given the families a safe environment to discuss issues and problems. Along side this are the other services normally associated with a “Children Centre”, education courses, healthy eating, reading and writing support, I.T. help, employment help such as C.V. writing and interview techniques, and childcare support.

Some of the members include:

Education advisers

Activities & Volunteer co-coordinators

Midwives

Creche Workers

Health Visitors

Play workers

Speech and language therapist

Child care advisors

Family Support (Social Services

PEEP Workers

IT Trainers

One of the most important facts that impacted on the programme was that the Sure Start programme was not allowed to run its full ten years span, and little or no follow-up evidence was available for analysis, before expansion.

“With principal responsibility for Sure Start alongside my DfES colleagues, I had to argue against its immediate expansion on the grounds that it would be better to accumulate some experience of running it first. (By the October 1999, when I first discussed the scheme with the chancellor there were only two local projects actually running). My arguments did not win the day and in July 2000 the programme was extended to 550 local projects.” Norman Glass – Society Guardian, 2005:1

The Sure Start programme was very generously funded and when the programme was agreed to be spread around a further 3,500 centres, the money had to come from somewhere. This meant that the generous funding had to be more evenly distributed. This has meant that the centres had very limited funding and cuts had to be made.

Although the Sure Start programme did not continue for the full planned ten year term and lost most of the generous funding, many of the good practice is carried out in the Children Centre’s that followed the Sure Start initiatives one of which is PEEP.

PEEP is an early learning intervention, which aims to contribute towards improving the life chances of children, particularly in disadvantaged areas. It concentrates on supporting parents/carers to develop three particular aspects of learning with their children:

literacy and numeracy

self-esteem

learning dispositions

The PEEP Learning Together programme focuses on how to make the most of the learning opportunities in everyday life at home – listening, talking, playing, singing, sharing books – and having fun! PEEP supports parents and carers in their role as the first educators of their children. It works with adults about their children’s very early learning. http://www.peep.org.uk/section.asp?id=5

Another flaw of the Sure Start centres was that although Sure Start centres were based in deprived areas not all deprived children lived in these neighbourhoods.

“Because not all disadvantaged children live in deprived areas each small sure start programme could serve only a minority of disadvantaged children: those from adjacent areas could not could not participate and local authorities and health agencies were faced with relatively well-financed early year’s programmes in one part of their domain and much less well provided areas next door. This was very difficult to handle.” Norman Glass – Society Guardian, 2005:1

“We know that children who grow up in poor families are less likely to reach their full potential, less likely to stay on at school, or even attend school, more likely to fall into the dead end of unemployment and poverty as an adult, more likely to become unmarried teenage mothers, more likely to be in the worst jobs or no jobs at all, more likely to be trapped in a no win situation – poor when young, unemployed when older. “http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/633.htm

Another weakness of the centres is that it involves trying to motivate and empower the local community to identify their needs and participate in the management side of the day to day running. This requires community workers who have good community and social skills to encourage local community members to actively take part. The concerns were that after the ten years were up that the community centres would not have been taken on by the local members and the centres would eventually be closed down.

The “Children’s Centre” at Rosehill was formerly a Sure Start Centre and the differences are striking. The centre has lost a vast amount of staff members and the funding has been cut considerably. The workers continue to provide opportunities for the local parents and children so the principles of Sure Start are being maintained. Some of the local projects are working well such as the Reclaim your garden for food, Further education for parents, IT sessions, and one particular programme that I am involved with is “Without Walls”. Without Walls aims to network within the community to bring people together and try out new activities. It aims to break down barriers between people by organising little trips and coffee mornings with a view to a residential trip in the near future. The strengths of this project are that it encourages members of the community to mix with different groups within the community and to form a bond between them. Encouraging and empowering people to try different activities in a comfortable and safe environment. The only draw back is that Community Development takes time, patience and enthusiasm.

“Disadvantaged communities have to be persuaded to participate and their natural suspicious leads them to hang back until there is something to show.” Norman Glass – Society Guardian, 2005:1

The children’s centre network is still being expanded, and there will be up to 2,500 children’s centre throughout the country. Centers will be established to provide the most disadvantaged areas with links to local childcare networks and Job centre Plus. The ten-year strategy for childcare recommends that more local area based and to ensure that services are more accessible.

The Strengths of Local based and community development programs are:

The strengths of these projects are:-

Brings diversity to local areas

Raises education within the community

Builds social capital

Promotes a more healthy lifestyle

Facilitates more parents to be able to return to work

Develops individual social skills

Encourages participation of community members

Promotes cohesiveness

Uses a bottom up approach as opposed to top down

Creates Job opportunities

Attracts other resources

Has local government involvement

The Limitations of Local based and community development programs are:

It doesn’t always reach those that vulnerable and excluded

Resources limited opportunities

Can cause discrimination over resources

Funding limitations

Can be difficult to evaluate/target and identify objectives

Time consuming

Can have funding limitations

The project was aimed at parents to enable them to raise their children themselves, this in itself can prove difficult as many different cultures, races and societies have different views on what is considered successful parenting. Some of the more successful local projects seen at Rosehill/Littlemore Children’s Centre have been the parenting courses and Baby ‘G, a group set up specifically to target under 25’s with young children and childcare courses. This has brought a diverse group from the community together and is still successfully recruiting members that might not have attended the centre for various reasons. Again outreach work has enabled this to happen.

In conclusion, local based area projects are as successful so long as participation is encouraged and that the projects are based on the communities needs. Community workers must continue to empower local residents to take part and in part, own the projects themselves in order for it to be sustainable. The most important part of any project is to reach the more vulnerable members of the local population; this can be achieved by successful outreach work. The success of any local area based projects depends entirely on the community workers personal skills and support from local authorities, along with a good community based knowledge. To be able to continue with all the work at “Children’s Centres) I believe the projects need more funding to grow and sustain the important work carried out by these centres. Only with more government funding will they survive and be successful.

Bibliographies and Referencing

www.socialexclusion.gov.uk, 3rd November 2008

Haralambos and Holborn, 2004, Sociology, Themes and Perspective, Sixth Edition, HarperCollins Publishers Limited.

Brown, G., (1999) Speech by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown MP, at the Sure Start Conference, 7 Jul. 1999, London: HM Treasury (online). http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/633.htm November 3rd 2008

Glass, N., 2005 – “Surely some mistake?” – Society Guardian 5th January, pg1

Glass, N., The Guardian, Wednesday January 5 2005, pg 1

http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/childrenactreport 20th October 2008, 10.23am

http://www.labour.org.uk/early_years 21st October 2008, 10.39am

http://www.peep.org.uk/section.asp?id=5 20th October 2008, 10.13am

Imrie, R. and Raco, M. (2003), Urban Renaissance. New Labour, community and urban policy. Bristol, The Policy Press

Also Street children as defined by the UNICEF: is divided into children “on” the street and children “of” the streets. Children “on” the streets are the children whose have home to live in, but they have a full time work or a part time work. Children “Of” the streets are the children “whose home ties have been seriously weakened and who essentially live in the street” (UNICEF, 1993, p.22). Children “of” the streets are which lives all there time on the streets or in other words children with no shelter except for the street. Also, a “street child” is defined as “any boy or girl for whom the street in the widest sense of the word has become his or her habitual abode and/or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by responsible adults”( Lusk, 1989).according to Kopoka Children whose work on streets and take streets as a shelter, usually come from poor slums and squatter settlements where everything is precarious: Family financial situation, overcrowded schools and even safe place where they can run and play. Moreover, wars or armed conflicts cause the increasing of this problem where the children parents are killed and leave them alone with no shelter or place to live . On the other hand, there are children whose have guardians, but the guardians sent them to work to help the family, others are forced to work and live in streets. Even there are children from well to do families or middle class who run away from homes. The purpose of this essay is to show some of the causes and its effects considering street children problem, and analyse the solution to differentiate between good solution and bad solutions.

Causes:-

According to Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1995; there are lots of causes for this problem, some are natural and others are man-made. Children have lost contact with their parents or families, which results the loss of the children in the streets. Some children are the offspring of prostitutes. Some families reject their children if there are handicapped. Some “respectable” parent disowned their own child because he/she is an outcome of an affair. In those causes the background is not allows poor.

Effects:-

According to Harding, 2010; for every cause there is effect, and there are devastating effects on street children themselves and on the society they belong to. The children without education are without future, which means that they will not be able to defend their future and they will face lots of difficulties to have a better life. Moreover, being undernourished from such a very young age causes bad side effects on their health like malnutrition which effects there immune system and as a result shorter life expectancy. There are approximately 48 million young ones whose are not registered in their country’s archives, which represents around 47% of the child population around the world. 20 out of every 100 births in Latin America never registered. That mean that all of those 47% are not on paper which means they do not exist. This is a huge problem as those poor kids do not have identity, which exclude them from other right like the right to vote or the right to have a proper education or even low level education. Moreover, criminal gangs which really represent a huge disaster, as they use those unregistered children to do criminals and violence. Those children have no criteria to know what is right and what is wrong. They may expose themselves to very cruel situations like prostitution, sexual violations, drug consumption and other forms of modern slavery. According to stolenchildhood.net “Street children in the third world, having no access to basic needs always become an easy prey of flesh traders. The demand of street children is high among the pimps and the brothel owners because these children sell themselves at cheap rates. These children are at high risk because they neither use contraceptives nor ask the clients to use them. Thus the chances of getting pregnant or catching a sexually transmitted disease is high”. A finite circle is problem, because when children grows to be adults. They will be the best shape for crime; there will be evil walking on his feet. There will be individual illiterate adults with low moral beliefs, with damaged psychology. Those lovely poor children in the past will be the evil which will oppress other helpless and innocent children. All of this means that street children of today will be criminals of tomorrow.

Analysis of Solutions:-

Street children are a huge problem and any solution, even if it is not good, it will at least push forward to solve this problem. ESCWA has developed good solutions which are

“1. to understand better the situation of street children through research in the following areas:

1.1 Quantitative data at national level to assess the magnitude of the problem. The statistics need to be disaggregated by sex and age.

1.2 Qualitative and quantitative research to examine the root causes that put girls and boys at risk, among them street children. This research will need to examine the link between poverty, inequality, exploitation, violence and exclusion.

1.3 Qualitative research to examine the everyday lives of the street girls and boys and the attitudes of society and the government towards them.

1.4 Policy level research examining the effectiveness of existing policies, planning and legislation and institutional arrangements and budgetary allocation targeting street children.

2. To shift the approach to street children from legalistic to preventive, protective and rehabilitative interventions, through a focus on:

2.1 Root causes and not only on symptoms

2.2 The economic and not only the social sector

2.3 Mainstreaming as well as specific institutions and actions for street children

2.4 The rights of street children as citizens and not as charity cases or delinquents 16

2.5 Street children not only as victims but also as citizens with the agency to participate in decisions which target them.

3. To enforce and monitor all international and national commitment to children

3.1 To review that all items of international conventions such as those pertaining to children’s rights and elimination of child labour are translated into legislation and other procedures.

3.2 To review that all enforcement procedures are in place and are implemented.

3.3 To strengthen all monitoring and reporting systems relating to relevant international conventions.

3.4 To review and further amend the ‘Child Law’ 126/2008 by removing all clauses that undermine its effectiveness and to put in place all the necessary procedures and monitoring mechanisms.

3.5 To review and amend articles pertaining to corporal punishment in a way that prohibits all physical violence whether at home, school, work or any other institution.

4. To establish clear mandates and lines of institutional responsibility for street children

4.1 Strengthen cross-cutting entities

4.1.1 To strengthen the establishment of a unit or department in the new Ministry for Family and Population with a clear mandate for responsibility for street children. This entity would be a catalyst advocating, legislating and monitoring the situation of street children.

4.1.2 To review and strengthen the role of what was previously the NCCM ‘Technical Consultative Committee’.

4.1.3 To strengthen the ‘Child Protection Committee’ according to the amended ‘Child Law’ through appropriate budget allocation, establishment of clear guidelines and protocols and awareness raising and training for the committee members.

4.1.4 To establish surveillance system such as a children’s Ombudsman

4.2 Establish responsibility of line ministries

4.2.1 To strengthen the role of economic sector ministries in addressing poverty, such as the creation of jobs for poor women and men.

4.2.2 To strengthen the monitoring systems of the Ministry of Labour in the area of child labour.

4.2.3 To lift all exclusionary conditions from access to education such as the rising cost of education, forced private tuitions by teachers, mistreatment of poor children in schools, corporal punishment and gender discrimination.

4.2.4 To establish effective internal and external mechanisms and multispectral interventions to identify children at risk and design suitable and sustainable interventions to reduce and eventually eliminate the risk factors.

4.2.5 To formulate a new Social Protection Strategy with the full collaboration of all relevant state institutions and NGOs that focus on the rights of the 17 child, with a dedicated budget and clear roles and responsibilities for its implementation and monitoring.

5. To devise a comprehensive child protection system that addresses the issues of all categories of vulnerable girls and boys in all their diversity of age, class, religion as well as family and regional background

5.1 To devise a Social Protection policy for vulnerable girls and boys.

5.2 To devise a Social Protection strategy translated into crossaˆ?cutting and sectorial programmes and projects and procedures.

5.3 To create realistic budget lines for the implementation of the various components of the Social Protection system.

5.4 To create clear institutional responsibility for monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the strategy.

6. To devise a National Strategy, programmes and projects specifically for street children

6.1 To evaluate the implementation of the “National Strategy for the Protection, Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Street Children” of 2003, as well as all programmes and projects directly targeting street children.

6.2 To build on lessons learned and design a new Strategy in collaboration with key state institutions and NGOs.

6.3 To design innovative and participative programmes and projects that address the conditions and circumstances of children already living on the street taking into account that:

6.3.1 There is more chance of succeeding by helping children get off the streets through early intervention, before they establish their new “street kid” identity.

6.3.2 For those who have been a long time on the streets, it is possible to use participative methods and consult them in the design of the most effective activities.

6.4 To strengthen all programmes and projects that helps the reaˆ?integration of street children into mainstream society.

6.5 To put in place actions that address negative attitudes of both the general public and state employees towards street children.

6.6 To work directly with the police to address the way they perceive and treat street children

6.7 To solicit more resource allocation for items listed in recommendation 5 above from government and from bilateral and multilateral organisations.

7. To strengthen the advocacy role of civil society organisations working with street children

7.1 To strengthen CSOs ability to establish channels of communications with street children and to help make their voices heard.

7.2 To raise the capacity of CSOs working with street children in the area of advocacy and lobbying of policyaˆ?makers and politicians.

7.3 To support civil society networks and strengthens their roles as advocates of the rights and needs of street children.”

Conclusion:-

At last the author believes that street children are a huge problem that has a lot of causes which can be minimized and a lot of effects that are considered a real threat to all means of life, it is waste of man power which harm economy, it threats security and of course it is totally against human right .

Problems faced by single-sex schools2.1 Not suitable for boys

In Garner’s research, a general secretary named Mary Bousted said that all researches have shown that single-sex schools benefit girls but not boys in terms of education and social skills (Garner 2009).

2.1.1 Relationship matters

Richard Garner did a research and discovered that boys who attended single-sex schools will most probably affect their relationships in the future. Bousted added that boys study better when there are girls around. Garner also indicated that boys who attended single-gender schools experience depression in their adulthood because they face divorces and separation from their partners (Garner 2009).

Social skills

Boys and girls have difficulties communicating with the opposite sex as single-sex schools act as barriers to the students to face their adulthood in the society. Unlike coeducational atmosphere, single-sex schools do not allow space for boys and girls to learn and communicate with each other’s thoughts (Chattopadhay 2007).

Problems faced by coed schools
3.1 Not suitable for girls

During the teenage years of the students, distractions are bound to happen among themselves as they are experiencing puberty. They can spend most of their time trying to impress the opposite gender. Boys especially, will make an effort to sexually harass the girls (Jones 2009). In coed schools, sexual harassment cases do exist and it is truly unfair for the girls. There are possibilities in coed schools that male teachers or male students abusing the girls physically or sexually (Chattopadhay 2007). Chattopadhay reveals that some coed schools supply limited lavatories for girls. Lack of privacy for girls can lead to embarrassment faced by them.

Low self-esteem

A poll carried out by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) indicates that girls between ages 9 and 15 in coed schools have lower self esteem. They are unwilling to point out their thoughts to the teachers and they do not have high interest in science and mathematics. A report, How Schools Shortchange Girls (1992) by the AAUW promoted a debate that girls receive less attention in class because they are seldom being called upon and they are discouraged in coed schools (Academic research on single-sex education).

Advantages of single-sex education
4.1 Reduce social distractions

In Hubbard’s research, a teacher from Palm explained the needs of student for single-sex schools. The teacher said

“For boys, I think the main benefit is that it really does reduce distractions. These are kids who have trouble focusing on schoolwork in the first placeaˆ¦And then when you have girls, there’s another image that you want to be cool for the girls, you know, you want to impress a girl, you want to go out with her.”

Hubbard interpreted that the absence of girls causes boys to feel slighter demand to boast or involved in attention seeking attitude. Similarly, with the absence of males, females did not have to strive to get their attention. Rather than competing against one another, females learned to cooperate, interact with friends and to grow to concentrate better on their studies. The separation of males and females during classes causes them to not be involved in the common attention-seeking in coeducational surroundings. They clearly acknowledge the truth that they did not get molested by the other gender (Hubbard 2005).

Solve gender stereotypes

Females are often stereotyped that they are not smarter than males. Teachers and classmates sometimes fail to notice the girls in the class causing many girls to feel left out. Males and females learn differently and both the genders have their own individuality (Takahashi 1997).

In coed schools, girls are given lesser attention from teachers compared to boys. Therefore, girls in coed schools are not so dedicated and involved in class (Pollard 1999).

Single-sex education benefits the females and provides them with a chance to escape from gender stereotyping. The atmosphere in single-sex schools that provides all sorts of education develop females who are more confident and carry positive characteristics (Takahashi 1997).

Academic achievement

Current distinction of accomplishment standard in single-sex and coed schools indicates that the education and individual accomplishment of girls are significantly greater in single-sex schools than in coed schools (Marsh, 71). Many researches have pointed out that the absence of boys is regarded as a main contribution in the high standards of academic accomplishment, pleasant attitude, self-assurance and educational institution faithfulness. (Takahashi 1997)

Advantages of coed schools

Coeducation provides students of both genders with lifetime knowledge. Students also achieve social maturity in coed schools (Ipswich Girls’ Grammar School – Coeducation at Ipswich Junior Grammar School 1).

Microcosms of society

Men and ladies are bound to work together in the society. Proponents of coeducational schools said mix gender schools prepare students for their future and their lives and that school environment is where the men and ladies understand each other (Elizabeth).

5.2 Understandings of the opposite sex

Females master risk-taking behavior from males which assist them to get out of their comfort zones of studying. Females are often careful when they do something new. Females think that they are less smart when they face failures. Females learn from males when they communicate with them (IGGS – Benefits of coeducation in the early years of learning).

5.3 Competition between genders

In coed schools, boys and girls affect each other in a good way, creating an acceptable manner. Young female adults usually have more capability and trustworthiness as compared to the young male adults. Competitions between the genders allow the students to have better academic accomplishments at school (Jones, 2009). Students in coed schools get to motivate each other through competitions between the genders.

6.0 Public Opinion
Conclusion

Based on the research carried out, single-sex education brings many benefits. Single-sex education reduces social distractions. It helps the students to concentrate more in class. In addition, single-sex schools solve gender stereotyping among students and society. Females are often stereotyped and single-sex schools can help them in escaping gender stereotypes.

According to the research, students in single-sex schools score higher academic achievements compared to coed schools. Besides from academic achievement, single-sex school students also have higher self-esteem and better behavior.

However, problems arise in single-sex education where social issues occur among students. They mainly have trouble communicating with the other gender. Some students in single-sex schools are involved in same-sex relationship which the society does not accept.

Furthermore, coed schools carry disadvantages. The disadvantages are low self-esteem among students. Students are lack of confidence most of the time and they are not willing to point out their views to the teachers. In addition, issues of sexual harassment arise in coed schools. Females in coed schools do not feel as secure as female students in single-sex schools.

Single-sex education should not be abolished since the advantages of single-sex schools outweigh the advantages of coed schools. Students in single-sex schools have higher self-esteem in them and they are able to hold responsibilities especially females. Students in single-gender schools definitely achieve a better academic result compared to students in coeducational schools.

Unlike coed schools, students in single-sex schools experience lower social distraction. They do not spend as much time as students in coed schools in daydreaming about the opposite sex.

Therefore, students do better in single-sex schools.

It is important to know the difference between the sequence and the rate of development as it gives us guidance when it comes to monitoring a child or young person’s needs during stages of their educational years. Not all children develop at the same rate we need to recognise this so we can underline if there is any disabilities or if any neglect that may be affecting their development needs. For example physical development should follow a particular pattern; a baby from birth to three months should be expected to move their head, arms and legs before being able to lift their heads at three to six months or a child of four should be writing their names and do basic drawings before they move on to more difficult tasks of joined up writing at around the age of eight. The sequence of child development is common amongst most children but what often changes is the rates in which they develop some make walk at twelve months where as another at fifteen months. Therefore it is important that we monitor this in order to put in place positive methods and activities to suit their development stage that they may be lower in for their age group. We can also get the help they need in order for their development to progress in whichever stage of their learning they are struggling in.

Task 2
2.1 And 2.2 An explanation of how children and young people’s development is influenced by:

External factors- care status, religion, background and family environment, culture, poverty and deprivation, if they have siblings, opportunities to socially interact, education and personal choices. Children come from many different environments and cultures. There may be situations that occur outside of nurseries and school in the children’s family lives such as bereavement, abuse or break-ups. The settings may not have been told about these circumstances so they are not aware. If they are coming from a background with abuse in then they may be socially lacking and be shy and even weary of others therefore could potentionly be at a lower development for their age group. A child in poverty is related to poor nutritional status and poor motor skills. Poverty is also associated with child obesity as they get older they may also turn to drugs, alcohol abuse or be in an abusive relationship or become abusive themselves. Children related to poverty may not have access to the food, toys and clothes that they need. A child in poverty is four times more likely to die in an accident and have nearly twice the rate of a long standing illness such as asthma and anemia. They are also most likely to have a poor education results and poorer attendance at school. The lifestyles the child choses can also affect their development, they may take to drug or alcohol abuse therefore having a great impact on their healthy development of their brain, and it is also hard to give up an unhealthy Patten and may continue into adult life giving more complications.

Personal factors – Health status, disabilities, Sensory impairments and learning difficulties. If a pupil suffers from a disability, impairment or poor health this could restrict their opportunities in development. For example a child with impairment may not be able to participate in certain activities that other children can. This could affect physical development and also maybe social activities. It could also affect them emotionally especially if they are not aware of their needs and how much it can affect them. It is important for the teachers and other adults in the school to be aware of the affects that the pupils could have from these circumstances so that they can be supported and can be ensured that they will be included as much as possible. Certain disabilities may affect what a child is able to do physically. Conditions such as spina bifida and cerebral palsy have a physical affect children and their development. Spina bifida occurs when the baby’s spinal cord does not develop properly during pregnancy. As a result the child’s legs may be partially or fully paralysed and they may have a curvature of the spine, difficulties in controlling their bowel and bladder and deformities in bones and joints, this could also have a big effect on their social development making them feel different and left out. We can encourage other to help the person with a disability to join in and by telling other children about the disability may make them understand it more so that they don’t feel that they are different just limited. A child who has learning difficulties can be affected in emotional/intellectual/social development depending on the child’s area of learning difficulty. These children need to be stimulated and praised to develop in areas to the best of their ability. The practitioner should be given advice and guidelines from professionals on how to manage the child’s needs.

2.3 How current practices are influenced by theories of development and the frame work to support development
Cognitive

Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget was a cognitive theorist and is the most common of all educational theorists and possibly the main factor to current exercise of education. Piaget made vast contributions towards the direction, meaning and idea of current constructivism. Examples of Piaget’s efforts include his concepts that knowledge needs to be actively constructed by the child and learning activities should match the degree of the development stage of each child. Also, several major ways to the national course and instruction depend on Piaget’s theory. For example, Piaget influenced a lot of teaching techniques for example the focus on the process of the child’s thinking and also the active role from the learner. Piaget’s focus on the process from the child thinking promoted the development from the stages of cognitive development. Teachers use the stages in our classroom so that you can gauge a little one’s cognitive functioning. This shows the actual development of activities and learning experiences which can be at the correct cognitive development stage for that child’s ability to know. Piaget recognised that children have to be self-initiated and actively linked to learning activities. A current application with this concept today can be found, many of the actual national curriculum substance include interactive activities and also educational software for that child to engage in self-controlled learning. Piaget did not dwell on social relationships as much as other social constructivists. He took social and emotional development for granted and did not write about it in detail.

Stages of learning in Piaget’s theory

Assimilation. The child constructs a theory (schema)

Equilibrium. The child’s experiences to date seem to fit the schema (everything balances)

Disequilibrium. An experience occurs that casts doubt on the effectiveness of the schema. (Things don’t add up any more!)

Accommodation. The child changes the original schema to fit the new piece of experience or information.

(Cypw, Tassoni, 2010, p65)

Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a substantial role in personality development and always influence behavior later in life. Freud did not focus on the development of young children he thought that babies had only the id they were born with. Then they will get an ego which develops from the id. The ego works out how to meet the id’s needs such as smiling in some situations might get their needs met. Finally followed by the super ego which he believes develops later in childhood, it tries to control the ego. It consists of two elements, conscience and ego-ideal. The conscience will punish the ego if it misbehaves this is called guilt. Freud’s daughter Anna Freud did look into a young child’s development more. They believe that if a child is damaged by trauma or abuse then a loving relationship and being given a normal child life would heal them. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is just about the best known, but also probably the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a few childhood stages during that this pleasure-seeking energies of the id become dedicated to certain erogenous areas. That psychosexual energy, or sexual interest, was described as the particular driving force behind behavior. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the effect is a healthy persona. If certain issues will not be resolved at the ideal stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent give attention to an earlier psychosexual point. Until this conflict is actually resolved, the individual will continue to be “stuck” in this point. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage could possibly be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation by way of smoking, drinking, or eating. Freud’s work has been criticised as it is not proven by scientific analysis. Although his observations into the link between our unconscious actions and our mind are still seen as useful.

Humanist

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Maslow’s theory is based on the notion that experience will be the primary wonder inside the study of human learning and behaviour. He placed stress on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctly human qualities, as well as believed that meaningfulness is more important than fairness. Relating to Maslow, development of human potential, self-respect and worth are generally ultimate concerns. Maslow rejected behaviourist Vistas and Freud’s theories judging by their reductionist strategies. He felt Freud’s see of human Mother Nature was negative, as well as he valued many advantages, dignity and purpose. Also, Freud concentrated on the mentally ill, and Maslow was enthusiastic about healthy human psychology. Maslow and his colleagues found refer to the movement as “third force psychology,” the first two being psychoanalysis as well as behaviourism. The third force is based on philosophies of existentialism as well as humanism. He is popular for proposing which human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. The lowest degrees of needs are physical and survival needs like hunger and thirst. Through Maslow’s perspective, the drive to know is the key thing. The objective of learning is to bring about self-actualization, plus the goals of educators should include this process. Learning leads to psychological health. Maslow suggested other goals of learning, including discovery of the talent or fate, knowledge of values, realization of lifestyle, sense of fulfilment, satisfaction of psychological needs, and awareness of beauty and wonders in life, impulse control, developing decision, and grappling using the critical existential issues of life. Maslow’s hypothesis of learning featured the differences concerning experimental knowledge as well as observer knowledge.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Self-actualisation – Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice and acceptance of facts.

Esteem – Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and respect by others.

Love/belonging – Friendship, family and sexual intimacy.

Safety – Security of: the body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health and property.

Physiological – Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis and excretion.

(CYPW,Tassoni, 2010, p69)

Social Learning

Albert Bandura (1925- ). Bandura believes that children learn about social behaviour by watching other people and by imitating other people. He believes that children imitate powerful personalities although research study did not give a natural situation but dose suggest that adults can be a big influence on a child’s behaviour. This should make us very aware of our own behaviour around children and the effect we can have on them. If we shout at a child they are more likely to shout at others or if we comfort a child when they fall they will learn to do it for others. Children often pretend to be adults in role play when they being to play imaginatively this is why it is important to have a role play area so that it can become all sorts of places inside or outside the setting. It does not regard that children are experimenting with different ways of doing things his theory suggests that the child is just copying what they see others do. But we now know that role play is a more complex than the theory would suggest. Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

Operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner (1905-1990). Skinner believes that it is not useful to use theorise about mental states that could not be observed. He was a radical behaviourist and he developed the idea of operant conditioning. He believes the behaviour of a child depends on its consequences and if they have reinforcements or even punishments, which make it approximately likely that this behaviour will take place again. His principles are however combined within cures of phobias, addictive behaviours, and in the improvement of class. Skinner believed how the only scientific method to psychology was one which studied behaviours, certainly not internal (subjective) mental processes. He denied the existence of any mind as something separate from one’s body, but he would not deny the living of thoughts, which he regarded as simply as private behaviours to become analysed according to the same principle while publicly observed conducts. To further enhance the objective scientific value of observed behaviours he invented this “Skinner box” a compact, soundproof chamber in which an animal may very well be isolated from almost all distractions and outside influences, responding simply to the controlled conditions inside the box. Skinner was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson as well as early behaviourist pioneers Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. Skinner divided the consequences into three different groups: Positive reinforces who are more likely to make people repeat the same behaviour if they get something they want from it, such as trying a free sample of washing powder which they like so they then buy it. Skinner believed using positive reinforcements was the most effective way of inspiring new learning. Negative reinforces are likely to also make people repeat their behaviour but the difference is that this is done to stop something happening. This could be if a child did not like going to fast on a swing they may put their feet down to slow down. Punishers are likely to stop people from doing it again such as touching a radiator will burn them therefore they will not do it again.

Behaviourist

John B Watson (1878 to 1958). Watson created the term “Behaviourism” in 1913. Behaviourism assumes that behaviour is visible which enable it to be linked with different noticeable events. There are events that lead and follow behaviour. Behaviourism’s goal is to explain relationships between antecedent conditions (stimuli), behaviour (responses), and consequences (reward, punishment, or even neutral effect). Watson’s theory was more interested in effects of stimuli. He got a lot of his thinking from Pavlov’s animal studies (classical conditioning). This is also known as “learning through stimulus substitution,” a reference to the substitution of one encouragement to another. For case, the ringing of any bell eventually produced the same response as food intended for Pavlov’s dogs. Aspects involving Watson’s theory: He used contiguity to spell out learning. He considered emotion to get just another example involving standard training. He also rejected the idea of individual differences and he thought complex behaviours came to exist through mixtures of spectacular reflexes. Watson was a main supporter of “nurture” and believed that human differences were the effect of learning and he believed that practice strengthens understanding. Watson said “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.” (Watson J B, Behaviorism revised addition, 1930, p82).

We have seen that many theories of development help us in our work practice and over the past years they have been put into combined use for children’s care and education. The best example of this is the Early Years Foundation Stage which contains the framework elements of Vygotsky and Piaget’s theories. Social pedagogy Is a practice concerned with human beings learning, well-being and inclusion to society treating children in a child centred way and a holistic way making sure that every child’s needs are met especially those who are in need. These are what my setting bases there approach to child care on. “Social pedagogy seeks to bring together theories and concepts from phycology, sociology and education to create a holistic way of working with children and young people”. (CYPW level 3 handbook, Stearns J, Page 140)

3.1 How to monitor children and young people’s development using different methods
Observations

We observe children to find out about their needs, what they are interested in and what they can do. This way we can take note on children’s responses in different situations. Then we can analyses our observations and highlight children’s achievement or their need for further support. We also observe children so we can see the progress that the children are making. An observation helps us to decide where children are in their learning and development and to plan what to do. This is an essential part of daily practice in any setting, regardless of the age of the baby or child. Looking, listening and noting is important because it helps us to get to know a child better and develop positive relationships with children and their parents plan appropriate play and learning experiences based on the children’s interests and needs, and identify any concerns about a child’s development. We can develop a systematic and routine approach to using observations and use assessments to plan the next steps in a child’s developmental progress and regularly review the progress of the child.

Assessment Frameworks

These are specific frameworks that we use as a guide to see if the child is developing to their average age group particularly in academic performance. The Early Years Foundations Stage is one of the main frameworks and P-Scales for children with learning difficulties.

Standard measurements

There are some standardised assessment methods these include health assessments including height, weight and head circumference, reasoning tests, cognitive aptitude tests (CATs). They are used to establish where children are developmentally compared to other children their age. This means in the setting the may be “just average” but when their assessed against standard measurements they may be “above” average.

Information from carers and colleagues

Parents/carers who know the child and colleagues expertise are invaluable, especially when planning for social and academic success for pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities. If we are concerned about child’s development it’s good to ask/share information. By involving others we can get a wider perspective because they will see the child in different situations. It is also useful so we can then include them in different things which they may have a different perspective to others.

3.2 Why children and young people’s development may not follow the expected Patten

Emotional reasons are a significant element in a child’s development. If a child is loved and has a settled background and is emotionally attached they are more motivated to try out new skills than the children that may be depressed and lacking in confidence.

Culture can effect a child’s development because there are many different ways they bring up children depending on their culture. In some cultures they believe boys should have a different up bringing to girls and in extreme cases this effects their development. They may also be strict on their freedom and independence which also effects their development.

Influences on development
Communication
Disability
Learning needs
Emotional
Physical
Social
Cultural
Environmental
Why children and young people’s development may not follow the expected pattern.

(CYPW, Tassoni P, 2010, p73)

3.3 Disability may prevent a child from developing in one or more areas but if detected in the early years if could help reduce the effect on their future development by having the right equipment’s and support for their needs. If a child did not have full mobility of their hands without an alternative such as a computer to type on, they may lack in their development in language, written communication and English subject. If they had the equipment they need from an early age they will not be affected as much by this because they may be able to type even if it is by one finger.

3.4 How different types of interventions can promote positive outcomes for children and young people where development is not following the expected pattern

Social worker works to help support vulnerable children and young people and the families. They can give advice about counselling, transport and home help. They also include children with disabilities as well as those who are on the protection register. Social works are employed by local authority’s normally local councils or are voluntary organisations.

Health visitor comes to support mum’s to be, new mums, new born babies and parents with very young children. They are trained nurses or midwifes with additional training and visit people at home to give extra support, advice and practical assistance in caring for very young children. Some are specially trained to give extra support to families with young disabled children.

Speech and language therapist help children with difficulties in communicating they give them additional support. They also give training to professionals working with children that have communication problems.

Paediatrician is a doctor that specialises in treating babies and children. They are one of the first people call when there is a child that has an impairment or medical condition. They can also guide families to give their children a healthier life and balanced diet.

SENCO is a person in an education setting who has the responsibility for organising identification and support for children with special needs education.

Youth justice teams oversees the youth justice system in England and Wales a helps to stop offending and reoffending children and young people under the age of eighteen. This may include probation officers that work alongside social workers to make sure they are safe and secure.

4.1 An analysis that shows the importance of early identification of speech, language and communication delays and disorders and the potential risks of late recognition

If you identify speech, language or communication delay early it is important for a child or young person’s wellbeing. All practitioners have a responsibility to decide children’s needs and give appropriate support that they need , to help children achieve the ambitions of ‘Every Child Matters’ and progress to their Early Learning Ambitions. It is importance to find any early language and communication skills, regarding children’s later achievements and to make sure it is documented and that we provide support for children when it is in the early stage so that they can then achieve their full potential. This suggests recognising a child’s issues as early as you can in their life and getting the support needed as soon as possible after the issues become apparent is vital. Early intervention means making a prompt intervention to support the child and their family. It is important how the child or young person in addition to their families start decisions about their support. If a child or young person receives the correct help early, they have an even better chance of taking on problems, communicating properly and making progress. If we did not recognise this early on and they did not get the help and support needed it can have a dramatic effect on their future development and they will lack socially and knowledgably.

4.2 How multi-agency’s work together to support speech, language and communication

By working together as a team they can help the child to reach their full potential. These teams may include speech and language therapist, educational, psychologist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist, Health visitor and specialist teachers for learning Support. They work together they can meet up and talk through what help and support that the child, family and setting needs. It helps because they can all set a goal or target together and focus on the main issues, in their meetings they can discuss who is going help the child and families and the when and where’s. This can also give some people who are working with the child knowledge of who they can contact if more support is needed. Making sure everyone involved are being kept up to date on the progress of the child and the main key is for this is for them all to communicate with each other.

Unfortunately, youth sport has for a long time, and still is, being organised, run and taught by persons who draw on their personal philosophies in their approaches. i)Discuss the dangers of this. ii)Which are the main areas within youth sport which need to be considered to shape such philosophical standpoints of people working with youth in sport?

Introduction

In many aspects of our life we find people who, either directly or indirectly, influence the path we follow to achieve growth towards reaching our future goals. Such influencing people could be parents, teachers, mentors, coaches, nursery leaders, policy makers and any other role model position we may encounter. They do so in line with their philosophy on that particular aspect of life, for which they are responsible to guide us through the path of success.

Their philosophy is built from the theoretical knowledge they acquired in their own educational phase of life as well as through their practical experience in the area they are assigned to lead. This applies in particular to people who are trusted to work with our children in various sports disciplines.

Parents still insist that their children should engage in organized sport for several reasons. Since six decades ago, there has been a growing belief that leaving child activities under the informal control of children themselves may lead to antisocial behaviour when they grow up. (Coakley, 2009) argues that many adults believe that this lack of control is eliminated by organised sports through which they constructively control their children’s activities. However it is of utmost importance that those who work in youth sport and policymakers adopt the right philosophy that encourages sport participation of youths in the long term. Individuals who are involved into such youth programmes ought to be aware about researched material that may be used to adjust the programmes to better serve the child interest, even when this goes against their philosophy.

Negative Outcomes

Participation is unlikely to persist when stubbornly sticking to the point of view of the adult whose way of thinking may be in conflict with that of the youth. One has to keep in mind the interest of the child; the ‘fun’ aspect of the sport itself.

Children tend to stray away from adult invasion into their sport. They like to create their own games, their own worlds, therefore forcing them to participate into organised activities might lead them into a path they do not want.

(Gill, 2007) mentions several arguments in favour of exposing our children to environments where a degree of risks is involved, as opposed to institutionalised sports. “We actually do children a disservice by trying to eliminate risks from their lives as they grow up” (Gill, 2012). When children are allowed to experience risky situations, they learn practical skills, such as swimming, cycling and road safety, that help them manage similar situations and protect themselves in the outside world. In addition, if not allowed to experience risks, children tend to seek out situations that may potentially be too dangerous. In other words, children like the challenges present in risky situations.

Parents usually fear the fact that the environment outside of home has become such a dangerous place for children. They feel more security by trusting their children to coaching methods that are sometimes found to be counterproductive. This ideology may sometimes expose our children to occasional high injury rates from organised youth sport such as stress fractures and other injuries caused by overuse. (Micheli, 1990) suggests certification of coaches as a part of the solution.

In a study on US youth sports, (Seefeldt & Ewing, 1992) found that there was a drop from 25% to 3% in sport participation from the ages of 10 to 18 respectively. This huge withdrawal was attributed to the competitive nature of sports in males. (Biddle, et al., 2005) drew similar conclusions for females.

(Cote & Wall, 2007) postulate that children who do not experience fun in sport at their early ages, tend to drop out from the activity because they lack the intrinsic motivation to keep on participating. This hinders the higher level skills they would have obtained later on in their sports career.

(Abbott & Collins, 2002) propose that if youths do not engage successfully into sport activities at the participative phase (up to eight years of age) they will most likely lack self-efficacy beliefs which are necessary to persist in being physically active through life.

(Coakley, 2009) mentions ample literature from critics of adult-organised sports that argues on many shortcomings of this approach. The presence of parents watching their child playing an organised, competitive game that is customised for adults is counterproductive both mentally and physically to the child. Some children make it clear that they feel most parents come to see them playing just to criticise them both during and after a game, making them feel embarrassed. Even worse, this sends the wrong message to children that physical activity and sport is there only for the young, given that their parents are always sitting there as spectators. Children are not to be treated as miniature adults; some youth sports organisations expose children to too little practice and too many competitions when studies show it should be the other way round. Equipment and rules are sometimes not suitable to the age and ability levels of children.

Main Areas to be Considered

Up to the young age of two years, children look for pleasure from discovering and mastering attempts. Up to around six years of age children exhibit an egocentric character. Starting from the age of five youngsters enter the social comparison phase in which they start to compare what they have and what they do with their peers. This is usually interpreted as a sign of the child’s interest in competition. This phase continues to strengthen until the age of twelve. Children younger than twelve may find it difficult to get the full understanding of their role in a competition. To encourage participation the rules of the game must be modified to suit their developmental capabilities (Richardson, 2007). It is also suggested that children in this age range are exposed to a variety of sports as well as different positional variations in each sport.

To be ready for competitive sports, young individuals need to fully develop their physical, cognitive and social abilities. Several studies suggest that children start to develop their cognitive and social abilities at around the age of eight and these abilities are expected to reach their required levels at the age of twelve (Coakley, 2009). In fact literature shows that the ideal age of introducing competitive strategies is at the ages of twelve to fifteen, also known as the transitional phase, and children under eight years of age should not be put into competitive roles.

Research consistently shows the attraction of children to freedom in whatever they do (Gill, 2007). The traditional sports organised by adults tend to focus more on rules as opposed to informal sports that emphasise action, an approach that shows more positive outcomes (Coakley, 2009). One of the benefits of rules is to allow for safety. However, (Mullarkey) maintains that “We must try to make life as safe as necessary, not as safe as possible.” Rules from organised games should be modified in such a way to allow for more action and personal involvement and to keep the difference in scores as low as possible. On the other hand, action must meet the requirements to strengthen personal involvement, excitement, decision making and interpersonal relationships between participants. When working with children one should not assume that the social and cognitive abilities are already fully developed in sports.

(Bandura, 1997) stresses the importance of both perceived and actual competence in an individual’s decision to both engage in and maintain involvement in an activity. Actual competence widens the choice of sport for the individual while perceived competence provides the drive to persist in the sport even when difficulties are met. Therefore, if a broad range of psychomotor skills have been successfully developed from a young age, the literature suggests these will act as a basis for subsequent involvement as well as equipping individuals with the ability to make appropriate participation choices.

In informal sports, one must be careful not to allow any form of bullying, patronising of girls when playing with boys and exclusion. The role of the adults should be that of a guide who ensures safety, encourages participation, mediates disputes and not to impose organised sports rules.

Sometimes informal games may require more play space, but this can be overcome by creativity from the coach. Creativity is also a quality that is strengthened on the child when exposed to an informal setup. Children get the message that in life they have make decisions and not always follow repetitive rules.

Conclusion

The above review suggests that in today’s society, coaches, organisations and parents should be well aware of questions and issues which need to be addressed when involving themselves into organised youth sport programmes. People who work in youth sports must keep their mind open to new ideas and they should educate themselves to keep their knowledge up to date on the current studies in the field.

To the contrary of adult sports, when dealing with youths, in particular at the participative level coaches need to emphasise less on structure and more on variety to keep motivation at high levels. Rather than early specialisation the ultimate goal is to make the child physically literate.

The Speech and Language Therapy profession is arguably one of the most important in Irish healthcare today. Its combat against the prevalence of communication disorders in this country – especially for young children up to five years of age, in their crucial development stage, is fundamental in enabling those that could not otherwise manage it themselves, participate normally in society.

But the last decade has seen a steady rise in such cases accessing public speech and language therapy services and the resources are currently not meeting existing and future demand. In fact quite the opposite is happening; public resources managed by the HSE are in decline as cuts to HSE budgets have been a constant since the beginning of the recession.

Waiting lists for the public services are at an all-time-high and demand for private services have risen as a consequence but overall, children with speech and language needs are in a state of neglect and these needs will become more complex and problematic the longer they wait.

Introduction.

There are a lot of problems in our health system today that are apparently being addressed by the concept of reform. But somewhere within this system in reform – there is an immerging issue of pretty dire proportions.

Communication in human beings is a fundamental and natural skill that shapes the very world we live in. To not be in possession of such a seemingly basic skill would to essentially, be left out of society. Hard to imagine, yet thousands of children in the country each year present with communication difficulties.

Speech and Language Therapy addresses these difficulties and with great success however such difficulties left untreatedaˆ¦aˆ¦

What is Speech and Language Therapy?

Classified as a healthcare profession – Speech and Language Therapy aims to assess, diagnose and manage those who have difficulties with their communication skills. Speech and Language Therapy enables those with such difficulties to achieve their full potential to communicate and therefore integrate properly into society. Children with speech and language issues are among a very common group that are at a risk of developmental, learning, behavioural and social difficulties. Between 50-90% of children aged three with communication deficiencies will continue to have difficulties throughout their childhood. (HSE.ie – Speech and Language Therapy. 2013).

Image www.arcspeech.ieSpeech and Language skills are vital to a child’s development – which happens through communication. Language forms the very basis of communication – for which reading, writing, speaking and listening are all part of. The ability to communicate is crucial for children to communicate with their peers. Children with delayed language development entering their first year in school are at risk of not being able to access the school curriculum. (ARC Speech & Language Therapy Clinic 2013).

The key to a more successful outcome for communication disorders is early intervention.

When Would a Child Need Speech and Language Therapy?
Guidelines.

There are general guidelines for parents who may suspect that their child might be in need of or may benefit from speech and language therapy.

For example, if the child has difficulties understanding instructions compared to other children, is late in development of talking, has a hoarse voice, has a stammer or stutter, finds playing with peers challenging or is not interested in interacting with others or is 3 and there is difficulty understanding their speech. (Irish Association of Speech & Language Therapists. 2013).

Typical stages of speech and language development for parents to understand at what stage their child should be at are outlined in the table below.

Figure : Typical Stages

6 to 9 months

9 to 12 months

12 to 15 months

15 to 18 months

18 to 24 months

2 to 3 years

3 to 4 years

4 to 5 years

Babble a long string of syllables aloud

Point and imitate. Say “yes” and “no” and shake head accordingly

Understand and respond to simple instructions.

Be able to say 6 to 20 words and understand even more.

Have a range of up to 50 phrases. Ask for food and drink.

Understood 50 to 75% of the time. 3 to 4 words together in a sentence.

Understand opposites. Ask Why questions. Understood 80% of time. 6 word sentences.

Recognise some words in books/signs. More complex sentences with few errors.

(Catriona Lysaght – Speech and Language Therapist. 2013).

My Child is Not Following the Typical Stages.

All children develop at different rates and a parent knows their child best (Catriona Lysaght 2013) but a parent whose child does not seem to follow or ‘fit’ the typical development stages, should have reasonable cause for concern and talk to their G.P. who can form their own opinion and refer to a Speech and Language Therapist if necessary.

Assessment.

The very first step to the Speech and Language process is always the initial assessment in which to gauge the child’s speech and language skills in relation to the typical stages of speech and language development. The assessment is child age and ability specific and the parent normally will have completed a questionnaire to give the therapist a good understanding of the child’s skills.

General Assessments.

Some of the general things that the therapist assesses during the initial assessment may include:

Figure : Assessments

Speech Sounds

The sounds that the child uses to make words and how the child uses those words themselves as part of their language.

Oro-motor/Motor Speech

The child’s ability to move the mouth muscles for both speech and non-speech tasks.

Receptive Language Skills

The child’s understanding of language used by others around them.

Expressive Language Skills

How the child uses words to expresses themselves.

Fluency/Stuttering/Stammering

The therapist examines the characteristics of the child’s stammering.

Feeding, Eating, Drinking and Swallowing (FEDS)

Only for children with difficulty in the area, the therapist observes the child’s eating to assess things like chewing skills, drooling and ability to feed independently.

(Irish Association of Speech & Language Therapists. 2013).

Image www.spectrumhealth.ie

Feedback.

Once the initial assessment has been completed the therapist will give the parent verbal feedback on their findings and discuss the results of the assessment. A plan for moving forward to best suit the needs of the child is also discussed along with whether or not the need for a block of speech and language therapy is required. (Irish Association of Speech & Language Therapists. 2013).

Potential Issues.

Speech and language issues for a child could also indicate other potential issues for that child that otherwise could not be determined at an earlier stage of their development. While most children who attend speech and language therapy benefit greatly from the intervention, for some parents – it can mean the realisation on an underlying issue such as Autism or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Early Intervention.

Prompt assessment and early intervention is critical if the long-term implications of a speech and language impairment is to be successfully reduced. (HSE.ie – Health Service Executive Website – Speech and Language Therapy. 2013).

The earlier a child is assessed and diagnosed for treatment, the earlier that treatment can begin and the more successful the treatment will be. Children have a window up to the age of five of prime time for brain development and ideally any therapy treatment should be during this time. The older the child, the least effective the therapy is – so early intervention is key.

Image www.speechlanguagetherapyni.com

Services: Public vs. Private.

Public speech and language therapy services are free in Ireland but there are private alternatives for a family who wish to have their child seen to much more quickly than they could be seen to by the public service. Private services can also offer more regular, specialist services with more flexible hours and the associated costs are mostly covered by many of the health insurance companies – but the outlay can be expensive overall.

Parents who simply cannot afford to have their child seen privately have little alternative but to join the public waiting list.

Speech and Language Therapy Demand in Ireland.

It is estimated that over 5% of children will experience a Speech and Language delay which means that up to 6,000 children each year will have a specific speech or language impairment by the time they reach the school-going age. (Cluas.ie | Speech and Language Therapy| Language Development. 2013).

With the increase on birth rates in Ireland today, this figure is likely to increase.

The demand for speech and language therapy in Ireland has been steadily rising over the last decade as figure 3 shows:

Figure : People Accessing Primary Speech and Language Therapy in Ireland

(Department of Health, 2012)

Speech and Language Resources in Ireland.

Public resources for Speech and Language Therapy have drastically reduced since the beginning of the recession where recruitment bans across the Health Service have impacted heavily on the patient-to-therapist ratio that have seen waiting lists grow longer and longer – up to 2 years in some areas (Irish Examiner 2013).

Desperate parents have been flocking to their local TDs as a last resort and a number of them have pleaded on their constituent’s behalf in the Dail for a lifting of the ban – specifically for Speech and Language Therapists e.g. (Patrick Nulty 2013).

Therapists themselves are feeling the stresses and strains of the system where the long waiting lists are the main source of frustration (HSE.ie – Speech and Language Therapist 2013). They are only too aware of the ticking clock that is the development window of each child on the list.

All of this in contrast to the promises made by the Minister for Health in 2011 for radical reform across the health sector (James Reilly 2011).

Conclusion.

With the rising demand for speech and language therapy coupled with reductions in public services, the very foundation of speech and language development; early intervention has become a contradiction in terms. Paradoxically, the relatively small savings currently being made with recruitment embargos in the health service are very likely to be overshadowed by the future costs that will be associated with developing the children whose needs are not currently being met. This might make some economic sense to those who maintain that the funds simply are not there now to meet current demands – but on a human level, it’s simply unjust to expect children to delay their own learning development for the sake of economics.

Recommendations.

Resources for speech and language therapy need to be restored to appropriate levels to handle current demand – with priority given to the areas in most need; with the longest waiting lists and lower patient-to-therapist ratios.

Similarly – reforms within the health service, especially in this field are desperately required and long overdue. The Government and HSE must deliver on their reforms promised in 2011 to reduce waiting lists across the health system (James Reilly 2011).

An amazing experience in every parent’s life is hearing their child speak for the first time. The first utter of “dada” or “ma-ma” is remarkable. This is the first step in a child’s life to be able to verbalize with the world and explain his or her needs. The extraordinary part is how fast a child grasps language and the grammar that goes along with it. The normal age for children to start using words in the correct context is 12 months. Then there is an exponential growth in vocabulary and by 24 months children are stringing three or four words together to create sentences. By the age of three, children have the ability to ask questions, answer questions, and express themselves. This of course is for a normal developing child. For children with a delay in speech capability these milestones take a much longer time to reach and make it difficult for children to communicate their needs. This becomes problem if it goes untreated because of difficulties with school and social situations, the child also has difficulty asking for what he or she needs. There are many explanations to why this happens, hearing loss, bodily trauma such as traumatic brain injury, and apraxia are just a few of the multitude of reasons a child can be delayed in speech. Having an evaluation by a speech pathologist is the best way to see if a child has a speech delay or a learning disability because some of the same symptoms can mean either or both. The sooner the speech delay is recognized the better because the best treatment can be assessed and the delay can be monitored, and evaluated to see if treatment is necessary. If treatment is necessary the speech pathologist can decide the best method for the child depending on the severity and age of the child. This gives the child the best opportunity to recover from this either speech delay or speech impairment.

Statement of the Problem

Being able to understand young children can be challenging because their language skills have not fully developed. This is difficult, but what is more difficult is when a child has a delay in language and speech development. This is frustrating for the speaker and for the listener to understand what the speaker’s needs and wants are. This makes learning difficult and if these language problems are not eradicated many children go into special education because of their inabilities to use their language skills correctly. “McCormack. McLeod, McAllister, and Harrison (2010), found that both the young people and their significant others acknowledged the importance of appropriately understanding and responding to communication needs in order to create a positive QOL” (p. 386). The children are aware that their speech impairments or disorders can affect how they live their lives and the opportunities that they can lose it their speech issues go unattended as well. The methods used to correct speech issues usually include working with a speech pathologist and doing different exercises to help with the speech issues. Parents or teachers are the first to take notice that the child needs to be tested for speech and language delays. McCormack, et al. (2010) state, “The decision to seek and receive intervention for young children with speech impairment typically is made by parents or teachers on behalf of the children, as opposed to adults with communication impairment who make this decision of their own accord” (p. 381). These children are not necessarily aware they need help, but they are aware that they speak differently and this can create issues with making friends and being able to communicate needs successfully to people that are not close to them. Without help these children can grow up without having the same opportunities as children with normal speaking patterns. The earlier these problems are addressed the sooner therapy can begin and the more likely these children will grow up having a regular life with normal prospects at school and at jobs.

Beginning list of Terms

Apraxia- The inability to perform complex movement like those used for speech, this usually occurs following a brain trauma or damage.

Morphology- The use and understanding of minimal units of meaning.

Phonology- Language manipulation of sound according to the rules of the particular language being spoken.

Semantics- The study of language meaning with the use of words and phrases.

Specific Language Impairment (SLI)- is a diagnosis when a child’s speech is delayed because of no other apparent physical or mental reason.

Speech Pathologists- Someone who specializes in speech and language disorders.

Syntax- The principles, grammar, and rules for assembling sentences in language.

Telegraphic Speech- The use of one verb and one noun that toddlers sometimes use to ask for things they want. This speech pattern begins around age two.
Limitation of Study

In recent years there has been many studies done on speech delays and speech abnormality in children. Before the 1970’s there was not much information on were speech impairments came from. There were many theories on hearing loss and substandard parenting but not much on genetics at the time (bishop, 2006). Currently the studies on speech impairment are limited to studies that are updated after a few years to see progress. The advancements on speech therapies and modern techniques are not old enough to do studies on children that have gone through these sessions and become adults to see if these therapies are life changing or if some symptoms return with age and if sessions are stopped. This information will only become available with time to see if any of the problems arise with age.

Theoretical Foundation

Two theorists that have studied how children discover speech are Albert Bandura and Noam Chomsky. These men did not study delays in speech but they did theorize how children learn to speak so these theories can be applied to how delays and impairments can happen in children. Chomsky felt when children are in-between two and three, they start putting three words together, creating simple sentences. While it is true that children learn rules of adult language, they often over generalize language at first. If they hear something is plural, such as cats, then they are likely to put “s” on other words were it is not appropriate to make it plural, like moose or fish. With children with speech impairments these overgeneralizations with language do not always disappear like they do with children with normal language skills. After three and between six children have a language transformation (Crain, 2005). They start rearranging the sentences almost perfectly. At about the age of seven children start to understand the use of passive voice (Crain, 2005). With a child with a speech impairment of delay this transformation can take much longer to accomplish, or not at all without the proper treatment.

Bandura theorized that children learned through observation. They model after what they hear their parents say. They cannot model identically but usually the language rules that go along with the language they are immersed in are mimicked and learned (Crain, 2005). This can be a cause of speech impairment such as a stutter if their parent stuttered. If Bandura’s theory was solely then only true theory about speech the only children that would be impaired in speech would be those with parents that were impaired in speech.

Speech impairment can also influences cognitive behaviors. This can create anger and embarrassment if the speech impairment is not corrected as the child gets older and becomes more aware that they way they speak is different then those around them. The psychological distress that children can go through when they have speech impairment can be seen when they have problems socializing. Speech impairments make it difficult for children to socialize with other children because children with normal speech can be unaware of the delicacy of the situation. They can say things that can be hurtful and this can make it tough to build relationships. It can also be difficult for these children to go to school because they usually need speech therapy and this can be embarrassing for some. Having a speech impairment or delay as a child can be mentally difficult because it affects not only verbal but also emotional parts of their life.

Literature Review
Definition of speech and language delay

The most basic definition of speech and language delay is when children do not start speaking and using language skills the approximate age of the majority of other children. Without treatment by a speech pathologist or therapist the symptoms can continue or become worse. This can lead to difficulties in learning and cognitive development as the child ages. These speech and language delays can be attributed to a number of different causes which include, hearing loss, brain injury or retardation, and commonly specific language impairment when no other issue can be found with the child’s other physical or mental capacities.

Symptoms of speech delays

The symptoms of speech and language delays are vast and can vary from child to child. While one child can have difficulties with sentence structure and omitting words, another child can have a problem with deleting letters from single words in sentences spoken.

Deletion