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In 2003, UNICEF estimated that there were at least a 100 million street children in the world and 11 million in India. But that data may not be apocopate because of the “Hidden children”. Whereas Indian embassy assessed 314,700 street children in cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Kanpur, Bangalore and Hyderabad and about 100,000 street children in Delhi alone itself.

Government policy having drawback that it works some time very nice and some not well. Like in New Delhi in some cases government are active and doing their job properly. They avail shelter for them and also trying to trace such kind of children. But this not case of all. The problem is more critical with children coming from outside and miss out in the city or run away from there home. The problem is more critical with children when they are getting into the hand of brokers. Nobody can control over that. Here the factors are every authority in bounded in limitation like if the child goes into the hand of broker even NGOs can’t stop them and police also don’t try much.

In case of NGO they are doing good job that need to be appreciated but they are still not able to arrest the needful population. Different NGO having their different way of working to support the children; other hand they have also limitation for example NGO like SATHI taking runaway children to their shelter as well as they are helping to placed children back to their home or for untraced address to the government home. Different NGOs having their way of working, and similarly they are working according to their focus. Because of that they are solving problem from one side but some part remain unsolved. In fact run away children is the broader term that needed more effort to solved the problem from both side policy level effort and grassroots level effort; from government, NGO and off course from the society. For example: SALAM BALAK TRUST NGO working for the street children as well for platform children. As per our observation as well during visit of NGO we found that they are providing shelter and education and some possible support to the platform children. Definitely something is better than nothing so, they are supporting like they are contacting to the children and making available for them shelter to shelter to sleep in night and they are also proving education. So, children are daily coming from platform staying in night and going back to the platform next day. Here the big problem is they are supporting children and they are become habitual of their support like night shelter and food. But as usual “NO body is growing at platform except their age” and after crossing the age of 18 they also stop to provide support to them. These also make so many children aim less as well helpless. Exceptions are everywhere like from the help of SALAM BALAK TRUST some children are also getting better life but they are very less. Another example is SATHI; They are placing back children to their home are untraced to government house as per their belief home is the best place for the children to grow. But when they are getting any run away or missed out child they are frequently after getting entry at police station and they are keeping them in the office (cum shelter) and providing the same food place for stay that SATHI staff have; definitely it need to be appreciate. SATHI have basically problem with family side of the children. Like personally we realized that even they placed back the children simply, is it the solution of the problem? Apart from the family they don’t having control over the new run-away children. The concern here is ‘yes it is true that family related problem is different but that having strong relation with runaway a children’ and NGO working for run-away children cannot revive it. Apart from that having limitation like SATHI is not taking Children from platform after having no place at shelter.

There are several reason to be street and leave their home like their emotional need, poor condition of the family, problem due to stress at home and at study place, abuse. In many case they have psychological need due to the emotional part of the child. So, concern here is NGO and directly on run away child and proving them shelter, food, education on the platform or on the possible place and also they are placing back children to their home. After placing back children problem we can’t say that solved in many cases. And this study also not explored much the family part so problem needs to look at from family side and emotional part of a child.

From parent side need to resolve the problem as we discussed already, from their side needed to spend more time for care and changing their behavior; for that need to take some initiatives.

According to the SATHI per day 30 children an average comes on New Delhi railway station. Out of them only about 50% are arrested by NGOs, and GOs. Need to find and established mechanism to cover all the population. There are plenty of problem existed in the street children one of them is addiction of children.

Need assessment

The subject of street children mainly considered to be an urban problem. In city area children can be found various place without having any shelter like in railway stations, bridges, street, near temples, mosque, durgahs, markets, besides road, etc. these children lives on street with their family, without families, and some comes for the nearest slum. They can be in a group or can be alone. Even though in some of the cases parents are not living with the children but some of them has contact and some of them don’t. Mainly the children don’t have contact with their family they may

There is no certain meaning of the street children but population can be categories into broad categories. According to UNICEF street children fall under two categories: On the street and Of the street. “Children of the street” are homeless children who live and sleep on the streets in urban areas. They are on their own and do not have any parental supervision or care though some do live with other homeless adults. “Children on the street” earn a livelihood from street such as street urchins and beggars. They return home at night and have contact with their families. The distinction is an important one because children of the street lack emotional and psychological support of a family.

Children living in street having different background, like different housing type and different settlement like migrants, nomads, renters, homeless, road side dwellers; So what can be possibilities is very simple seems to think.. like anybody can say that people living near road side having no permanent house their children can missed out or run away or may be the same possibilities for the living belongs to nomad families and also may be one reason to having not enough place in home to the members.

As salam balak an NGO said “Because of a lack of permanent shelter and the fact that the number of street children is not recorded in any national survey or study street children are often called the ‘hidden children’. Being hidden, they are at a higher risk to being abuse, exploited and neglected. Another group that is at risk of ending up on the street are migrant children. Children come to cities in hope of finding new jobs and opportunities for their families. Unfortunately increasing populations in the cities, children that come to the cities face meagre incomes, poor housing and usually end up on the street. The Indian embassy estimated 314,700 street children in cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Kanpur, Bangalore and Hyderabad and around 100,000 street children in Delhi”.

It doesn’t make feel happy when crossed over a person/people those are sleeping over the street. Probably you will feel bit disappointed for the moment… And it’s usual to say sorry! And move out from the place most of people not caring for that except the few people as exception. So, why should we care? If someone having practice to sleeping on road or street any other public places. And why should about we think about the homeless people those don’t have any identity? Why should we common people think about them? Even the powerful government doesn’t having any specific program for them? Definitely people like us cannot taste the reality very easily because we are not homeless. But imagine the small time period of your tuff life when you spend time without any shelter to being homelessaˆ¦ Imagine the ice cooling night, temperature fluctuating over the zero when you don’t have sufficient cloth and you are going spend your night in open sky.

After doing full day hard work with the tired body people usually wants to move back to their house but they can’t. If we are considering the street people they have N number of problem for example Food, Health, Shelter, their Human rights etc. Food, cloth and shelter is the primary need of the human being and its very difficult to live without it. Due to various sociological condition of homeless people is worse in all over the world; basically homeless people are existed all over the world somewhere less or somewhere more.

The present shelter available by both GO and NGO are not enough to revive the life of the children it need to improve.

After the age of 14, children need to give some sorts of skilled based training because from these age group children are getting matured and moving to some other place for different activities. Also they have another threat like after the age of 18 nobody will care about even NGO or Government. Also after they can be punished by police for their any crime that sometimes they are doing on platform. So before reaching to that stage children needed to provide some skill or training for their future.

After placing home back the children need to periodically support to prevent run away again.

Need to establish a team so that they can cover the street children as soon as possible. Because after living few day in street they may got effected because of bad company and habit.

Vision

Create a viable environment for street children to grow and develop from the grassroots level, by eliminating negative causes to a bright future.

Mission

Create a viable environment for street children placed/provide them shelter whether in Government Homes, Institutions, to safeguard the child form negative impact.

Providing a better opportunity for his rights

Providing a healthy environment to grow and develop for his bright carrier.

Programme and its Components

The main focus of the programme is providing home to the homeless children and create a viable environment for street children to grow and develop from the grassroots level, by eliminating negative causes to a bright future by proving skill for employment. At the inception pilot phase was for the process of proving shelter. Later based on the need on the need it graduated with the expansion of the program to providing other need for example study facility during night at the shelter. Some activity for their expression, etc.

There are following components are in this programme:

Proving shelter

Proving educational facility to the children at the shelter

Skill and creating employment opportunity to the children by the age of 18.

Arranging activity, so for growth of their mind

Living standard increases

Capturing the population to safe from other risk like brokers

Stop the exploitation

Giving education and employment through that above 18 year children.

Stakeholders of the programme:

Street children

institutes

Platform children

Government

Police

With the help of these stakeholders and delicate staff, we can achieve our goal for the benefit of the people. As far as the activity side is concern, the major activity is, make the craft material and sale in local, state, national and international market. Apart of the farmers groups are responsible to make the channel, to promote the sale of product.

Programme Approach:
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Period

2 years

3 years

3.5 years

Focus

Reaching to the children and proving shelter

For the Sustainable in terms of finance; giving skill based education to the 18 above year children to run various small livelihood activities like institutes, call centre, software testing, etc. with agreement of next 6 year

Self-sustainable

Coverage

New Delhi city area

Expansion in other various part of Delhi

Expansion in other metro cities

Activities

Reaching children at street, platform, stops, etc.

Providing shelter, education and care to below 18 children and employment to above 18.

Creating institutes to generate income

Out Puts

Safeguarding them from various risk

Financial sustainable

Self sustainable

Logical framework
Intervention logic
Objective verifiable Objective
Means of Verification
External factor
Goal:

Create a viable environment for street children to grow and develop from the grassroots level, and sustain their career through employment

To sustain children’s life living on the street

Primary data from Office

Objective:

1.Creating a environment for the street children to safeguard from negative cause and grow in viable environment

2. Self-sustaining their life through quipped with the skill by the age of 18.

Street children safe from uncertain circle and environment and got their place to grow

Street children able to live respectful life along with giving contribution to the society

Feedback from target group

News in mass and media

Target population may make problem to adopt the idea

Brokers, police, politics and may be funding makes problem

Output:

A viable environment for street children to grow and develop from the grassroots level, and sustained their career through employment. No dependency or bad impact over the society..

Street children got shelter

Children got opportunity and other skill

Got employment training

Employment to the children through the support of government and various institutions

Children may not continue after age of 18.

Input:

Huge amount 143.5 million

20 professional and 100 staffs

More than 10 years time

Different centers at different location

Profit and Loss A/C expenditure

Income expenditure accounts for the year

Budget Estimation (In millions)

Particulars

2011

2012

2013

2014

Food expenses

5
6
6.5
7

Camp and activity

10
10
11
11

Affording house for institute

1
1
1
1

Staff salary

2
2
2
2

Electricity

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3

Telephone expense

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3

Logistics

1
1
2
2

yoga and other event for children

1
2
2
2

education and training to the children

10
10
15
15

Total

30.4
32.4
40.1
40.6
Staff structure and qualification

Position

Role

Responsibility

Programme leader

Monitoring overall project to achieve goal

Monitoring and leadership

Project Manager

Managing the particular location

Ensuring local of the target group and the program

Outreach and shelter supervisor/in charge

Staff management

for better satisfaction of the employee and target group

computer operator

Data entry and documentation

Documentation

Accountant

To maintain account

To maintain account

Chartered accountant

Audit and budget

Regulate account

Training and placement staff

Providing training and placement

Providing training and employment opportunity to the adult

Program sustainability and way forward

For the program sustainability the necessary thing is to self-sustain financially. The population involves in the issue is very significant as discussed above can’t be clutch easily. The process with take time. Hence children in the or on the street is scenario of both developed and developing country. So, it will take time to address it.

Besides, for the sustainability of the of both organization and target population it necessary to go some concrete plan. The idea to give training to the children by the age of 18 is mainly due to considering this point. It can generate surplus to the institute as well a carrier path to the children. Children can run various kind of activity in the metro city like call center. May be for the purpose they can take support of various institutions like government, funders, etc.

In future they can expanse their own running income generating activity like call centres, software testing, etc. also they can keep children for age 24(next 6 year after 18) then they can help them to live and settled their own life. With the six year experience they can also get once some bulk amount, and other surplus for the organization.

Conclusion

Street children in city area can be found various place without having any shelter as well living with unsecure life like in railway stations, bridges, street, near temples, mosque, durgahs, markets, besides road, etc. these children lives on street with their family, without families, and some comes for the nearest slum.

The main focus of the programme is providing home to the homeless children and create a viable environment for street children to grow and develop from the grassroots level, by eliminating negative causes to a bright future by proving care and shelter during childhood and skill for employment with adulthood. At the inception pilot phase was for the process of proving shelter. Later based on the need on then it would graduate with the expansion of the program to providing other need for example study facility during night at the shelter skill based training.

The main problem with such kind of the institute is they care children up to age 18 and again they might be orphan. Besides, for the sustainability of the both organization and target population; planned to give training to the children by the age of 18 is mainly due to considering this point. It can generate surplus to the institute as well a carrier path to the children. Children can run various kind of activity in the metro city like call centre, software testing unit. In future they can expanse their own running income generating similar activities. Organization would provide or can keep children for age 24(next 6 year after 18 at work) then they can help them to live and settled their own life. With the six year experience they can also get once some bulk amount, and other surplus for the organization.

When children and young peoples development is monitored and assessed, it enables practitioners and professionals to notice when children and young people are not progressing as expected. Therefore, if necessary checks can be made to see why children are not developing as expected may be due to impairment.

When practitioners and professionals intervene in early years of the children, they will able to get appropriate support they need and their development and their welfare is promoted. Children and young people’s overall outcomes will be promoted significantly when professionals carry out early intervention.

There are several methods of monitoring children’s development explained below:-

Assessments frameworks

Practitioners are required to carry out on going assessments through observations on a diary basis as its integral part of development and learning. Any learning and development needs of children and young people must be addressed by the practitioners with the parent/ carer and relevant professionals. Parents/ carers should be updated regularly with their children’s progress and development.

Progress check at two:

Practitioners should carry out a progress check when the child is aged between two

and three. It should be carried out in the setting where the children spend more time and discuss how children’s learning is supported using the summary of development at home.

It is a written summary of the child’s development in the prime areas. The practitioner must discuss with the parents and / carers on how to support children’s learning at home using the summary of development. It must reflect on going, regular observation of children’s development.

The progress check at two enables practitioners and any other professionals to identify development needs early on in the child’s life in order he/she gets the additional support needed.

Assessment at the end of the EYFS – the Early Years Foundation Stage Profile (EYFSP). EYFSP must be completed for each child in the final term when he/she turns five years old and should be before the 30th of June in that term. School must share profile results with the parents / carers and relevant professionals. The profile provides details of the child’s abilities and understanding, knowledge, their progress against expected levels and how ready they are for year 1.

Observations.

In settings, practitioners watch children play and watch how they are behaving. Some observations do not need the practitioner to interact with the children while in others it may be more appropriate for the practitioner to be involved in order to support learning and development. Observations play a very important part in assessing the children’s development.

When practitioners carry out observations, they are able to get information about the child’s development, interests and their interactions with friends and adults as well their level of concentrations.

Standard measurements

Different professionals use various standardized measurements to monitor and assess the children’s development.

Growth / healthy assessments.

These are used to measure and assess the children’s height, weight and head circumference.

Auditory assessments.

These assessments are used to monitor and assess the children’s levels of response.

Reasoning assessments.

These assessments are used to monitor and assess the children’s reasoning and they are carried out by educational psychologists.

Cognitive aptitude assessments.

These assessments are used to monitor and assess the children’s intelligence and they are widely carried out in schools.

All the above tests help professionals to see how a child is performing compared to the large group/ population of other children in the same age group.

Information from parents/ carers, colleagues and others.

Practitioners should collect as much information as possible from parents/ carers when monitoring and assessing children’s development as the parents/ carers spend more time and are more attune with their children. They see the child in a variety of different situations hence have a lot to contribute and they are aware of their learning and behaviour outside the setting. They always have a different perspective. It is very important to also involve the child whenever possible.

Although key workers are the ones mainly responsible to monitor and assess their key children, all practitioners working with them should but consulted as they may have different in put towards the children’s development.

CYP 3.1: 3.2 EXPLAIN THE REASONS WHY CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S DEVELOPMENT MAY NOT FOLLOW THE EXPECTED PATTERN.

Children encounter issues in their lives that have a positive or negative influence on their life and hinder them from following the expected pattern of development. As practitioners, we have the duty of care towards the children and young people to ensure that we improve their life chances by following the Every Child Matter outcomes, which are be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and achieve economic well-being.

Physical factors

The children’s/ young people’s genetics affects their development, which includes their physical growth and physical strength.

Sometimes professionals may be unable to identify why a child is not following the usual development pattern even after thorough investigations on the influences of development. This may possibly be to the fact that it in the genetic makeup of the child to have a slow start or delayed learning.

The social, economic and cultural factors
Personal choice

Families may decide to live in a different way example travelling families. The children/ young people’s education may be affected if their families travel a lot and they may not settle in. This may stop children from following their expected development pattern.

Some families bring up their children differently and some bring up boys differently from girls and this can affect the children’s development.

Poverty

Families live in poverty mostly due to unemployment and low income. Due to lack of money, families may fail to provide enough food to eat, clothes to wears, educational resources outside school and heat for winter for their children, which may affect their health and that of the parent. This might hinder the children/ young people to reach their full potential

Housing and Community

Children and young people’s development is greatly affected negatively if they live in poor housing conditions like living in a damp condition may cause health problems to the children that may affect their learning.

Children and young people living in neighbourhood with anti-social behaviour may be affected negatively as they may be isolated or they may decide to join in and their development will be affected.

Poor parental supervision/ neglect

Children need guidance to learn how to behave well. If they do not get the guidance from their parent, they will misbehave at school because they do not understand the boundaries. Lack of boundaries may result in the children and young people being involved in crime and anti-social behaviour.

Educational Environment

If the setting does not reach the statutory requirement, this will affect the children and young people’s development and they will not achieve their full potential therefore they might be un able to follow the expected development pattern.

Health status and Disability

Children and young people with existing health condition or with disability may find it hard to fit in and if they are discriminated against, this will have a negative impact on their lives.

Learning needs.

Children and young people with learning difficulties and those with specific learning needs may not follow the expected development pattern as they may need a range of additional support with their learning and development, for example with writing , reading or maths. Children with Dyslexia they need support with their learning and development.

Bereavement and loss

Losing a loved one or pet can have a great impact on emotional and physical health. Children/ young people may find it hard to cope with the grief and this may affect their well-being.

Religious beliefs and customs

Children may be excluded from setting to attend specific settings due to their religious beliefs and customs therefore the children may miss out on some activities and this might have a negative impact on their live.

Ethnic beliefs

Children might feel isolated and discriminated against due to their ethnic belief and this will have a negative impact on their lives.

Communication skills.

Children and young people who have trouble with their communication, their learning and development will be impacted on and this leads to the children not following their expected development pattern. Communication development is linked closely to social, emotional and behaviour and intellectual/cognitive development.

3.3 EXPLANATION OF HOW DISABILITY MAY AFFECT DEVELOPMENT

Practitioner should have a good knowledge of particular impairments and understand that the same impairment can affect each child differently. Therefore, practitioners must understand the children they are working with, how the impairment is affecting them in order to meet their needs appropriately. Practitioners should look for ways of increasing learning and development opportunities for children with disabilities.

Social model of disability

When society is not set up to meet the needs of people experiencing impairment, this implies that impairments give rise to disability. “The society disables them, rather than enabling them” (Walker 2011 p.285).

There is consideration in the social model of disability that people with disabilities have rights and choices and the change has to be made by the society.

Children with learning difficulties and impairment that affect their social and emotional development may find it had to interact with others and they will be unable to make friends and positive relationships.

Society should change to give the children with disability an opportunity to participate in society and ensure that it meets the children and young people’s needs so as to achieve positive outcome.

Medical model of disability

In this model of disability people without a disability, they see the impairment of disabled people as a problem that needs solved or cured whereas some impairments have no cure. Medical model limits the opportunities for children and young people and this impact negatively on their learning and development.

The children with long term medical conditions or physical disabilities may not achieve their full potential as they may miss educational opportunities due to their health, having to stay in hospitals and attending medical appointments.

Low expectations

When people/ societies have low expectations for children and young people with disability, they will be denied the opportunities they need to achieve their full potential. If children and young people with disability have low expectation of themselves they may not want to get involved and they will feel isolated and unable to fit in.

Stereotyping.

Children with disabilities may develop low self-confidence and self-esteem due to the stereotyping, discrimination and if the family members see them as a burden or have negative attitudes due to their lack of ability to cope with their disability.

Cultural differences

Children and young people may miss out on the chance to learn, play and work due to discrimination because of their disability as well as their background, hence unable to achieve a positive outcome. People from different cultures should be more understanding, accepting and encouraging to children and young people with disabilities.

Due to lack of funds and resources, can hinder the children with disability having opportunities to experiences activities and achieve their full potential as meeting the needs of a child with disability can be very expensive and funded services vary from one local area to another.

The benefits of positive attitudes to disability.

Positive attitudes to disability helps children with disability develop a positive attitude towards themselves and they will have high expectations for their life.

The children and young people will have increased self-esteem and self-confidence, gain their independence and have a purpose in life.

They will be able to achieve a positive outcome with their learning and development.

Positive attitude to disability will help children/young people with disability be more resilience and handle the negative attitudes towards them from others like discrimination and stereotyping.

3.4 AN EXPLANATION OF HOW DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTERVENATIONS CAN PROMOTE POSITIVE OUTCOMES FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE WHERE DEVELOPMENT IS NOT FOLLOWING THE EXPECTED PATTERN

A number of professional agencies may become involved when children are identified as not following the expected developmental pattern.

The professionals will all work together to support children and their families to ensure that children and younger people achieve their full potential.

Children and young people’s outcomes can be improved when multi-agency approach is involved and this includes the children and young people’s development.

Below are the professionals involved in the interventions with children.

Professional/Agency
Main area of responsibility
Impact
Types of intervention
Behavioural Support Service (BEST)

They work in partnership with provisions within the framework to include everyone.

They promote good behaviour and provide support to children and young people, parents and settings.

Behaviour impact the children’s and young people achievements. When children have positive behaviour they achieve at school.

Recognising and managing their emotions and learn about relations.

Improved educational outcome.

Training of staff

Advice on how to develop and review behaviour policies.

Speech and language therapists.

They are employed by the local Primary Health Trust.

They assess and treat speech, language and communication problem to allow children to communicate to the best of their ability.

Children being able to communicate with others. Meeting their individual development needs.

Improved language skills.

Settling better in settings and will to learn.

Improved education outcome.

They are referred from the GP or concern from the setting.

Therapy

Educating parents and staff.

Promoting speech and language development through songs and rhymes involving children and parents.

Physiotherapists.

They help children who have problems as a result of injuries to rehabilitate and increase their movement and coordination, illness or for medical reasons.

When the children and young people are rehabilitated.

Improved movement.

Treatment

Range of motion exercise

Electrical stimulation

Strengthening exercise

Soft tissue movement.

Psychologists

They help and support children with social, emotional problem or learning difficulties. They offer advice and giving counseling to children and parents.

Being able to enhance the child’s learning and enabling practitioners to be more aware of the social factors affecting children’s learning.

Improved education outcome.

Counselling

Training

Health Visitors.

They are health professionals who help, support and educate parents on the way of preventing diseases through immunizations, good child nutrition, minor illness and behavior issues. They advice parents on health and child development. They do home visits and sometimes, they can be found in the local medical centre at least once a week.

They support parents to ensure that children are protected from illness and they achieve their developmental milestones.

Improve education and life outcome for children and young people.

Identifying mothers suffering from depression.

Reduced post-natal depression.

Medical advice

Training

Home visits

Parental training

Social workers

They are employed by social services.

They provide assistance and advice to children, young people and families with health need, housing issues, and poverty.

They support young people living care and those facing difficulties of any kind.

Keep families together by giving them support.

Children from care fulfil their full potential.

Families getting the help they need.

Crisis intervention

Anger management

Stress management

Relaxation training

Mid wives

They offer health support to parents expecting a child/ children.

Parent has a successful pregnancy and birth.

Reduce the number of women smoking during pregnancy.

Increased breast feeding.

Increased parental confidence.

Training

Antenatal care. Pre- and post – natal care.

Birth plans

Training

Breast feeding training.

Play specialist

They are employed by the local Primary Health Trust.

They make observations and assessments through play with children in hospitals to identify their needs and fears while in hospital.

The children get full recover and play freely without any problems.

Assessments

Introduction of play

Voluntary agencies and services

These include local and national services like NSPCC. They support and give advice to children, young people and their families experiencing threatening situations.

The families feel safe, secure and protected. They have a peace of mind knowing that they can get support and advice if they experience ant threatening behaviour.

Training

Support and advice

Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO).

Works in the setting

They have the responsibility to organise identification and support for children with special education needs

Being able identify that a child has special education needs and the child being able to get the help they need early on in time.

Referrals to respective professionals

Support

Psychiatrist

They are doctors trained medically. They specialise in mental health.

They diagnose and support children and young people with mental health problems.

When the child and young person get all the support and treatment the y need. When they are able to lead a normal life afterwards.

Counselling

Training

Awareness

Nurse specialist

They give advice and support to children, young people and their families on how to manage chronic conditions. They also measure and assess children’s development.

When families are able to handle and manage chronic conditions.

When families are able to get help in time if there are any underlining problems with their children’s development.

Training

Raising awareness

Measurements and assessment of children development.

Young justice teams.

They work with children and young people with anti social behaviour in the community. They work hand in hand with the social workers.

When the children and young people get the support they need to be model citizens.

Recognising and managing their emotions and learn about relationships.

Improved social and emotional skills, attitudes, behaviour and academic performance.

Target offending behaviour

Thorough assessments of children and young people’s individual needs.

Offer structured programmes.

Offer programmes that can work that meet the families’ needs.

Additional learning support teams

They help children with specific educational needs within early years provisions, schools and out of school.

Children get the support and education to achieve their development goals.

Improved learning outcomes.

Training

Awareness

Support

Assistive technology

Children and young people’s development can be supported by using a range of technology. A voice activated computer programme will assist children and young people with delayed fine motor skills with writing. Children and young people with difficulties walking may use the latest wheelchairs so as they are able to achieve their development goal and be more independent. Physiotherapists, speech and language therapists and sensory impairment support professionals have the responsibility to choose the right type of assistive technology for children and young people.

http://www.ehow.co.uk/socialworkers (16.02.2013)

http://www.physiotherapy.notes.com (16.02.2013)

http;//www.surreycc.gov.uk/social-careand health (17.02.2013)

http://www.nfer.ac.uk/nfer/publications (17.02.2013).

Tassoni, P., Beith, K., Bulman, K., Griffin, S. (2010) Children and Young People’s Workforce. Early Learning and childcare. Level 3 Diploma. Essex: Heinemann.

Walker, M. (2011) Children and Young People’s Workforce. Early Learning and Childcare. Level 3 Diploma. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.

INTRODUCTION

The present study pretends to diagnose if there are problems with sexual education in a public school in Nicaragua (Masatepe, Masaya). The purpose is to facilitate reflections and contribute with new ideas that make the development of new personal and social abilities, prevent teenage pregnancies, and STD’s.

This problem arises from the results that there are many young people who lack good knowledge about sexual health, do not feel empowered enough to ask for contraception or have not learned the skills to negotiate contraceptive use with their partners to protect themselves from unwanted pregnancies or sexually transmitted infections. In the last years, due to the media, kids and teenagers have more access to sexual material, and the orientation of the parents in this type of material is scarce or void. The sexual abuse in children according to the police records has increased since 1984 from being 4.9% to 22.4% in 1991. At the end of 2011, the Ministry of Health in Nicaragua (MINSA) [1] recorded 34.501 mothers under 20 years old gave birth. Nicaragua has one of the highest teen pregnancy rates between 12 and 19 years old. Of 100 pregnancies, 25 are adolescents; reveal the results of the Survey Nicaraguan Demographic and Health, ENDESA (Survey Final Report Nicaraguan Demographic and Health) [2] 1998-2006.

The government is responding to these events with programs given to teachers. This is why this study arises, to know if they are actually put into practice and if students are learning, because the school in Masatepe has one program in hands, and was given to teachers. My research will assess surveys given to students of the school, from 9th to 11th grade (50 students from each year), to know what their interests are, and what their knowledge about the topic is, an interview to the teachers who have the program in hands, and to the principal of the school present my results. With all these in hand, I will propose suggestions for the improvements in the class of sexuality if any problems are present, the solutions will come through the surveys, and make the director conscious of what is going on in her classrooms.

Sexual Education

The code for children and teenagers [3] of Nicaragua, article 44, states “young people of our country have the right to an integral, objective, guiding, scientific, gradual and formative sexual education, which develops their self esteem and respect to their own body and sexual responsibility”.

Sexual Education proposes to provide the knowledge, criteria and guidelines that allow the exercise of human rights, the adequate performance in our personal lives, encourage a profound change in civic values, moral attitudes, and active competitions which stimulate the personal development and social integration of pre-teenagers and teenagers, and consequently prevent the transmission of HIV, undesirable pregnancies, and sexual violence. In general it must break all the bonds between stereotypes and myths about sexuality.

Teenagers have the right to have a healthy and responsible sexual education. This promotes the respect that must be given to our reproductive rights, responsible maternity with no risks, and the prevention of any venereal disease. Young kids need it to be capable of comprehending the changes that go on with their bodies, and moods. It will show them the proper way to communicate, relate, and respect other people, and most importantly themselves. In this way they will have better tools to take important decisions that will help them live their sexuality properly, protect themselves from situations that could affect their healthy, mental and physical state.

Sexual Education must be clear, objective, directed to all audiences in order to protect and conserve all cultural and social values, and open to the community of all students and teenagers who have not been taught sexual education. This must be done to prevent many diseases, conflicts in society, doubts of our body, unwanted pregnancies, not wanted marriages, and abortions. If a region is experiencing a net population growth or if it is already exceeding carrying capacity, it is important for sex education, family planning, and self-esteem programs to be concentrated on young women in their teen years. Hence, scientific evidence proves that sexual education that includes information about different methods of prevention makes teenagers clear in when they want to start being sexually active. A teenager who is this state is not conscious about the consequences of being sexually active at young age.

The Population Fund United Nations managed to keep the partnership in cooperation with the Ministry of Education, and with that is was managed to finish the Manual Comprehensive Sexuality Education for Teachers, “which now drove an entire operational training, and it is said that there are 1,500 trained already, “said Freddy Cardenas, Executive Director of “ProFamilia”. [4]

Nicaragua and Other Countries

In Europe, the Asia-Pacific region, Latin America and the United States, the most common reason for not using contraception is a lack of preparedness for sexual activity. “Each year, 16 million girls aged 15-19 give birth. 50,000 of them die from complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. And 95 percent of those births occur in developing countries.”- UNITED NATIONS, Jul 18 2012 (Interpress Service)

As a developing, Nicaragua is expected to have high teenage pregnancy rates, low access to good quality education, and to contraception, and this is what actually happening if we do not anything for education. The progress of a country is seen in the level of education and how has it been provided to the population. Nicaragua is part of the International Convention about kid’s rights of the United Nations [5] ; this means it must make sure that kids and teenagers have an education which prepares them to assume a responsible life in society. However, not all the population has access to a good quality education and this is due to a large amount of reasons or social problems our country experiences in everyday life.

However, Nicaragua as a non-developed country is expected to have high teenage pregnancy rates, but how is the United States, as a developed country that it is, is dealing with the same problem? In the United States, the percentage of sexually active teenagers who do not use condoms rose from 38% in 2009 to 53%. There are 47% of high school students that say they are sexually active, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of their country. The funding for A Positive Approach to Teen Health, or PATH [6] , has changed the curriculum that teaches sex education, and has shifted from abstinence-centered information to teen pregnancy prevention. They received funding, because they were evidence-based to reduce teen pregnancy. The program includes school presentations, after school mentoring and parent programs, and community-wide events that encourage teens to make healthy choices, respective to sex, and relationship violence. Their goal is “for teens to have stronger more meaningful relationships, healthy futures, and successful ventures throughout their entire lives.” Another organization called CATCH [7] is now encouraging pills and the use of condoms to prevent unwanted pregnancies as an attempt to produce a change about the 7,000 girls 17 years or under that are getting pregnant (90% are unplanned pregnancies). Moreover, the programs they have on television which involved teenagers having babies, has opened eyes to the population, especially teenagers, to how complicated it is to give birth at a young age without any preparation, and how difficult it is to get prepared for a future with a child in hand and her or his education in your hands too.

In the other hand, the Netherlands has far fewer teen pregnancies, births and abortions than the U.S and it is a developed country as well, how is this possible? Sexually active Dutch teens are far more likely to use condoms or oral contraceptives than American teens according to statistics [8] . In the Netherlands, sex education is delivered in the context of learning about relationships not biology. Dutch parents talk openly with their children about “waiting until ready” to have sex; healthy relationships; and responsible behavior, such as contraception use, when sexual activity begins. They learned to “normalize” sexual development with their children, and look at sexuality as a normal part of being human. Adults and children are better educated, and it would be unthinkable for a Dutch parent to withdraw their child from sex education. They think “There is no point in telling children just to say ‘no’ – this is a liberal country: you need to tell them why they are saying ‘no’ and when to say ‘yes’”- Siebe Heutzepeter [9] . What is significantly different in Europe is a strong cultural message against teen pregnancy [10] .

Nicaragua should take the Dutch and Americans as an example, parents should talk openly about this topic and stop considering it as taboo and this is a problem that is going in the school: “I do not see any motivation from the parents to the students, because they say that this type of topic is a taboo, and they should not be talking about it at home.”- said the teacher I interviewed. She wants to relate with them and make them involve in the school with respect to their children, but the parents do not make the effort back. Besides, campaigns are also being launched here in Nicaragua, such as “Ganale a las Ganas” (Win your Desires) which consists of talking to teenagers about the risks of having sexual intercourse at a young age.

Role of Government

Reach toward the end of 2015, in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, a 75% reduction in the number of schools that do not provide comprehensive education about sexuality, and a 50 % reduction in the number of adolescents and young people who lack access to contraceptives and sexual health services, the goals were assumed by the ministries of Health, also called MINSA, with a declaration signed called “Prevention with Education”. In the agreement, signed during the International Aids Conference, held in Mexico, the governments of the regions committed to develop targeted strategies in adolescents and young people to strengthen efforts in prevention of HIV and pregnancy. However, since the last 4 years (since 2011) there has only been a progress of 48%.

The International Conference About the Population and Development [11] , taken in Cairo in 1994, states “countries around the world must give answers adequate to the necessities about sexual education and reproduction young people have, taken into consideration from a perspective that we have sexual and reproductive rights, and not only from the perspective that we could take the risk of contracting a disease.” Delegates at the conference reached consensus on the following qualitative and quantitative purposes:

Universal Education: Ensure primary education for all by 2015 and attempt to remove the difference between enrollment rates of boys and girls in primary and secondary education

Reduction of infant mortality rate and children under 5: Reduce to less than 35 per 1000 live births and infant mortality rate below 45 per 1,000 mortality rate of children under 5 years before 2015.

Reduction of maternal mortality: Reduce maternal mortality by half by 1990 to 2000, and again by half before 2015.

Access to reproductive services and sexual health, including family planning: Allow 2015 universal access to reproductive health services, including family planning and sexual health.

According to the Ministry of education (MINED in Nicaragua), sexual education will have a wide perspective based on human rights and on the respect towards the values of a democratic society where families and communities are developed accordingly. The curriculum will include ethical, biological, emotional, social, cultural, and gender aspects, themes related to gender diversities in orientation and identity, developing tolerance, rejecting any type of discrimination, and promote non ignorant decisions in relation to a person’s sexual life.

Effectiveness

According to the Ministry of Health, “MINSA” in Nicaragua, in 2011 Nicaragua closed with 34,501births which came from teenagers, between the ages of 15 and 19 years old; this corresponds to the 25% at national level.

The roles of government, all the programs they have launched, are promoters to a good quality of sexual education, and they do not only use contraception methods, but encourage the student being educated to not having a sexually active life because these books provide information that can be extremely important for the future of the teenagers of our country. These programs promotes values and considerations everyone should implement in their lives in order to diminish sexual abuse, which is an occurring problem, or teenage pregnancy which is incrementing everyday due to the non efficient sexual education it being implemented at schools, because if this would be happening, the teenage pregnancy rate should lower. This is where I question this programs, how come, if they are as good as they look, they are not being put into action in the schools or communities more concurringly, because the book I will be presenting next it is not being presented entirely at the school I was surveying, but only being taught partial information of it, and given to only two teachers of this school.

“Sexual Education: Basic Reference Guide for teachers”

It is a program the Ministry of Education is imposing in the school Calixto Moya, it includes the elaboration of a collection of guides with themes of interest for the development and formation of the personal and professional aspects of the staff in a school or even to the parents in a family. Of course, the purpose of all this is to aid the preparation of professionals or staff in schools, so they could give ideas, orientations adequate for the development of a person’s personality during childhood and adolescence.

Ways to provide education of sexuality

General Considerations

It is necessary to reorient the programs for children, adolescents and rural and urban youth, by identifying the positive aspects that are necessary and the negatives that need to be changed.

Sex-Ed must be creative, open to analysis and reflection, with the main purpose of maintaining the motivation of the one’s being educated, making them participate in a program in an interactive manner. You can include recreational activities and classic techniques such as brainstorming, work in groups and individuals, discussions, case studies, panels, skits, conceptual maps, talks, seminars, workshops, video forums; all with special care in to give seriousness to the boarding of the theme.

This type of education seeks to strengthen criteria that may be applied to the various situations of daily life

Special Considerations

The teaching staff must bear in mind that the topic of sexuality, involves the development of capacities for channeling positively the expression of ideas, feelings and emotions, avoiding situations that may cause discomfort or rejection to the persons that are being taught this class

It should provide ethical criteria, solid, objective and scientific, without trying to impose their own points of view, certain ideological positions or relating to the own experience of life.

It should be avoided, provide criteria that may affect emotionally to the learners, or that they mean judgments or discriminatory opinions about themselves or their relatives.

Why is this material important? It helps our society, and due to the nature of any theme, it is difficult to conciliate it with our culture due to the diversity that goes on in our country, beliefs and personal values, all of this united were capable of producing a piece of material relevant for society.

Role as a Teacher

Some teachers’ approach is to teach abstinence first and then discuss the possibilities of what can happen if students choose non-abstinence, looking at not just sexually transmitted diseases, but also physical and mental changes. They must always remark that abstinence is the only 100 percent effective way to prevent a premarital pregnancy and a monogamous marriage is the best way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases.

What is a teacher’s job in their class and what values should them be promoting to their students? With teachers being fully acquainted with what they should be teaching they must be able to analyze their social relationships in which they are involved in every day, and be competent to communicate, dialogue, and in general, be able to accomplish the abilities that allow them to perform an appropriate social integration. The importance to value their community and everybody else, the importance of making your rights and the rights from everybody else be respected and make them be done, and most importantly something that it should not be left behind, is making them conscious about what problems they may be overcoming or facing at any moment of their lives by showing and teaching them how they should confront them.

You must especially take into considerations the teachers since they have the responsibility of analyzing their students, and by this I mean they must be capable of recognizing in what type of environments they are developing and prevent these students from growing up in hostile environment. The role as a teacher, is to see what are the students interest on, and from there give their class, because as a student I do not give my time to subjects or materials I am not interested on, but if they are important, I would expect the teacher to get me interested. The teacher must impart their class from the learning capacities he sees on the students, because, for example, if he teaches from a book and makes a student read it, learn it, and from there give exams, in my opinion, the students are not comprehending or learning correctly. A student should be not only interested in theory but in practice, therefore, I would encourage talks and social activities that would make the class more dynamic and more interested to be on. As well as the teachers must completely comprehend the topic they are boarding they must also be in charge of teaching and making clear to the parents what they are giving to their students about the themes relation to sexual education.

The teacher I interviewed, which was not in charge of giving themes of sexual education, , accomplished all these. I quote:

“What I do in both schools when I give the classes, that the students also ask me to do, is a panel forum with them. I ask them what are their topics of interest, and they answer sexuality”

“I analyze their problems and understand them”

“Yes, I interact with them and I love to have good communications with them, because in that way I identify their interests, desires, doubts and worries because I know I can help them”

“I love making discussions, panel forums, round tables on this type of thematic. I like to say that no matter the amount of condoms that are used, there is always a risk”

“I like to read, listen to the radio, and watch television programs that can help me, because I believe that the teacher should always be updated to know how to deal with this generation.”

Parental Involvement

Sex education must not be only engaged in teenagers or pre-teenagers, but also in parents who must be interested and care for the development of their children. What they must do is create relationships in the family where teenagers can easily adapt to, an environment free of hostility, and capable of solving conflicts that involve every member of the family.

In Nicaragua, participation of parents in the development of these critically important programs is seldom if ever observed at the grass roots. Hence, they do not know what is being taught to their children, they have no decision to it, and their role as parents is not being done efficiently as it should be expected. Parents are in charge of bringing into the table everyday values that need to be taught to their children not only by the school, but by them. Besides, full acknowledgment of what their children have been taught in school gives new ideas and improvements done by them to the school, since they can now have a decision on what it should be taught and bring on debates in whether these decisions must be done. Therefore, the role of the school should be that of assisting and completing the work of parents. However, this is not done according to a teacher of the school: “I talk to them about the values of our body, and elevate their self esteem, because many of the students who come from very disintegrated families (no mom, no dad or without anyone talking to them about sex). They only hear about this orientation in schools, therefore we do the parents jobs here. Besides, the parents who are in charge of it do not do it either because they do not know the information or because they consider it a taboo (sexual education)”

Parents have a lot of influence over their children, and if conversations about sex were a normal, natural part of day-to-day life, when it’s appropriate and when it’s needed, I think that would have a tremendous impact. Therefore, with the correct guidelines given to them, this could be improved by involving the parents more into the school showing them their curriculum, doing meetings frequently where they could be updated, and find a way to know whether or not all the material being showed to the parents is making a positive effect at home in order to see if this information should be kept being shown to them, however, when this happens even more work must be done by the school to make the required formation of teens possible and efficient at home.

Results from Surveys

How well do you consider the class of sexual education in your school is?

The people who said “Good” and “Excellent” were for many reasons. In school they give them a conscious sexual education (actualized with reality), prepare them for what they are going to be expecting in life, teach them sexuality’s ups and downs, make them conscious of the importance of it, the consequences and risks that come from experiencing it, know more about sex, teach them how to take care of their sexual life, they learn about their bodies and how to take care of them, know about things not everybody does, prevents them from any danger, learn about some contraceptive methods and how to use them, know they cannot have sexual intercourse with a random person, their doubts are cleared, talks are given, helps them prevent a teenage pregnancy, makes them think about their responsibility before taking decisions, and even though it is not a profound sexual education the school gives them the essential points.

People who said “Regular” and “Bad” was because they say they do not receive sexology, boys already know so much about sex in present times, themes are left short and not developed, the school does not give them the topics they are interested in learning, not all teachers take into consideration these themes, they give them a short amount of information and this short amount is interrupted from the same alumni, they do not reach further on the topic, and leave them with questions, concrete information is not given, attention is not paid, do not talk much about the topic, mocking is done, missing intensity, not much interest from them when they should, and it is only imparted in civics.

If you can see, answers contradict themselves from many perspectives, for these reasons, all answers are subjective, but can still be taken into consideration. While the majority says that sexual education in their school is good and rest says no, it still means some problems exist, and reinforcement can still be done. Interests are subjective, but if we can find a class were all the topics are taken into consideration, deepened enough, and full participation is accomplished no problems would arise.

Sexual education has been taught to you through?

Presentations rule in the method teachers use to impart their classes. This means that they are learning not only from books and theory; they are participating.

In what other way have you been informed about sex? (television, magazines, newspaper, radio, friends, classmates, family) Comment.

These graphs show the dominant source for teenagers to get acquainted with sex, is television. This is evidence to what I mentioned before, teenagers now have more access to television, and their minds are being affected no matter right or wrong. After television, friends and classmates are who play an important role in a person’s life as well as family who give them more information about these topics. Then comes in the rest of the media which in general affect teenagers no matter how full acquainted they are with it. As a matter of evidence on how much it can affect the quantity of knowledge you know about sexual education, this question rose. We cannot do anything about this, since it cannot be controlled, because you get affected by it indirectly or directly.

Have you encountered difficulties with sexuality or have you experienced changes? Have you had answers to these concerns proper to your age?

In the three grades, more than half said they did not have problems which means either they have not experienced anything or are fully informed, few answered complete. Next, are the people who did have problem but have had their answers because of the school, parents, or friends they asked. Finally, there were the people who did have problems but never got their answers neither from the school nor family. This means that there is still a portion of students whose problems or concerns have not be answered, and the teachers have still not gained full trust from them. Therefore, we can implement meetings or talks were they could all ask their questions, stop being shy, provide trust, or build stronger relations between them and the parents through the meetings that are held with the teachers.

“”When we have meetings, I look for texts where it appears how the parents can help their children. I give them tips or ideas on how to treat the kids, be a little more flexible. Every time, another year comes by, a new school year does too. Each time a new year begins a new thematic suddenly shows parents how to deal with their children, for example, in today’s meeting that I have with the parents I have a text prepared for them that says “10 tips on how to treat adolescents”. I’m going to let them discuss in pairs, and then make them expose their ideas so they can also capacitate themselves.”- says Professor Flor de Maria (Civics)

“We do meetings with the parents, and they even learn from these meetings, because as I was telling you the students come from poor families, and some did not go to school, do not have careers, or have really poor jobs. In the meetings, we give topics that help the parents improve communication with their children.”- Professor Vilma Tapia (Civics)

According to your opinion or criteria, what themes do you suggest adding to the program or content of sexual education being taught at your school?

Ninth Grade
Themes
How many people said it

None

21

How to prevent a pregnancy?

5

What changes occur after sex?

1

STD’s

4

Contraceptive Methods

17

Sex Addiction

2

Risks from sex

4

Tenth Grade
Themes
How many people said it

None

3

Contraceptive Methods

4

Rescue to our principles and respect to a sexual life

1

Causes and Effect from having a sex at a young age

2

Risks you take from having sex

1

Sexual Diversity

2

How to control sexual anxiety?

2

Sex Addiction

1

Why is a Tabu? How to remove it as that?

3

Is Masturbation correct?

2

Sex, promoter for abortion

5

How to prevent teenage pregnancy?

5

Eleventh Grade
Themes
How many times people said it

None

10

Contraceptive Methods, and their correct use

12

Is it good to teach people about this?

1

Ways to prevent a pregnancy

8

Causes and Consequences from having sex

5

At what age can you start having sex?

1

Make the theme stop being a Taboo

1

Maturity when taking the topic

2

Teenage Pregnancy

4

STD’s

4

Maternity and Paternity in the adolescence. Train the alumni

2

Abstinence

2

Myths about sex

1

Changes that come from having sex

1

You can see in these lists that the common topics of interest are how to prevent teenage pregnancy, contraceptive methods and how to use them, consequences from having sex in general, and STD’s. From all these you can see a pattern that they are interested on having sex, and they are afraid of the risks if something goes wrong, and they are afraid because they lack knowledge about it. Therefore, it’s effective to teach them all these topics so they can be non ignorant, know what they are doing, and completely acknowledge the consequences that come from it.

Therefore, the school must be in charge of providing them with all these information, and if they are putting this on the list is because they do not know it, and they want to know it. These could be the topics of interest they have always looked for, and instead being bored and not paying attention, listen and learn.

What aspects of sexual education would you like to learn in your school? Ex. Contraceptive methods, STD’s, anatomy, etc.

Contraceptive methods are the topic the majority of students want to learn about in a more profound way I believe. Then comes anatomy which was taught to them in primary, but it seems they want to be reinforced in that theme also. Finally, venereal diseases are left, which are the risks of the previous two top

To live a contended and successful life with cordial relationship with people around is very important. The life of the person is always connected to others and the level of relation with other person depends on how you deal and treat them. While dealing with people there are many factors with influence the terms one has which includes communication skills, the way of dealing and interacting with others and social ethics.

Thesis

Interpersonal skills are important to live a happy successful living. In every step of person’s life the interpersonal skills of person are tested and observe and those who have excellent interpersonal skills are always successful in both professional and personal living. This paper discusses the points which are important to maintain good interpersonal skills and why they should be kept maintained and polished.

Interpersonal Relationship Skills

The relation of the person with other people around him is known as interpersonal relationship. The skilled interpersonal qualities are very necessary for living a comfortable life with good social relations. No one is born with social skills. Everyone learns, perceives and absorb the social norms and the way of dealing people; which comes with time. The first school of social learning of a person is home. Home is the first place where one learns basic etiquettes, social norms and how to deal and respond to people. The basic learning of person is started and is leant from home. And since then a journey of learning and improving the social skills is constant. The social skills and interpersonal skills of a person are experienced when he enters the professional life. And with time these skills are polished.

The interpersonal skills vary from person to person. There are two types of people while dealing with people, introvert and extrovert. Each of these people would be different in dealing with other and thus the relationship, communication and level of dealing of communication with each type would be different. The interpersonal skills are also affected by the environment we grew in, our personal preferences, the way we feel, the personality type etc.

Interpersonal skills are needed everywhere. Whenever a person has to deal or communicate with other people or person the interpersonal skills of person are shown. Basically there are three stages where interpersonal skills are needed; personal dealing, social interactions and cooperation. All such relations such as friends, coworkers, family relatives, cousins, neighborhood and peers all are included in interpersonal relations.

Five Principles for good Interpersonal Relationship

Good interpersonal relationship leads people to deal and work in friendly and cozy environment. Health interpersonal relations provide people security, satisfaction, enjoyment and contentment towards each other. And those who are not successful to gain good interpersonal relations with people around them feel great sense of frustration, anxiety, failure and loneliness. To have good interpersonal relationship there are five important principals which are as following:

Mutual Benefit Principle:

The strong interpersonal relations are formed when people share same group of interests. It helps them to form a strong bond and meet up the social need of themselves; and as well as those one which are related or are connected with each other. So a health interpersonal relationship brings satisfaction to both sides of people. And to have such cordial terms both of the parties have to show a friendly affection with acceptance towards other. This is more successful when both parties share mutual interest and are capable of understanding each other.

Credit Principle:

For making the relation with the people fruitful and pleasant it is important to make people feel that you are useful for them. When people are treated this way they value you but more important is maintaining such interpersonal relation. The mutual understanding can be achieved through mutual sincerity and good intentions for each other. Only such feelings will enhance the good emotions and will make the relationship stronger no matter what type of relationship it is. When there is mutual understanding and benefits people tend to be more positive about such relations and to maintain such interpersonal relationships it is important to value the credit received and given.

Respect Principle:

No matter how alike the people are there can be many situations were two views are shared. When someone has to deal people socially there is always a presence of different views. And to keep the environment safe, friendly and healthy everyone should have a tolerance to accept and hear other point of views. Many times there comes a point when people exchange views which are different from other, even if someone doesn’t seem to agree then the interpersonal skills teaches us to show tolerance and acceptance to listen other views. Everyone has a right of freedom of speech so everyone has right to share their thoughts. So only through tolerance and respect one can maintain good interpersonal relationships.

Tolerance Principle:

Tolerance means that a person does not care about small minor issues, and by keeping aside the disturbing issues one can work together for a common goal and can negotiate the issues separately without letting the environment and relationship to get spoil. As there is always an individual difference, everyone has different mindset which brings out different view somewhere, through tolerance one can only deal with such situations. If someone had shown harsh behavior or has hurt you then there are two basic ways to deal with it, first keep a grudge, plot revenge or try to forget about it and never bother to expect something from that person. A skilled interpersonal person would prefer the second option and will try to deal the situations with tolerance.

Moderation Principle:

There should be a health interpersonal relation with people. A distant relation brings distance and lack of communication where as too much communication and time together causes irritation, obsession and lack of sense of space. To maintain a good social interpersonal relation one should keep a moderate way to deal and communicate with people. So the degree of relation should be maintained properly regarding the type of relationship one has. (Elanso.com, 2007)

Misconceptions in interpersonal relationships

The misconceptions between two people can lead to poor communication and fragile relations. There are many reasons which can bring distance and bitterness in any relations. Following are some of the reasons which can lead to misconceptions.

First impression: we often build up the first impression of people very quickly and those impressions get engraved in our mind which becomes very difficult to omit. First impression is not the last impression and one should never judge anyone completely in first impressions. There are many factors which should be noticed before making an observation about people. The reason for which I personally think the first impression causes misconception is that when the person have built a mind set about the person then it became difficult for him to deal with them. Even if they do well the other person would judge and make observation in a reflection of the impression he has built about him.

Error in understanding: there are many reasons which can leads to error in understanding the person. As mentioned above due to the building up the first impression very quickly can also cause misconception in interpersonal relationships. There are many other factors which can cause error in understanding other person’s impression such as the way of delivering or conveying the message, variety of thoughts and ideas which can also become objectionable to others.

Pride and self-worth: if any other the person has too much pride and confidence then it will also militate against the good interpersonal relations. When the person is head headed then people find it difficult to communicate with them which lead other people not to open up with them. Such traits in personality don’t let other people to communicate with them which lead to misconception and lack of good friendly terms.

Barrier in communication: there can be many reasons which can cause barrier in communication. This barrier in communication between people causes distance and poor communication. When there is poor communication the person is not able to communicate their message or feelings well, which brings out distance in-between people.

Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Interactions

Following are the most basic and noticeable points which causes barriers to effective interpersonal interactions:

Way of communicating the message to other. If the speech or message is not clearly delivered then such situations can lead to barrier in cordial interpersonal relations.

Assuming a wrong meaning of message conveyed can also leads to misunderstanding, grudges and sometimes even to verbal fights.

The body language and tone of delivering words also makes a great impact. The way of delivering ones message is the first thing which other notice. If the person finds it good and well-mannered then the good interpersonal relations are grown.

The reference through which a person came to know someone also makes a great impact on the person. That reference always defines the person in the light of reference one has mentioned.

Person is known by the company he keeps. In building a good interpersonal relations this line makes a great impact. If someone’s comes to know the third person through a bad reference then the image of the third person will be automatically bad. Or somewhere the impact of the reference would stay till one gets to know them properly.

Developing the self-concept

Having a self-concept about one self is very important. When the person knows his abilities, good points and weak points then it helps him to be a better person and let them to overcome the negative points. A person should be always open to learn new things which include the acceptance to the views which people give. Where the good views and comments help the person to build a confidence; the negative views also give the person the opportunity to see himself with a critical point of view and then overcome such points. Here is a list of points which help person to build a self-concept and how to improve one own self.

By recalling the previous achievement.

By recalling the good feedbacks and comments received

By doing a self-analysis of the personality , keeping in mind the good points and the bad points

Indulging oneself in a new tasks and situation to see how good and efficiently you can tackle them

By meeting new people and seeing their response about you

By adjusting yourself in new situations

By overcoming the fears you have, as they will help you in being a better person

Handling difficult situations and people and rechecking yourself that how good and successful you were

Recalling the past mistakes so that you don’t repeat them in future

Polishing the capabilities and potentials one has

Facing and overcoming the weak points

Doing a self-analysis and rechecking the past mistakes and weak points helps the person in being a better person. We often make mistakes which we regret later. So by recalling the mistakes and trying to analysis ones mistakes gives a person a better picture. One should always be open to accept his mistakes so that he can correct them.

We loses many of our relations because of our different mistakes, if we do a self-analysis more often than we would be able to maintain our relationships better and can bring the loved ones back in life.

Maintaining a self-concept

By maintaining a self-concept means that on should keep improving himself and should try to maintain a good self-image. One should cut down and overcome the flaws and try to deal with difficult situations. And keep venturing himself with new situations which will help the person to improve the personality and abilities of socializing. Here is a list of point which one should follow in maintaining a self-image.

Being constant in good behavior

By being down to earth

Open to criticism and realizing self-mistakes

Regular self-assessment

Keeping tolerance while dealing with people

By being polite to people

Overcoming the one own flaws and keep improving the personality

Finding new horizons in professional fields

Giving task to oneself to see whether you can do t or not

Challenging your own self in health way

Keeping a positive thinking so that you are able to see positive things in people around you.

Improving the interpersonal skills

Little gestures and care can bring out the best in any relationship. Interpersonal relations are very important for a person to live a happy and successful life. We meet and deal with different types of people. Every person has different personality. So even if we don’t seem to agree or like other people we should never criticize anyone with sarcasm. Continuous complaining and whining about others will make the self-image down. And even if one has to make the other person realize their mistakes then always chose a moderate decent way to convey the message. Whereas if someone does something good always appreciate them. Saying nice about other will bring the element of love and affection. A response of smile should be given with a smile. These little gestures and concern towards people bring people together and in such environment its easy n fruitful to carry healthy interpersonal relations.

Conclusion

Interpersonal skills are very important to maintain a good living. A life of a person is always surrounded by people. So dealing people with right attitude is very essential. For maintaining a healthy relationship with people one should deal other with patience, tolerance and care; one should always accept individual differences and personality traits of others. And very often one should do self-analysis so that a constant improvement in personality should be there. Social skills are only improved when one ventures to experience now situations. Holding good interpersonal skills with people is essential for successful living in all stages; personal, social and cooperation.

3 and 4-year-old children are often referred to as preschoolers. Preschool children want to become more independent and do things for themselves. They are enthusiastic about learning and acquire their knowledge through experiences and playing. Their motor, social, emotional, cognitive, and language skills all developing, as they try to gain inner control. Preschoolers want to establish themselves as individuals and can more easily express their needs since they have a greater grasp of language.

The preschooler’s body is continuing to lose baby fat and gain muscle. Their arms and legs are becoming more slender and their upper body more narrow and tapered. Some children grow taller so much more quickly than they gain weight and muscle, that they may begin to look somewhat skinny and fragile. This doesn’t mean that they are unhealthy or that anything is wrong; some children just fill out gradually as their muscles develop. Most preschoolers grow about 2 to 3 inches in height and gain about 5 pounds each year. Also boys tend to be slightly larger than girls (Berk, 2008).

A child’s face also will mature during this time. The length of their skull will increase a little, and the lower jaw becomes more pronounced. At the same time, the upper jaw will widen to make room for their permanent teeth. Because of this growth, their face actually will become larger and their features appear more distinct.

Children are playful by nature. Their earliest experiences of exploring with their senses lead them to play, by themselves at first and then eventually with others. Usually between 4 and 5 years old, preschoolers discover that they share similar interests and seek out kids who are like themselves. They discuss, negotiate and come up with ways to create elaborate play scenes; take turns; and work together toward mutual goals. Children’s play can be divided into 4 categories, some of which overlap.

Dramatic play is fantasy-directed play like dressing up in costumes, pretending to be different characters, using toys to represent characters in stories, and creating imaginary settings. Some examples of manipulative play are using small toys like blocks or Legos to build objects, putting together puzzles, and making bead necklaces. Physical play uses the whole body in activities with bikes, balls, jump ropes, hoops, and play structures. In creative play children use art materials such as paint, clay, markers, pencils, glue, etc.

Preschoolers improve their mobility skills through a variety of motor activities involving the entire body. Gross-motor development includes locomotor dexterity, which requires balance and movement, and upper-body and arm skills.

Examples of locomotor skills are jumping, hopping, running, and climbing. Toddlers can climb up one step at a time, but preschoolers can use alternating feet to climb stairs. Most preschoolers progress from riding a tricycle to a bicycle, and some older preschoolers are able to roller-skate. Two basic upper-body and arm skills developed during the preschool years are throwing and catching a ball.

Preschool children gain more precision in fine-motor development between 3 and 5 years old. They attain more control of finger movement, which lets them become capable of using small materials that require grasping and control. According to the National network for child care some milestones in gross and motor skills in preschoolers include hopping on one foot, galloping, beginning to skip, pumping themselves on a swing, zipping, snapping and unbuttoning, cutting, lacing and making representational pictures like house, people or flowers (Malley, 1991).

During the preschool years children are in the preoperational stage. Throughout this stage children think in terms of concrete materials, believe that everyone thinks as they think, are perceptually bound and make judgments based primarily on how things look (Morrison, 2009). In the preoperational stage, children are very heavily influenced by their perceptions and do not fully grasp the concept of conversation. Children who have trouble with conservation have trouble understanding that the quantity of something can stay the same regardless of physical transformations. One example of this is if a child is shown 2 identical cups filled with the same amount of beans, and then you pour the beans into 2 different size cups, a child will think that one cup has more beans, not understanding that the same number of beans is in each cup.

Another characteristic of the preoperational stage is egocentrism, which is “the failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of other’s from one’s own” (Berk, 2008 pg325). Children also have trouble with logic and abstract thinking during this stage, because so much of their knowledge is based on their perception. Being in the preoperational stage comes with some key changes in thinking and cognitive development. In addition to acquiring language, children also start to discover fantasy and imagination. With developing language skills comes the awareness of that something can be represented even though it is not seen. For example, the word “balloon” describes a balloon, just like the image of a balloon does, even if the balloon itself isn’t actually visible. Children also start to use their imagination by pretending that objects are other things, transforming sticks into swords, big boxes into houses, and dirt into a racetrack.

Preschoolers sometimes have imaginary friends. They have a tendency to brag and can be bossy towards their peers. They have a desire to feel important and worthwhile. At times they can be aggressive but enjoy being with other children and want to make friends. They like to pretend to be important adults such as a teacher, parent, doctor, shop owner or police officer. They want and seek out praise for their achievements.

“Social experience, along with cognitive development, contributes to gains in emotional understanding” (Berk, 2008 pg 370).Emotional understanding is a child’s ability to express his or her emotions appropriately, to correctly understand other people’s emotions, and to understand the outcomes of certain emotions. Children with high levels of emotional understanding can cope with their own or other people’s emotions in a way that creates positive social interactions. Preschoolers usually start to develop self-conscious emotions as they start evaluating themselves, instead of simply reacting to peers or adults evaluations. For example, a toddler may be perfectly happy coloring all over themselves from head to toe with markers, but won’t experience guilt or shame until someone expresses their displeasure at the situation. A preschooler may still enjoy drawing on themselves, but as soon as they see a parent coming, shame and guilt may surface as a result of considering their appearance. A child may also now experience a sense of pride when Mom or Dad says, “You did a great job cleaning up your mess.”

Preschool is a time when children start to develop friendships with their peers and this is essential for positive social and emotional development. Preschoolers think of a friend as someone they have fun with and are willing to share their belongings with. “Preschoolers give twice as much reinforcement-greeting praise and compliance-to children they identify as friendsaˆ¦they are more cooperative and emotionally expressive-talking, laughing, and looking at each other more than nonfriends do”(Berk, 2008 pg 376).While preschoolers understand the uniqueness of friendship their concept of it is still immature. They can be ‘best friends’ with a peer one day and not like them at all the next. Parents can influence their child’s early peer relationships both directly and indirectly, by giving their child more frequent social experiences, discouraging teasing, being emotionally positive and demonstrating cooperative play.

Social experiences are critical in the development of a preschooler’s moral understanding. Disagreements with siblings or peers over toys, taking turns or ideas give children their first concepts of fairness and justice. Children also learn by observing how their parents react when then have broken a rule and the way they talk about moral issues. Children who are advanced in moral understanding usually have parents who can adapt the way they communicate with their child about honesty, arguments and sharing in a way the child can easily understand.

During preschool children have a massive increase in language development. This escalation in language skills represents the development of cognitive abilities. Children become more complex thinkers and these changes are exhibited in their language. Preschoolers are curious about language and rely progressively more on language to make their wants and needs known to adults and peers.

Preschoolers can learn an average of 5 new words a day increasing their vocabulary from 200 words at age 2 to 10,000 words by age 6 (Berk, 2008 pg 356). To build their vocabulary so quickly, children use the fast mapping process where they connect a new word with a primary concept shortly after being introduced to the new word. There are different theories on how children acquire their vocabulary. Some theorists believe that children are naturally predisposed to distinguish word meaning using mutual exclusivity, which is a child’s assumption that words refer to entirely separate categories (Berk, 2008). These theorists also believe that syntactic bootstrapping, which is the discovery of word meanings by observation of how words are use in the structure of a sentence, plays a major part in language development (Berk, 2008). Another theory is that word learning is controlled by the same cognitive strategies that children apply to nonlinguistic information. “These strategies become more effective as children’s information processing, communication skills, vocabulary size, knowledge of categories and mastery of syntax improve” (Berk, 2008 pg 357).

Generally preschoolers can use simple sentences that follow a subject-verb-object order. Once they have mastered three word sentences they start to make small additions and changes in words that allows them to express word meanings in different ways and more efficiently. As with vocabulary development there are different theories on grammatical development; from the use of semantic bootstrapping (using word meanings to figure out grammatical rules), to the belief that children master grammar through direct observation, and including the idea that they have a special language making capacity for assessing the language they hear and develops the discovery of grammatical regularities.

Preschool children have typically well developed conversation skills. They use gestures and objects to assist them in conveying their meaning. By 4 years old a child can adapt their conversation to fit the age, sex, and social status of the person they’re talking to. Their conversations tend to be less mature in highly demanding situations (like while on the telephone) where they cannot see the other person or use conversational aids (Berk, 2008).

There are several ways in which parents and teachers can enhance all the developmental skills of a preschooler. Some activities that enhance physical and motor skills are dancing, swinging, sandbox play, throwing, playing with play dough and finger puppets, putting puzzles together, drawing, and stringing and lacing activities. “Through directed and undirected play, children are naturally able to practice and learn both gross and fine motor skills and coordination” (Snuggs, 2008).

Enhancing cognitive development is about strengthening and exercising a child’s thinking skills, not just giving them information. Activities like hide and seek (using variations of counting), Simon Says, I Spy and board games like Memory, Connect Four and Tic Tac Toe are all beneficial ways to enhance a preschooler’s cognitive development.

Planning activities in which the children have to work and plan together, helps build their social skills. Providing an opportunity for different personalities to interact, plan and work together, preschool children will learn the skills of compromise and sharing, while developing their social and emotional skills. A class play is an ideal group activity for the children to participate in. The most important thing we can do to ensure healthy social and emotional development is to be a positive role model. By being trustworthy, caring, and patient role models, we can help children develop a positive attitude. By showing respect to our children we help them learn to show respect for others.

In order to enhance positive language development in preschoolers it is important to be patient while they are talking and give them time to express themselves. A few activities that can help further their development are having them draw a picture and make up a story about it, singing songs and using word play and letters to build the children’s phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge and vocabulary.

I believe that each preschooler is a unique individual who needs a secure, caring, and stimulating environment where they can grow and develop emotionally, intellectually, physically, and socially. Parents and teachers should adapt to the needs of each child so that they can feel capable and successful.

This essay will identify how adults can support learning through play and will analyse the value of this approach. It will consider historical and current perspectives of child development. The key areas of discussion will be learning through role play and supporting children with additional needs. It will recognise the importance of symbolic play, contingent response and the use of sustained shared thinking. Historically children were perceived in different ways, from ‘evil and wicked’ to ‘innocent and easily corrupted’. Childhood has been constructed and reconstructed. (James & Prout 1997:7) The behaviourist approach, views the child as a ‘blank slate’ conditioned through external factors and places an emphasis on step by step learning. Psychologists such as Watson and Skinner considered children to learn by experiences given by adults to ‘shape’ or ‘mould’ them. Practitioners need to explain the boundaries for behaviour to children for them to encourage self control and enable them to think about their behaviour. Giving ‘time out’ has been seen to discourage this. (Bruce 2005:47)

The Nativist approach believes that children are ‘pre programmed’ and will ‘unfold’ in their development. (Bruce 2005:3) This approach sees the adult role as a facilitator offering help but not controlling learning. Rousseau’s approach can be seen in today’s view of adults observing and monitoring the early learning goals. He suggested that play was ‘instinctive’.

The interactionist approach views children as partly pre programmed and partly blank slates. Kant originated this approach, and believed the adults’ role in supporting learning was to provide a suitable learning environment to explore. He also states that adults should supervise and assist when required. This view can be seen through the curriculum today which offers both adult led and child led activities. The importance of interactions between children and adults, through sustained shared thinking, is highlighted in projects like EPPE (2003) as discussed in child and childhoods.

The different approaches discussed can be seen to have had an impact in practice throughout today’s education, it is important that practitioners have a good knowledge of these approaches in order to understand how best to support learning.

Historically all children play unless there are factors that prevent them from doing so, such as children’s health or living conditions. During the 18th Century children were sent to work, so would have had little time to play, however, this does not mean they did not. Play in the 1920’s was a form of relaxation which was considered to be practice for life. (Bruce 2005). More recent thinking understands play as problem solving and creativity.

Play underpins the delivery of the statutory framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage, which aims to help children achieve the five Every Child Matters outcomes of staying safe, being healthy, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and achieving economic well being. (Dfes 2007:7) It suggests the role of the practitioner is one of observing and using the information gained to plan for children’s next steps in learning. Children need a challenging and interesting environment with a balance of adult led and child initiated activities, in order to problem solve and investigate through their play. It is the practitioners’ role to create and maintain this environment so that children develop their communication and creative skills. Children’s achievements are collected over time and learning diaries are produced, unlike the EYFS profiles (2003) these diaries have no emphasis put on testing children.

Montessori’s approach values the child, the environment and the teacher. She believed children were spontaneous learners needing adult support during periods of development. She stated the adults’ role was

“to ensure that the environment provides for the developmental needs of each individual child; observation serves as the key tool for establishing these developmental needs” (Isaacs 2007:13)

She believed in ‘scaffolding’ children’s learning. In her opinion the role of the adult was to consider health and safety in the provision and to provide defined spaces for learning experiences and problem solving activities. She considered the child could lose their freedom if adults were too communicative with them. She stated that practitioners needed to have a sound understanding of child development and an ability to understand the need for real life experiences. Although her approach gives time for children to explore with little adult intervention she considered play to be unnecessary, believing toys were tools to enable learning. Her approach however, contrasts with the views of the EYFS, which states the importance of learning through play and the significance of social interactions between adults and children.

Bruner suggests that good practitioners tune into the ‘incipient intention of the child and act accordingly’. (Bruce 2001:53) suggesting the child’s developing plan or aim should be observed and then supported and encouraged. He values play and considers that when children play with other children this emphasises the importance of social and emotional well being and interactions. He stresses the importance of turn taking and social rules. He states that in a role play situation children are able to use problem solving and increase in language acquisition. He experimented using two groups; one being taught, the other playing and concluded that the group allowed to play outperformed the taught group as they were able to explore and problem solve. He views the adult role as ‘scaffolding’ the child through their development by starting where the child is and supporting them to move on.

A more recent view by Moyles (2001) considers there are emotional, physical and intellectual values in supporting learning through play. She describes four principles of play, as being functional, constructive, rule governed and socio-dramatic. In a recent study she found that effective practitioners are able to use their knowledge to support children’s learning by building on what children can do and by evaluating the process of observations and planning for next steps. She states that children should be supported in their play and practitioners should value the input by parents.

It is important to be clear that play is not in place of planning, or indeed an easy option. ‘Teachers TV’ discusses how practitioners should inform parents about the importance of play and how children’s learning can be supported. Practitioners need to communicate with children in ways they understand, if children feel secure and relaxed they will become active learners who develop independence. Adult support in Early Years education is important in that it may be the first time a child has played alongside others, Key people offer support to children and their families during their time at pre schools and work in partnership to inform planning and extend a child’s interests and learning.

The 1967 Plowden report considers the individual child and building on what they already know and understand. It states practitioners should have a flexible approach to the curriculum and monitor the environment. It states that play is central to children’s growth and development. The report is critical of testing and figures, stating “not assume that only what is measurable is valuable”. However, in 1976 the curriculum was shaped by political forces which discarded the ‘child centred’ opinion of the Plowden report. The Thatcher years produced good test results in schools and with it the added pressures from OFSTED to use league tables and highlight results. New labour continued with this by introducing the literacy and numeracy hour. It was not until 20 years later that ‘child centred’ education was highlighted again.

The Rumbold report (Des 1990) states play as being an important part in children’s learning, and states that practitioners need to be sensitive and know when to intervene and become involved in children’s play. It states that children should be given time to play. Practitioners should watch children and use these observations to inform planning for assessment and extend learning. (Macleod-Brudenell 2004:227) In order to achieve this, the adult needs to plan the environment so children can explore, practice ideas, interact, take risks, think imaginatively, express anxieties or fears and communicate with others. Steiner considers the whole child, and believes that an important factor in children’s development is the social interactions children have with others. Through play he believes children can develop their feelings and ideas and make good relationships with others. He believes the adult should be supportive and not to use play as a tool to get a pre determined outcome as it will deprive children of freedom to choose open ended creative play. He states the adults’ role is to teach by example not instruction.

Froebel considered the natural, spiritual, emotional and intellectual aspects of child development and states the important factor is to ‘begin where the learner is’ (Bruce 2005 :26) He believed that through play the adult can observe what is needed to support and extend learning. However, Froebel’s work could be criticised because he limited his research to boys. He states that play is central to pedagogy. Froebel made a distinction between play and work and considers

“play is what children are involved in when they initiate the task and work is what they do when they fulfil a task required by an adult” (Bruce 2005:19)

Which shows that when a child is asked to do complete something by an adult, it means the child loses possession of their original idea.

Role play can happen anywhere and is unrestrictive and impulsive. It is important for children to be able to imitate and explore the world around them. Children can be imaginative and creative in their play and escape into fantasy worlds. Children interact with each other and often play above their actual age, as suggested by Vygotsky. (MacLeod-Brudenell 2004:213) Practitioners should offer props to promote role play and through observing and supporting will have an understanding of when to become involved in their play. Inclusive practice involves practitioners offering ideas and asking open ended questions to extend children’s learning, communication and language skills. Research shows that sustained shared thinking is important in extending children’s learning and by practitioners having a special partnership with children in their settings. (EYFS 4.3) Therefore in order for the children to learn through role play adults need to respect and value the children’s play and consider the child’s ideas and interests. As Inclusion is paramount to practice practitioners should be aware of discriminatory play and intervene sensitively if encountered. Sustained shared thinking is the process of working together to develop ideas and enable children to make connections in their learning. By using sustained shared thinking in play the adult can support the child’s thought process. Through an awareness of the child’s interests the practitioner can offer encouragement and ask open ended questions to support and extend learning.

Piaget, a constructivist, considered how children played for enjoyment, and believed children ‘assimilate’ or incorporate new knowledge with what they already know. This absorbing of experiences is described as ‘schema’, where patterns of repeated behaviour help the child learn. He believed children had to work through stages to learn, where they could experiment and explore. He suggested older children no longer need play as have developed abstract thinking. This view can be seen in today’s education associated with key stages, where more emphasis has been given to play in the Early Years Foundation Stage. The National curriculum and EYFS reflect the Governments strategies to enable all children to access a relevant and balanced curriculum. (Moyles 2007:4) Since 1995 the law states children have to be assessed at age 7 and aged 11 and throughout the Early Years practitioners complete assessment files based on the early learning goals.

Learning matters criticises Piaget’s approach by stating he may have lacked knowledge of the social impact, as children who are from different cultures, gender, race or social classes may need help to learn.

Recent research into perspectives used in Early Years education has shown that there is a significant lack of information concerning learning through a child’s viewpoint. Lindon, (2001) states practitioners should value the opinions of children and be more receptive to their views.

More recent thinking by Chris Athey (1990) a constructivist, considers that schemas help children think for themselves and can be used to support and extend learning through play. She states practitioners should work in partnership with parents in sharing experiences and children’s interests. She believes children are active learners.

http://www.nurseryworld.co.uk/news/719740/Train-thought (15/1/10)

Vygotsky’s ‘zone of proximal development’ considered that in play children behave beyond their age. He believed children learn more from child initiated play as he believed children set their own levels in control of learning (Bruce 2005: 64). He understood the need for an environment that had clear boundaries for children, with adults who respond effectively and help children to think for themselves. He suggests play to have the skills children need to reach their potential. He believes children acquire language and learn through role play and through social and cultural interactions, stating the role of the adult is through guidance.

Learning matters is critical of Vygotsky ‘s views of ‘zones’ as they consider them to be vague in their definitions. It is understood that the zones describe the adults’ role in supporting and extending what the child can do.

Research has shown that children develop through adult’s interacting with them. Adults can support learning through ‘contingent response’ where adults react sensitively to children’s behaviour. Children are seen to benefit from the social and emotional contacts with adults. Practitioners should actively respond to children’s positive behaviour and play giving praise and approval. Through the use of books, media and use appropriate language and communication practitioners support play and extend learning.

It has been suggested by Postman that Childhood is disappearing, children have less freedom and less places to play. TV and computer technology has advanced and children are encouraged by their parents to stay in because of parental fear for their children’s safety. However, the Government’s ‘play strategy’ intends to improve and develop play facilities throughout the country.

Practitioners should observe and use their knowledge to plan and provide for all individual children. Children who have any additional need which may include disability or a condition that affects their learning or development may need extra help within the provision. The Children’s Act of 1989 discusses that practitioners need to identify ‘in need’ children, support their development and enable all children to participate in all areas within the provision. (Bruce 2005:40). The Act states that, children ‘in need’ be categorised according to their specific needs. Early years Action is based on existing knowledge within the provision. If external support is needed the child is considered to be Early Years Action Plus. Therefore, practitioners need to be able to identify and support children. Individual play plans are useful in considering intended learning objectives and desired outcomes over a short period. Through play, practitioners can identify a child’s interests, adapt the environment and modify activities to support the child. With support from parents the child’s development can be monitored and reviewed. It is important to monitor and evaluate the curriculum linking this with children’s individual progress. Practitioners support children by formative assessment, whereby they collect information about individual children over a period of time, and summative assessment where they bring everything learnt about each child and decide on their next steps in learning. It is important that practitioners working with other professionals communicate and share information regarding children with additional needs.

Children with Autism need more adult support within a provision to enable them to learn through play. The practitioner can use ‘symbolic’ play to help the child develop skills needed to extend learning, as children with autism do not tend to use pretend play they use functional or repetitive play. The adults’ role is very important in helping the child to focus and become motivated. The practitioner can teach social skills by involving other children in play. It is important that practitioners offer resources that promote symbolic play throughout the provision. Play therapists use symbolic play to help children cope with fears or problems, as they are able to express feelings. Research evidence shows that children’s level of involvement in an activity is an indicator of their current levels of learning and development. (Moyles 2006) However, it is important that information is collected by multiple professionals before any judgements are made.

The reflective practitioner considered how an over stimulating environment as stated by Elizabeth Jarman has an adverse effect on children’s learning. Therefore practitioners need to provide an environment that is accessible for all children and is interesting and enjoyable. Through quality improvement the provision is monitored and checked to see if the Every Child Matters outcomes are covered in planning.

Practitioners who regularly reflect on practice and keep up to date with research can make improvements to how observations and planning is done and therefore extend children’s learning and development through play. Recent studies have shown how observations are useful in interpreting behaviours and understanding interests. (Maynard 2009:207) It considered what children like to explore and time spent at activities, as well as the social interactions and attachments made. Although target setting and literacy and numeracy strategies have meant there are more pressures put on teaching staff and children, it has been researched that less emphasis should be put on measurable results, tick charts and making children complete activities to get results. Practitioners now observe and use these observations to inform individual planning to extend a child’s learning through play. Good quality teaching occurs when there is a good knowledge of how to observe play, knowing when to intervene and how to interact to extend learning. Through quality improvement the provision is monitored to make sure the Every Child Matters Outcomes are covered in planning.

In conclusion play and the adults’ role in supporting learning through play has extremely important benefits for children’s happiness, physical, cognitive and social development. Childcare settings should be welcoming, have sufficient resources, practitioners should be good role models and allow children time for uninterrupted play. (Bruce 2001) Research has shown that interrupting children’s play affects cooperation and social interactions. (Broadhead 2004:3)

Play can happen anywhere and is unrestrictive and impulsive. Children concentrate for long periods in their play, if given time to do so. Through play children can relax and let their imaginations create anything they choose.

It is known children are active learners, who learn best when allowed to become deeply involved in their chosen activities. To become independent learners’ practitioners should let children investigate and problem solve for themselves. (Whitebread 2003:17) With highly qualified and experienced practitioners guiding and supporting them they can experiment and develop skills needed to help them move on in their learning. Practitioners should be good role models as suggested by Owen, who nurture children and provide a stimulating environment which is free flow. Trained practitioners are aware of the individual needs of the children in their care and understand the importance of play based learning. It is therefore, the role of the practitioner to plan, support, intervene when necessary and extend children’s learning. (Macleod-Brudenell 2004:50)

Practitioners who regularly monitor the provision reflect upon theories and choose which seem ‘fit for purpose’ as they extend learning as ‘learning matters’ describes, practitioners should consider

“sometimes pointing out new horizons, sometimes setting a challenge, sometimes gently guiding and sometimes leaving well alone”

Therefore, the practitioner has multiple roles in supporting learning through play. They are described as being ‘facilitators’ enabling learning to happen. They ‘scaffold’ and support learning and development. They provide an encouraging environment for learning to occur and are able to adapt responsively to the needs of individual children. However, they should have regard for maintaining a balance of adult and child led activities. It is important for practitioners to understand how children learn and the significance of theoretical approaches. They should also realise the importance of emphasising play.

Resilience as described by many writers is a complex term and therefore needs to be understood in the context. Resilience is normally sought in the child, family and community (Phillips, G. 2008). As professionals, attending training courses helps us to seek something that may assist us in our understanding of those areas. This keeps us in seeking mood and all the time, we tend to keep attention outside ourselves. When we as practitioners recognise resilience in ourselves, we can them be able to facilitate resiliency, thereby linking theory to practice (Phillips, G. (2008).

DEFINING RESILIENCE

There are many definitions of resilience by different authors. In this context therefore, resilience is defined by Share and Lowlor (2009: 269) as ‘ability to thrive, mature and increase competences in the face of adverse circumstances’. Overall, when loved one’s absence or presence remains a mystery, meaning and purpose are essential to finding the health and life. After 9/11, some survivors believed that their loved one’s being in the Twin Towers at the time of the attack was predestined or God’s will. Many who believed this continue to trust in God to see them through their travels while they move forward with their lives (Boss, P 2006:97). Some characteristics associated with resilient children include cognitive proficiency (especially intellectual curiosity and problem solving), autonomy, good social skills and internal locus of control (Share and Lowlor (2009: 269).

‘Resilience is the capacity to transcend adversity – may be seen as the essential quality with care planning and provision should seek to stimulate as a key outcome of the care offered’ (Gilligan, R. 1997: 14)

It is suppressing how resilient people are despite having experienced high risk situation, such as war, disaster, loss, and adversity during childhood and adolescence (Waaktaar, T. Chrisrtie, H, J. Borge, A. Torgersen, S. 2004: 164).

Adult who promote resilience make family and institutional supports available to children. They empower children to become independent, responsible, and empathic at altruistic and to approach people and situation with hope, faith and trust (John, M. 1997: 24). However, adults can help children identify resilience behaviours more easily in themselves and others, such as using vocabulary to reinforce these feeling and beliefs that promote resilience and to guide their own children’s behaviour. Therefore, the greater their opinion for acting in the ways that help children met situation such as crisis in their lives with greater strength and hope John, M 1997: 26). Therefore, the most critical key to resiliency is the ability to hold two opposing ideas at the same time. Whatever part is taken, the search for the meaning is much more difficult when the loss is unclear (Boss, P. 2006: 97).

THREE THEORIES OF RESILIENCE

(1) The Child’s Sense of a Secure Base : The growth of a child is influenced by secure attachments which supply him/her with a reliable secure base (Bowlby 1988). Furthermore, it encourages and renders safe exploration of the child’s inner world. A young person’s sense of secure base therefore is cultivated by a sense of belonging within supportive social networks, attachment relationships to reliable and responsible people and by routine and structures in their lives (Gilligan, R. 1997: 15-16).

However, I HAVE factors is one of the external supports and resources that promote resilience in children according to John, M. (1997: 26-27). I HAVE factors includes: trusting relationships, (parents, other family members, teachers, and friends who love and have the interest and welfare of the child), structures and rules at home, (parents who provides rules and routine expects the child to follow them, for example, the task the child is expected to perform, when the rule is broken, the child is helped to understand what he/she did wrong). Others includes: access to health, education, welfare and security services which is available to the child.

(2) The Child’s Self Esteem: this is based on person’s sense of their own worthiness and competences. Rutter (1990) came up with two types of experience which is important in influencing self esteem in young children and they are, secure and harmonious love relationship, and success in accomplishing tasks by others as central to their interests. Also success in an endeavour which the person values may do much to combat a sense of failure in other spheres of one’s life (Rutter, 1990 cited Gilligan, R. 1997:17). Therefore, factors such as I AM are the child’s internal and personal strengths. These are feelings, attitudes, and beliefs within the child, for example, a resilient child would say: I am proud of myself: this means the child knows that he/she is an important individual and is proud of who he/she is and what he/she is capable of doing and can achieve. I am autonomous and responsible: the child can do a lot with his/her initiative and be responsible and accountable for his/her actions or mistakes. I am filled with hope, faith, and trust: the child knows and believes that he/she has hope and there are people and institution which he/she can trust and have faith in. Finally, the child will realise that he/she is loveable and his/her temperament is appealing, he/she is loving, empathic and altruistic (John, M. 1997: 28).

(3) Sense of Self Efficacy: this is a situation were parenting style influences whether a child acquires a sense of internal control with regards to attaining desired outcomes. Some factors which promote child’s self efficacy includes the parent / caregiver beliefs in the child’s own sense of control, responsiveness, consistency, warmth, praise, support and encouragement to the child’s to engage / participate in his/her environment (Sandler et al, 1989 cited Gilligan, R. 1997: 17).

Moreover, I CAN factor helps to promote the child’s sense of efficacy because; it is the child’s social and interpersonal skills. Children acquire these skills by constant interaction with others and those who educate them, for example, a resilient child would say: I can communicate: at this stage, the child expresses thoughts and feelings, also be empathetic towards others. I can solve problem: the child can assess a situation of a problem, finds out what needs to be done to resolve the issues and if help is needed form others. Also I can manage my feelings and impulses; I can gauge the temperature of myself and others, and finally seek trusting relationship (John, M. 1997: 29).

PRACTICAL WAYS OF PROMOTING RESILIENCE

In promoting resilience, any work with children must be similarly in the contexts of their families, school, communities, and the large society (Grotherg, E, H. 2003: 5) Therefore, as a social care practitioner, it is important to know that we are only able to influence that portion of resilience that is amenable to influence through social experience. We cannot affect the degree of resilience that a person has temperamentally due to what they have inherited through their genes (Gilligan, R 2001: 6).

As a Social Worker, we can encourage purposeful contact between the child, the family, and other key adults for the child’s past, encourage positive school experience, encourage friendships with peers, actively foster interest, strong social network, involvement and talents in sports, music, hobbies or cultural pursuits, help the child to rehearse, and discuss problem solving and coping skills and strategies. Also, each of these I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN factors suggest numerous actions children, parent / caregiver, and practitioner can take to promote resilience (Gilligan, R. 1997: 18-21)

This Scenario was adopted from the International Resilience Project by Grotberg, E, H. (2003: 30)

A nine year old boy went out of the house even after his father told him not to go out. The father did not know about this until he realized it was late and the boy was not at home.

You will promote resilience if you talk to him when he returns and ask why he broke the rules (I HAVE); if you make clear that his behaviour is not acceptable even with his excuses, and that he is responsible for what he did (I AM); and if you talk with him about what needs to be done to prevent this kind of behaviour in the future (I CAN). He will learn from his experience to use resilience to face this adversity, to learn from it, and to behave in a more responsible way in the future. You do not promote resilience if you yell at him or spank him when he comes home, and accuse him of being a bad boy. Then you make him feel guilty, but resentful, and you have given him a label of ‘bad boy’, which will influence his idea of himself in the future. He will have difficulty dealing with a future adverse situation, even one that he creates, because he lacks resilience and none is being promoted.

“The most difficult thing is not spending enough time with my dad really. He might like expect me to phone him, but he’s a parent so he should be taking care of me and phone me. If he really cared he’d phone me every weekend and see how I was getting on at school, spend time with me and help me to do my course work (“What Children from Single Parent Families Have to Say” 13). This is what a typical child living in a single parent family might say when he feels ignored by one of his parents. This could be shocking to some people who believe that single parenthood doesn’t greatly affect a child’s life or attitude (McLanaham 1). But the fact is that not all children who grow up in single parent families are able to maintain a successful life, most of these children might suffer from great difficulties in making a transition to adulthood (Mather 1). These children are more vulnerable to poverty which increases the dangers of growing up in a single parent household to more than just economical ones. Poverty might even cause an increase in the risks of dropping out of school, disconnecting from labor forces, and ending up as a thieves stuck in a room with not even a single parent aside (Mather 1). Early studies suggest that growing up with one parent had no long term effects on the child, but more recent reports show that the effects of parental breakup might sometimes extend to having the children intentionally damage their bodies and some might even commit suicide due to major psychiatric diseases (Single-parent Children at Increased Risk of Suicide). Adolescents who had grown up with only one of their parents during their childhood are twice as likely to suffer from poverty, have low academic achievements, and suffer from low levels of social and emotional well-being (McLanaham 1).

Poverty is one of the main problems that most single-parent children suffer from. Unlike children living with a regular family, single-parent children usually have only one parent to provide income (Family and Community 10). Without the support of their husbands, single mothers face a difficult challenge in maintaining a stable economy for their family. These mothers have limited financial sources and can’t easily afford to cover their children’s education, child care, and health care costs (Mather 2). For this reason, most of them tend to live with their parents or with other relatives to gain their financial support (Mather 2). Some of these mothers tend to find another option which is returning to school and resuming their education in order to find adequate jobs with reasonable salaries (Family and Community 10). If the father was too busy to take care of his recent family, he should at least ensure that his child’s mother has a good educational rank and good job trainings to ensure that his children successfully pass to the stage of adulthood (Mather). He can’t just leave everything on the mother; he has major responsibilities which he should never ignore towards a child which is in total need of both of his parents.

Most parents miss the fact that their children could understand all what is going on around them; these children realize that their parent can’t afford all what they need and crave for. As a result, they try to minimize their requests and stick to demanding for nothing but the necessities. In a way or another, the children become the ones nurturing their parent instead of them being the ones nurtured. These children’s parent often has no enough money to afford the cost of school trips or any extra activities which blocks any attempt of being able to build any social relationship, what’s amazing and shocking at the same time about most of these children is that they rarely complain and don’t ask for more than what’s available (“What Children from Single Parent Families Have to Say” 25). Poverty could thus damage both financial and social aspects of a child’s life.

Many factors play important roles in the children’s development and affect the way they think and act. These factors include neighborhood characteristics, schools, and peer networks. But the most important factor which affects the child’s growth is the parents themselves who provide the major source of social support in the children’s lives (Mather 1). With the mothers busy finding a way to provide income for their children, the child grows not only with a single parent but also with no parents at all, and the bad effects are thus doubled. These children always demand contact with the non-resident parent and complain about the way he/she is ignoring their presence. Their biggest concerns are the problems among their resident parent, their non-resident parent, and themselves (“What Children from Single Parent Families Have to Say” 13). They always think about every fight that happens and they even sometimes blame themselves. In addition to spending no time with their parents, these children also spend no time with their friends. The lack of money they face causes them difficulties in getting along with their peers; they feel excluded when their friends do activities that require money which they themselves don’t have (“What Children from Single Parent Families Have to Say” 25).

After having suffered from poverty at an early age, children in single parent households become more vulnerable to mental and psychiatric diseases (Single-parent children at increased risk of suicide). The simplest problems could appear as major ones in their view; they need much more care and attention than other children. But the painful fact is that not only do these children face financial poverty, but also time poverty; they repeatedly complain about how much they need attention from their parent who always comes tired from work and needs a long relaxing sleep (“What children from single parent families have to say” 14). These parents can’t realize the fact that their supervision of their children at this stage is extremely important to enhance their well-being. This single parent has less time to monitor his/her children closely, and eventually he/she knows nothing about where his/her children are, who they are with, and what they’re doing (Why Single Parenthood Affects Children 24). Some of these children take advantage of this situation and commit actions like suicide in order to escape from what they think is an unbearable situation (Single-parent Children at Increased Risk of Suicide). This lack of parental monitoring terribly affects the child’s behavior and causes him lots of psychological and emotional problems. Whether or not their mother was remarried, these children are susceptible to the risk of depression which increases with the increase of conflicts among their biological parents (Kawachi et al).

With all the problems they are facing, single parents obviously have no time to get involved in their children’s school activities and usually have no enough money to set high academic goals for their children. These are the major factors which are well known to endanger the academic achievement of children. The more the parents are involved in their children’s school, the less are the problems that their children face in their education. With the lack of a stable educational background, these children face many difficulties in being enrolled in quality universities and eventually in finding quality jobs (Why Single Parenthood Affects Children 24). The poverty of their parents affects their educational achievements in different manners; the ones who grow up poor mostly have lower literacy rates, higher rates of dropping out of school, and even higher delinquency rates (The Causes and Consequences of Children’s Poverty).

The minds of these children are often busy with their parents’ problems and they have no time to think about their school or about anything related to their education. They are full of nothing but psychological problems and free of academic aspirations. Most of them face difficulties in attending school and thinking about anything other than their parents’ divorce. With all the stress upon them, their academic achievements become less and eventually end up having them drop out of school. While going through a divorce, parents should pay close attention to their children to make sure that they face a low amount of stress. They have to make sure that their children understand very well that they will do anything to reduce the impact of divorce upon their lives (Hawkins). Anger might overcome these children and lead to severe problems at school, some of them might not be able to control their anger and engage in fights with their schoolmates because they only want someone to argue with to relief themselves; they even sometimes engage in fights with their teachers. The more the time he gets involved in fights, the less the time he spends in classroom (Hawkins).

But the fact is that many children raised by single parent mothers grow up to be quite successful. These children are probably the ones who had responsible parents who knew how to treat their children in order to sustain a peaceful life. If this parent took his child out for dinner of even sat with him peacefully on the dinner table in an attempt to listen, his child might happily seize this chance and complain about all what he’s suffering from instead of committing suicide or tearing his skin apart. One hour per day is quite enough to solve the child’s social issues. As for the parent living in poverty, keep it to yourself and never complain about this problem near your children even if you have to live without many things that you are used to. When the children see their parents suffering, they might blame themselves and think that they are the reason for their parents’ depression. Try to find ways to afford even the simplest school trips to help your children fit into the outside world and forget about living with a single parent. It would be a responsible act of the parent if he/she gives his/her child’s school a visit once per week to ask about his/her academic performance and to check whether he/she is facing problems. Single-parenting is not a disaster if the parents were responsible and knew how to act.

Positive reinforcement is the conveyance of a stimulus that has the preferred effect on strengthening a certain behavior while punishment is the introduction of a stimulus that has an effect of declining certain behavior. Positive reinforcement is a method applied to strengthen good deeds and do away with bad behavior in children. Positive reinforcement also instills a sense of self-worth and inspires self-belief in children. The most common forms of positive reinforcement given to children include, praising or rewarding a child which raises the child chance of cleaning his/her room.

Punishment is used to refer to addition of something aversive so as to discourage the behavior. The most general case involves reprimanding a child for disobedience. The reason why the children change behavior after a punishment is that they always relate reprimanding with negative behavior. Since children fear reprimanding children therefore avoid involving in negative behavior which calls for punishments.

Positive reinforcements versus punishments as means for learning

Proponents of positive reinforcements argue that use of reprimanding to boost learning in children is an aversive method that is painful and uncomfortable. According to (Coon, 2005), people and conditions related with punishments have a tendency of becoming feared, disliked and relented. This aversive attitude of punishments makes it particularly poor as means used to for making children to learn. When used as a means to promote learning in children, punishments will only instill fear and children will not be willing to learn.

Supporters of positive reinforcement suggest that positive attention can be used to keep improving the children’s behavior. Natrajan, (2003), argues that a parent might try to set future goals with the child and this promotes the child to learn quickly. On the contrary, punishments instill fear in the children and they develop a low regard on any goal that might be set by the parent. Natrajan, (2003), further argues that punishments cannot be used in goal setting.

Positive reinforcements can work well with children by giving them tangible items or praising child for a task well done or even a hug. The children will learn to improve their behavior since they like rewards and gifts. Advocates of punishments argue that, when children get used to being rewarded with tangible items in order to involve in positive behaviors. In such a situation rewards and gifts can become a problem when they are too expensive for the parent to provide. According to Natrajan, (2003), gifts and rewards can be ineffective in promoting learning in children since children can develop an attitude that they have to be given rewards in order to perform specific tasks. In addition, advocating for a rewarding culture in children does not instill a sense of responsibility in them and children learn to perform tasks only because they expect to be paid.

Advocates of positive reinforcement also argued that parents have been worried that positive attention might lead to ruining their children. However, supporters of positive reinforcement have maintained that positive attention encourages the children to yearn doing good in order to get support of parents. Proponents of positive attention, argue that rewards or commending children can ruin them only when given while not due.

Proponents of positive reinforcements suggest that it would work well when a parent notices her child wrong things, by commenting something negative about the behavior. According, to Natrajan, (2003), such a comment from a parent might act as a reward for the undesirable behavior and the child will change since the children have realized the parent is not happy with the behavior. Supporters of positive reinforce also advocate for a parent to wait and notice when the child does something right and takes the opportunity to explain the wrong behavior.

Proponents of positive reinforcements argue that when commending the child the focus should be on the parent’s feeling rather than criticizing the child. An example is when a parent notices her child assisting another child in a home care, the parent should commend the child with words such as “that makes meaˆ¦..proud of you.”In such a situation the child feels esteemed and this promotes the good behavior.

Advocates of punishments suggest that while using punishments as a means of teaching children, then, the punishments should be mild. According to, (Coon, 2005), when the punishments are too mild they can become ineffective. For instance, a child who is fond of snatching toys form her sister should not only be punished but the sister should also be congratulated for sharing toys with the others. According to, (Coon, 2005), reprimanding informs the person the response was not right but it does give the person the direction of the right thing.

In circumstances that pose immediate hazard to children, like a situation where a child reaches for something hot or a picking a toy that rolls in the middle of the road, mild reprimanding will be applicable to stop disaster. Reprimanding in such circumstances works best if it produces actions that are incompatible with the response the individual wants to suppress. For instance, when a child stretches his/her hand to reach a hot stove, its best to reprimand the child by slapping the outstretched hand so that it is withdrawn immediately.

Advocates of punishments argue that reprimanding lowers the possibility that a response will be repeated. According to (Coon, 2005), for punishments to be effective they need to be given after the undesired response takes place. A punishment works effectively by reducing the frequency of occurrence of the undesirable behavior.

According to (Coon, 2005), the effectiveness of punishments in bringing to an end the undesirable behavior depends on their timing, strength and regularity. Reprimanding work best when it takes place when undesirable behavior is being witnessed and immediately afterwards and when it is applied each time such a response occurs.

Advocates of punishments suggest that severe reprimanding following a situation that could have resulted to danger is extremely effective in bringing to an end to a behavior. For example, when a 12 year old child gets a shock by putting his/her finger in a light socket that may be the last time the child ever tries such. In many situations reprimanding on temporarily only suppress the behavior and responses restrained by mild punishments more often than not resurface.

Supporters of positive reinforcements, according to Perry, (1973), argue that reprimanding cannot eliminate such vices like lying in children. Rutter, (1987), maintains that reprimanding only motivates the children to be better at lying and use the refined lying skills to other situations in which lying may advance their interests. He further adds that when children become experts in lying there is no any height of punishments that will change their behavior.

According to (Rutter, 1987), use of positive reinforcement is more effective in stimulating learning in children than use of caning. For example, offering a piece of candy for a child who scores high marks on a test promotes the child to do better in future tests. In addition, use of verbal praise, such as telling the child “well done my child” stimulates a child to improve the performance in future tests.

Advocates of punishments argue that reprimanding is stronger and lasts for a long time as compared to positive reinforcement. According to (Coon, & Mitterer, 2008), in case a parent has a particular task which they wish their children to perform, and after accomplishing the task badly they are reprimanded on the other hand when they do them well they are reinforced mildly and they will accomplish the task mediocre. According to (Perry, 1973), when a parent displays discontent with the child when the accomplishment is poor then, the children are likely to change the situation.

Cameron (2006), argues that the society has used punishments rather than positive reinforcements to promote desirable behavior although the results have not always been positive. Teachers have been known to reprimand children who do not complete their homework with the hope that students will be able grow a sense of accountability for their work. In addition, Cameron (2006), argues that parents condemn their children’s working routines so that they can instill high standard of success. Punishment systems have been created and maintained as means of accomplishing aims of high output, contentment with success, concern for others and so on.

Use of punitive means as a means to encourage learning should not be used since reprimanding is among the main source of external have power over peoples characters. Cameron (2007), argues that since disciplinary means have resulted to serious negative effects has lead to society condemning the usage of any external form of influence. Many researchers have also condemned use of punishment as a means of learning since it involves external control of human behavior and has negative effects. Punishments should not be used as a means to promote learning since students enjoy school environment and work hard particularly when there is a properly set positive reinforce system. Children admire and enjoy learning do so without being punished. Positive reinforcement works by making children self-motivated to accomplish their goals.

Advocates of positive reinforcement argue, punishments should not be used promote learning, since use of punitive systems has not been able to encourage learning but instead it has resulted to bitterness, sense of low self-worth, dissatisfaction and attempts to overthrow those in power. Cameron (2007) argues that use of disciplinary means has backfired.

Typically children, learn by early interactions with the caregivers to use socially appropriate skills to meet their needs. According to Stormont et al., (2007), this pattern of communication is governed by principles of positive reinforcements. This principle of positive reinforcement demonstrates that when the character is contingently obeyed by an object or events find strengthening, they are likely to continue to use the behavior. For instance majority of the children have continued to request for an item using polite language like please and this behavior reform those who comply.

Advocates positive reinforcements argue that use of punishment to enhance learning in children is an aversive method that is painful and uncomfortable. According to (Coon, 2005), people and conditions related with punishments have a tendency of becoming feared, disliked and relented. This aversive attitude of reprimanding makes it particularly poor as means used to for making children to learn.

Advocates of positive reinforcements suggest that, it is among the best method of instilling a learning behavior in children. According to (Rutter, 1987), when positive reinforcements are used correctly, it can have good results in influencing children behavior. Rutter, (1987), further maintains that children adapt quickly and are willing to act in behaviors that are desired by their parents.

Supporters of positive reinforcement in addition imply that use of reprimanding should be discouraged in children upbringing. Hawes& Shores (2001), also support that yelling to children when they have been found involved in undesirable behavior as a form of punishment. The advocates of positive reinforcement argue that instead of yelling at children’s for wrong doing, parents should reward them when the behavior is desirable so that the rewards add to stimulate the good behavior.

Advocates of punishments as a means to promote learning suggest that reprimanding should be used as a means of training when children display risky and dangerous behavior. Perry (1973), maintains that a parent cannot use positive reinforcement such as a reward to bring an end to dangerous behavior running into traffic. Use of punishment would be the best remedy to discourage such wrong behavior.

Supporters of punishments have also suggested that very negative reprimanding to be effective is changing children behavior. If two children are fighting over a toy, the best remedy to bring an end to the fight over the toy would be by removing the toy (Perry, 1973).

Advocates of positive reinforcement argue that among the benefits of using positive reinforcement particularly in a classroom setup is that children become more attentive and take more interest in learning. Contrary, to this when the cane is applied to reprimand wrong responses; the children develop fear of participating actively in classrooms. Hawes, & Shores (2001), maintain that when children are commended or rewarded with touchable items for right answers they develop desire to learn and enhanced participation in classroom.

Advocates of positive reinforcements argue against using punishments as a mode of instilling behavioral change in children. Rutter (1987) suggests that positive reinforcement is a better psychological means of bring out behavior change in children and at the same time it’s simpler to utilize. According to (Perry, 1973), parents are required to weigh the consequences of using punishments and those of positive reinforce and then make the best choice.

My own view is that I support the use punishment when children engage in wrong behaviors. According to the Bible ‘spare the rod and spoil the child’ suggests that children should be reprimanded in order to stop undesirable behavior. Considerable punishment need to be applied to bring about behavioral change. The timing and intensity of the punishments should be dependent upon specific stimulus expected from children. For example, if a parent finds a 12 year putting objects in power socket, the child should be reprimanded and informed of hazards of electricity. The choices of whether to use positive reinforcement or punishments depend on the parent or the caregiver.

The primary purpose of this essay is to describe and discuss the positive influence of video games on children. This study also considers the question of how influence video games children and what the positive effects of videos games on children.

Some people want to play video games which causes many negative side effects on children, but video games can also be good for developing cognitive, physical, and many more hidden skills. Furthermore, they can also be cheaper than television. Although there are the negative side effects of video games, I have found evidence of many positive effects games have on children. Video games are looked down upon by parents as time waster, and worse, some education experts think that these games corrupt the brain. Violent video games are readily blamed by the media and some experts as the reason why some youth become violent or commit extreme anti social behaviour. However, many scientists and psychologists find that video games can actually have many benefits, the main one being making kids smart. Video games may actually teach kids high-level thinking skill that they will need in the future.

In this essay, the purpose of the report and statement of the problem are explained beriefly. Moreover, Problem solving and logic, Skills Development, Building Self Esteem and another Positive Effects of Video Games are explained in this essay. When this essay is written, some publication is examined without plagiarism.

If closely watched, games can be more educational than TV. According to some gamers, they prefer playing games than watching TV, due to the interactivity. The cost of cable is also on the rise which goes to show that gaming, in the long run, is cheaper than TV. The child will want to solve the problem in the game because it intrests them more then a boring story problem at school. Games can help to improve motivation for children with learning disabilities by not only giving them a postive way to vent stress but lets the child see a problem visualy which can help them be more prosistent to solve a problem. Another positive effect of video games can also be used as a reward for good behavior or good grades in school, which motovates the child.

There are many cognitive skills you can learn from gaming such as quick thinking or processing information quickly and the skill to think about a number of things, at the same time. In shooting games, the character may be running and shooting at the same time. Video games children who play action based video and computer games make decision 25% faster than other children witout sacrificing accuracy. Other studies suggests that most expert gamer children can make choices and act on them up to six times a second and four times faster than most peopele, and can pay attention to more than six things at once without getting confused, compared to only four by the average person. Video games have found their use in schools as well as medical profession and the effects that they have made in these are certainly significant. Video games are known for their appeal to children, they can be naturally used for teaching, due to their interactive nature. They provide an effective teaching tool for schools. These schools use video games to engage children in an activity which requires them to perform a task repeated for their learning and are rewarded for their skills. Furthermore, video games have also been seen as a great help for children who are suffering with psychological problems such as inferiority complex and lack of self-confidence. For axample, psychological therapists have used video games as part of their treatment for children with such psychological problems. Furthermore, video game has many positive effects in student’s learning process and it also has benefits in real life. For instance, when you play a video game, it makes you think and increase your logic. There are many games that have strategic and puzzles genre, which is want us to think to solve the problem in the game, it needs accurate of our mind in order to not lose. It will benefit in real life of students or children if they are faced by a problem, Apart from student’s learning process, game also can increase concentrating of mind and sometimes increase our languages vocabularies. In fact, they also have many benefits for children and students in real life.

Another important positive effects of videos game are creative and fun intended. This offers a chance to foster the creativity potential amongst children. It teaches them some essential skills like strategic thinking, innovative thinking and co-operation. It also creates investigative skills amongst children. Some games also aids to the educational value. Children can learn calculations quickly and also develop an attitude which motivates them to always move ahead in life in order to achieve something.

Improves the Child’s Attention to Detail. Video games get children’s attention. Children can remember things they did in video games very easily. They want to win so they pay attention. This is one of the very positive effects of video games on children. Some of the mental skills enhanced by video games include which is planning, resource management and logistics. The player learns to manage resources that are limited, and decide the best use of resources, the same way as in real life. For example, developing reading and math skills that young gamers force themselves to read to get instructions, follow storylines of games, and get information from the game texts. Also, using math skills is important to win in many games that involves quantitative analysis like managing resources. Another mental skill is about Memory. For example, playing first person shooter games such as Call of Duty and Battlefield series enables players to effectively judge what information should be stored in their working memory and what can be discarded considering the task at hand, according to a study published in the Psychological Research.

To sum up, video games increase your kid’s self-confidence and self-esteem as he masters games. Your kid can transfer this attitude to real life and games that involve multiple players encourage your child to work cooperatively to achieve his goals. Your kid learns to listen to the ideas of others. Video games can make your kid creative. The best way to learn is when the learner is having fun at the same time and most of video game provide it to the children and video games allow you and your kid to play together and can be a good bonding activity and video games introduce your kid to computer technology and the online world. You should recognize that we are now living in a high tech, sophisticated world and with a good selection of games, the positive effects of video games on children can be gained. Finally I think, playing video games is safer than having your teens do drugs, alcohol and street racing in the real world.