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Play is prerequisite for growth and development throughout the lifespan. Normally we associate play with children but there is growing evidence that it is inextricably linked with happiness and identity. Probably the most persuasive evidence for the compelling nature of play in daily life is that provided by the Ethologists who have examined most mammals and demonstrated both the need for play to establish group affiliation and for peer acceptance (Gopink et al, 1999 p. 19) Without play the Macaque young, the chimpanzee and the gorilla all show the risk of group rejection, serious sexual difficulties and growth problems (Moyles, 1989, 2005).

Adult view children actively engaging in play from birth at any giving time or day, which takes us to the conclusion that plays, is natural for the young’s. Therefore, play is not just something like simple and trivial element in the formative years of the future citizens; instead, it plays the most important role in the entire process of human development (Christie, 1998; Frost et al, 2001; Shore, 1997).

Hence, this study explores the importance of play as an instrument to effectively develop children in the modern world, and bring justice to developmental process of the young. Since play has long been considered as an effective medium of child development and it contains a universal appeal too. Now it is the be determined how much effective it could be in handling children life and imbibing the right attitude in children to develop better knowledge and understanding of the world amid changes social and learning environment.

The Importance of Play

Almost all theorists of child development from all across the globe agree to the fact that that play occupies a central role in children’s lives and in the absence of play they suffer from multiple roadblocks on their way to attain healthy, emotionally balanced, and creative life (Bruce, 1996; Moyles, 2005). Psychoanalysts too corroborate the above view and suggest that play is an essential catalyst for not only overcoming emotional difficulties or disturbances evolving out of social situation, but also for achieving the mastery of ego and skills necessary to handle everyday experiences.(Miller et al, 1989, p.25)

Bruner (1976, 1977) point out to the importance of play by saying ‘animals do not play because they are young, but they have their youth because they must play’ (Bruner et al 1976, p. 67; Bruner, 1977), constructivists consider play as a basic ingredient in the process of cognitive growth and development of application, while behaviourists suggest that it is the key instrument for competency building and for socializing functions in all cultures of the world. From neuroscientists’ perspective, play is essential for emotional and physical health, motivation, and love of learning (Keenan, 2002).

Findings from the research on brain and learning clearly substantiated the importance of play (Jensen, 1999, 2000; Shore, 1997), where the researchers found that active brains make permanent neurological connections that are critical to learning; inactive brains do not make the necessary permanent neurological connections. Research on the mechanism of brain also demonstrates that play has a big platform for development, a comfortable vehicle for increasing neural structures, and a means by which all children practice several skills that remain with them for the rest of their lives and help them to carry on the process of refining behaviour and their understanding of the world, such as impulse and emotion control, self-guidance of thought and behaviour, planning, self-reliance, and socially responsible behaviour( Piers and Landau, 1980 ).

What is more, play has been undertaken for pure pleasure and enjoyment, such joyful attitude towards play leads to better attitude to life and learning. The latter, can be considered sufficient to place play in a valuable medium.

The EYFS (2007b) says that play underpins all development and learning for young children (DfES, 2007b). While this message is loud and clear in all recent policy statement and research, many people still refuse to come to terms with this fact. Play is a natural habitat for a child. Leavers (cited in Tovey, 2007) suggest that it is when children are most involved that deep level learning takes place, such learning takes place at many levels.

Children and Childhood

The definition of a child as stated in the dictionary, is a “person between birth and puberty; an immature person” (The American Heritage, Fourth edition). Through spending time with young children, adults will come to the understanding that the dictionary did not give the child his/her actual worthiness in this world.

Children are busy, curious, have a huge love to investigate and explore, they like to smell, touch, and taste and get dirty. Through all that and a lot more, and their eagerness which drive them to follow the path of curiosity and investigation, they obtain an imaginative way of observing things in their world. This would lead to asking big questions for small people.

However, some adult hinder children from getting dirty, climbing, digging and so on. According to the researches on children mobility, point out that the freedom to play has declined to a ninth of what it was in the 1970s (Hilman et al, 1990). Furthermore, we live in achieve oriented culture that is driven to success focusing primarily to develop economic children for sake of the future. This focus along with the misunderstanding of the children and childhood leads to formal academic rules and instruction from an early age. Researchers indicated that when children are subjected to high level expectation and stress, which is not age appropriate would hinder their academic and social development (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997; Elkind, 1987; Hughes, 2003)).

Play

Young children learn through their senses, and movement, which together provide essential firsthand experience of the world. We learn about a place by touching, feeling seeing, smelling, hearing it and responding emotionally. The connection between our senses and emotion can remain powerful and evocative throughout our life (Tovey, 2007).Play in not static, like life itself it flows across time and through space. Traditional models of play define play by categories such as exploratory play, imaginative play, socio-dramatic play, games with rules and so on. What starts as exploration of materials can quickly move into problem solving, then into a game with rules, then back to problem solving, then into imaginative play. Therefore, it is crucial that early childhood programs offer children the opportunity for active, gross-motor play every day, as a habit for life especially in relation to physical activity since the bases for exercise is established early. Stage theories of play led by Piaget have dominated thinking and even when these are at variance with what is empirically observed by the teacher, they have not been challenged until relevantly recently. Bower has demonstrated that even babies are brilliant thinkers. Her work on extending thought in Young Children has demonstrated, that it is possible to establish newly emerging patterns of activity and thought in young children (6m-2y) leading to social play through supportive and extended child’s play. (Bower, 1997 cited in Pugh, 1997). Blatchford has demonstrated the potent influence of cultural influences and the way in which oppression and discrimination affects many measured and observed skills within the classroom context ( Siraj-Blatchford, 2001) this work was influential in leading to the Children’s Act of 1989 in which the need for play was considered to be a basic right of all children. The United Nation Convention on the right of the child under article 31, stated that children have the right to ‘rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreation activity appropriate to the age of the child’ (UNCR,). It follows from this that adult must protect and support this right.

Most child psychologist however, have been reluctant to give up the idea that deficit oriented problem reduction as a foundation for practice and research. They have preferred to use the idea of play in various manifestation as and assets or a resource, one example would be the ways in which sex deference’s in play are associated with gender, developmental stages have been emphasised and children matched to these in terms of their typical types of play, for example, the under achievement of girls in physical sciences (Miller et al, 1989, Miller et al, 2002)

What is clear from these traditions is that for the average child play is what they do, and it serves a wide range of interconnected and undifferentiated physical, social and cognitive and emotional aspects. Critically play provides motivation and practice to rehearse these diverse functions for example in running a race or throwing a ball, children are also testing their courage and building their self-worth. The solitary play of the baby and his dyadic play with his mother give a new meaning to social play and endless interaction with others (Sander, 1977, in Sroufe, 1995, p. 153; Trevarthen, 2003), play becomes highly differentiated in contrast to creative play in which children are empowered to choose their materials reverse the usual adult -directed play of the educational context (Sutherland, 1992). For adults such play is frequently construed as a waste of time or as a challenge.

The work of Piaget has had great impact on English educational ideas. He emphasised stages and the classification of play, which occurs when the child moves from structures based on action in infancy to structures based on mental representation (Robson,2006, p.14) For Piaget the stages are invariant and universal, for example, elementary school children can role or hit a ball which they acquired in infancy, but this skill becomes integrated and combined with other action in order to win a game , for example, marbles (Sutherland, 1992,p.26)

Piaget has demonstrated through a series of experiments in which children played games with deferent rules of increasing sophistication, he demonstrated that children are symbolic creatures who understand increasingly sophisticated representation. By the age 4 or 5 most children, in fact, have an advanced theory of mind (Piaget, 1962 cited in Copple et al, 1984; Lillard, 1993a;Trawick-Smith, 1990; Ungerer et al, 1981; Vygotsky, 1978). Theory of mind can be supplemented by the endless creativity which children bring to the play context whether this is outside or inside. Mary Donaldson has provided overwhelming evidence of the capacity of young children to understand the view of others (Donldson, 1978).

Creative play in fact can occur anywhere, but it is peculiarly conducive to outdoor play which involves all the senses, problem solving and imagination. One side-effect is an appreciation of nature and probably the capacity to recognise temporal and spatial units more effectively; it is probable that children who spent time outside from an early age are more able to cope with stress (Wilson, 1997).

Educators have the responsibility, the power and the task of organising learning opportunity. Hence, it came to be recognised that play and learning are not separate from one another, and that for younger children especially, play provided an important medium not only for the acquisition of knowledge, but also for the development of communication and social interaction (Parker-Rees, 2007b). Piaget (1962), compared the trial-and-error characteristic of young children’s play activities with the manifestation of socio-cultural roles which was seen in the play of older children, and Vygotsky emphasised the influence of cultural ideologies on play: as well as facilitating cognitive development, play helped the child to understand his place in the world around him (Robson, 2006, p. 27)

However, the education system still demonstrates a gradual shift from emphasis on play to emphasis on ‘work’ as the child grows, and there is also a distinction to be made between free and structured play (Crain, 2003; Brown and Webb, 2002). The former is considered appropriate for very young children, but is gradually superseded by the latter, in which activities are structured and guided by adults. There are specific outcomes, in terms of linguistic, cognitive and social development, and the child’s play is directed towards activities which will facilitate these outcomes.

Nonetheless, there is still room for a great deal of variation within this broad construct. Some play will encourage interaction between the children themselves, other types will focus on adult-child communication; some will foster group collaboration whereas others are geared towards the child’s individual language development, or personal reflection.

Langdon (2005) also points out that highly contextualised play activity can help to develop communication even when the children do not speak the same language: shared cultural context, as described by Vygotsky (1933), is sufficient for understanding and communication to take place. Northern (2003) comments that language, movement and play are all interrelated within the context of play, and notes that there has been increasing interest in developing models of structured play in recent years, the earlier Piagetian (1962) models having concentrated more on free play and minimal teacher intervention. Siraj-Blatchford and Sylva (2004) maintain that both child-led and teacher-led activities should be included in play, since this offers a diverse range of communication models which can be practiced. Children have the opportunity to create their own imaginative scenarios, but at the same time the teacher is able to guide the play towards activities which will lead to the required pedagogic outcomes.

In addition, play is valuable not only because it promotes cognitive and linguistic development, but also because of its role in social interaction. Children who are engaging in group play are developing and reinforcing norms of social behaviour, as well as participating in verbal interactions such as questioning, discussing, negotiating and so on

(Pollard, 2002). These concepts of social interaction, which for a Victorian child would have been assimilated and practiced in the playground rather than the classroom, are integrated into the classroom environment and are no longer divorced from the ‘work’ of acquiring academic knowledge . Hughes (2001) state that there is a connection between children behaviour patterns and certain forms of play, such behaviour was inherited from our ancestors.

Yet, the arbitrary separation between the outdoors and indoors in the educational context is a mirror reflection of the external knowledge provided by the adult which the child is expected to internalize. Fear with the outdoors and its associated phenomenon for example fear of the dark, fear of insects and wild life is overcome if children are introduced to progressive outdoor play through their preschool or nursery.

Creative Play

The creativity which children bring to identifying their own goals and using their own strategies for reaching them may sometimes be inhibited by adult intervention. White (2002) has noted how confused people are about creativity and creative thinking. Critical thinking is traditionally associated with deductive reasoning, while creative thinking is considered to be divergent thinking (De Bono, 1992). Yet we know that creative thinking always involves some critical thinking. The characteristic of creative thinking is that they are able to produce original and divergent solutions, which involve fluency, flexibility and originality. Hutt (1979) noted that children’s play and especially games with rules are conventions which are social constrained and high ritualized. Ludic play is mostly concerned with self amusement, it is mode dependent, symbolic and involves representations of fantasy and pretend play. This is the essence of creative play. In contrast, epistemic play supplement ludic play and together leads to new knowledge, thinking critically is essential to problem solving, but creativity permits children to think of many ways by which they can solve a problem (Tyler, 2008). Creativity is always about having better solutions and this requires critical judgment. (Fisher, 1996)

All children need time and a place in which to play, they also require uncritical acceptance of their imaginary world behind all formal skills such as writing and planning in the capacity for making representation and only through creative play are children able to acquire social representation. This provides the basis for a theory of mind (Louve, 2006; Moore and Cosco, 2006). According to Singer and Singer (1990), the period of early childhood is the “high season” of imaginative play, when the children depend more on make-believe situations.

Vygotsky (1968) underpins self-regulation as one of the prime catalysts of human development, while other researchers consider its successful attainment as an important achievement of early childhood (Meadows, 2006). For example, language and make-believe play are two such elements, where language builds the scene, and make-believe play helps to clarify the scene with objects. Thus the main concern would be to help children learn specific competencies related to the areas that would serve as the key drivers of their understanding of the world in the later period of their life (Meadows, 2006,; Wood, 1998; Wood and Attfield, 2005). According to the researchers, there are five such areas that need to be developed in this period; firstly, representational competence: This refers to the ability to associate/replace one element for the other, like using an eraser as a car or flapping the arms pretending to be a butterfly (Jones & Cooper, 2006; Singer et al., 2003, Zigler et al, 2004). Secondly, language and narrative understanding: This refers to the ability of enacting scenes from life-experience, or telling stories to their toys by emulating the parents (Fein et al, 2000; Jones & Cooper, 2006; Kim, 1999; Schickedanz & Casbergue, 2004). Then, Positive approaches to learning: This refers to the ability of wholehearted involvement in a chosen activity, where the elements like curiosity; motivation and a sense of mastery in doing something prove to be the success factors (Chang, et al., 2006; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; Singer et al., 2006). Next, application of logic: This refers to the ability of understanding scientific concepts like cause and effect, mathematical concepts like quantity, classification, placing things in order (e.g., big to small or small to big), or inventing strategies (e.g., keeping small toys in a bowl). This ability is reflected in children’s activities like setting jigsaw puzzle or creating a structure (Ginsberg, et al, 1999; Ginsberg, 2006; Wyver & Spence, 1999). Finally, Self-regulation and social negotiation: This refers to the ability of self-controlled interaction with others in an effective manner, which forms the foundation of future social skills, emotional health as well as success in academics (Berk et al, 2006; Fromberg, 2002; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

Through play children learn to experience different personality traits, temperaments and ways of doing things, but most critically by all means during role-play they are able to decentre or learn to adopt the view of the other (Creasey et al, 1998). In this manner they learn to deal with frustrations, take decisions and challenge themselves. The centrality of play to the young is demonstrated by the degree of seriousness and self-control that they bring to the play situation, since play helps children grow physically and become coordinated, so it can be an active form of learning that unites mind, body and spirit. It reduces tension and provides a healthy avenue for coping with daily stress and strain. Play therefore, is the most potent vehicle for learning and it helps children gain confidence and competence which is required for moving through the world (Trevarthan, 1995). Adults make the mistake of demeaning play or of taking over. Critically in nature play power is reversed and children become central.

According to Moyles (2005) play also offers opportunities for the child to acquire information that lays the foundation for additional learning. For example, through manipulating blocks they learn the concept of equivalence through playing with water they acquire knowledge of volume, which leads ultimately to developing the concept of reversibility. In addition, language has been found to be stimulated when children engage in dramatic pretend play. This is found particularly true in the housekeeping corner, where children tend to use more explicit, descriptive language in their play than they did when using blocks (Moyles, 2005).

The emotional value of play has been better accepted and understood than its intellectual or social component, because therapists have long employed play as a medium for expression and relief of feelings, play therapy in now routinely used in hospitals (Gitlin, 1998). Play offers the child an opportunity to achieve mastery of his environment. In this way, play supports the child using Erikson’s first two stages of psychosocial development, by promoting the development of autonomy and initiative (Singer and Signer, 1990). When the child plays he is in command. He establishes the conditions of the experience by using his imagination, and he exercises his powers of choice and decision as the play progresses. Hence play promotes autonomy and ego development (Roberts, 1996).

Moreover, probably the single most important purpose of play is that it makes both children and adults happy. Piaget believed that children were intrinsically motivated to learn and did not require extrinsic rewards to do so (Wood and Attfield, 1996). Since Piaget has had a particularly significant influence on the field of early childhood, his central tenet of viewing the child as an active explorer was seen as legitimizing the idea of learning through play (Robson, 2006).

The influence of Piaget and Vygotsky can be seen in our provision for young children. The idea that learning should be child-centred and play based, suggests that children should learn from concrete, practical experience and then incorporate principles of active learning rather than the passive transmission of learning (Paley, 2004). This is upheld in the new EYFS (2007b) in which the role of the adult is viewed as that of a facilitator guiding children in their acts or discovery and adapting to their individual needs.

Although Piaget considered the adult’s role to be that of a facilitator, his theories on children’s readiness to learn, raises questions about how proactive this role ought to be. His emphasis on children as individual learners, independently exploring their environment through a process of self discovery as they move biologically through various stages of development, implies that the adult role should mostly focus on providing a suitable context for this exploration and allowing the child to develop at their own natural pace.

Vygotsky on the other hand, believed that children are able to move their learning forwards with the help of others, which puts pressure on practitioners to diagnose ‘appropriate ‘ interventions and guidance to raise levels of competence (Edwards and Rose, 1994).With the introduction of the new Early Year’s Foundation Stage, the language about play has changed. The practice guidance places more emphasis on ‘spontaneous play’ and indicates that practitioners provide well planned experience based on children’s spontaneous play (Department for Education and Skills, 2007b). Practitioners are urged to observe and reflect on children’s spontaneous play and build on this by planning and resourcing a challenging environment. This should emphasise the notion of outdoor free play.

The Natural Environment

Bilton (2002) has summarised research which compared indoor and outdoor play. He has noted that children are social more inhibited indoors and benefit from a high level of learning outdoors. They are more assertive outdoors, concentrate better and prefer to play outside. In short, they respond to a sense to freedom (2002, p.116). Many Early Childhood specialist have called for more play in natural habitats and pointed to the way in which young children are drawn to all living things especially animals. Undoubtedly their perception is different from adults and most experience as sense of wonder at ‘elemental things ‘. They are fascinated by the natural world and have unique way of understanding it.

The United Conventions on the Rights of the Child recognises the right of children to live and play in an environment that promotes health development in a boundless way. Therefore, natural environment are the optimum habitat for young children, fantasy and pretend play, which are promoted by green or natural environment, and are superior to contrived indoor play spaces.

Sebba (1991) noted that children perceived the world through the gift of ‘primal seeing’ this permits them to see the magic of the world since they understand it in a tactile and exploratory way; they learn through doing using magical thinking.

Young Children and Nature

Playing outdoors allows children to experience their natural environment with all their senses. They can breathe fresh air and feel the invigoration of their hearts pounding as they charge up a hill. Children learn about the variety of creatures that may live in their area, explore the life cycle when they discover how a cocoon or squashed ant lives and experience fully with their senses how everything seems different after the rain (Tovey, 2007). Questions about nature arise spontaneously through outdoor play and provoke children into thought and, if properly supported by the teacher it will generate deep investigations of the world. It is vital that we allow children, that is all children to discover the world outside and learn to appreciate the environment around them. Children with disabilities can discover the world and appreciate the environment through outdoor play.

Play in the Natural Environments

Play in natural environment provided better opportunities for development and learning than playgrounds. It fostered growth in all developmental domains and it tended to be more varied, complex and creative, than play indoors. It promoted natural intelligence for all children regardless of their learning styles and abilities and reduced accidents and fights. Most important of all learning can occur through the lenses of nature. Young children want to interact with nature and be busy doing things. Louv (2006) has commented on the forces which have removed children from natural conditions and these include a growing practice of litigation, the marginalization of nature through the structure of cities and time pressure and fear. Parents overfill their children’s time in order to ensure that they are competitive and entertainment is substitute for play. Real creative play needs time and space (2006, p.117)

For the modern world the reduction of aggressive behaviour or accident is all important for social integration. Willson (1984) has used the term ‘biophilia’ to describe the urge to affiliate with other forms of life’, he goes further to associate biophilia to our ancestors’ which is integral to our needs, which are met in part by play. Gardner in the early 1980s has suggested that human intelligence can be divided into eight intelligences and one of these is naturalistic intelligence, by which he means sensing patterns in and making connection with the natural world. This encompasses acute sensory skills that comprise sight, sound, smell, taste and touch, a ready categorisation a basic elements of the natural world, enjoying being out of doors and nature related activities (e.g. birds songs), showing an interest in animals and plants and collecting nature related specimens, as well as learning and understanding ecological concepts (Gardner, 1999). Creative play therefore fosters naturalistic intelligence which has the effect of promoting academic performance. Adults can foster this by encouraging collections of seeds, shells and flowers.

What can be concluded from this evidence and what is so critical to play is that, learning about the natural environment is not reducible to the information produced, but encompasses the interaction between the child and the world. This summative or Gestalt approach to understanding the world is important. This can be seen in Wilson’s (1994a) study of 3-5 year olds in relation to their nature related thoughts and feelings. When young children were asked to respond to questions relating to pictures of natural settings and wildlife, many replied in matter of fact ways which showed quite high level of violence which seemed to be based on a lack familiarity with living things. This is led many early childhood specialist to hypothesize that the urban jungle in which many young children live results in a reduced use of the senses, low attention, high rates of physical and emotional illness and the development of unfounded fears (Wilson, 1994a).

Chawla (1990) suggest that a holistic environment is necessary to promote health in children and that it’s particularly important for the human young to have a sense of beauty and wonder which promotes its and their own wellbeing. Undoubtedly it is in the early years that children learn care for the earth.

Educational models connecting children with nature: International Perspective

No doubt that connecting children with the outdoor environment have had been establish in the early childhood education. Practitioners and caretaker have been using the nature to educate children in various way and topics. However, due to current global changes since the development of information technology, which lead to change in the society. One of which, the change in learning environment, which included a huge digital content and influenced humans to become increasingly digital and more attentive to filter the right information from there.

Researcher have advocated to the return to nature, those researches stated the commonality between children and nature. Froebel emphasised the importance of ‘children garden’ as an important medium for learning. The method he developed was based on the child need to play. According to him those places should be carefully planned outside e.g. watering seeds, taking nature walks and exploring the natural world with the adult (Wellhousen, 2002).

Danish forest school were inspired by Frobel to use outdoors as part of practical as social learning adopting and independent approach. The school developed and ethos of independency, where children are allowed to roam freely in the woods using the materials from the natural environment as toys and props. This will develop the child imagination and creativity. This is also aims to increase confidence and self-esteem in children (Maynard, 1007).

Reggio Emilia has also connected young children with the environment to serve as a third teacher. Indoor and outdoor environments, the use of natural materials in room decoration and creativity combined with lengthy periods in outdoor play are suggested by this approach (Hefferman, 1994). Critically, he understood the world of children in which they had 100 languages through which they express themselves through words, movement, painting, building, and playing (Edwards et al, 1993). The centrality of creativity in children’s learning is a main theme of Reggio Emilia approach as is the meticulous recording of adult child interactions dialogue is central. (Abbot and Nutbrown, 2001, p. 3)

The Role of Practitioners

Adults have an important role in helping play to continue. Sometimes this involves protecting the space and time fo

Duty of care is the duties and responsibilities for children and young people from the keyworker, teacher or child-minder to ensure they are not harmed in a particular task’s that are made for the children. We can do this by making sure that we make wise choices so that there are no hazards and to pay full attention to everything around us and to ensure the children’s health and safety at all times. Every child should be assigned a key person. In child-minding settings, the child-minder is the key person. The key person should meet the needs of each child in their care and respond sensitively to their feelings, ideas and behavior, talking to parents to make sure that the child is being cared for appropriately for each family. When we are trained we are seen as experts, although this varies depending on the level and extent of the training. Duty of care is needed not only to the children, but also to their parents and families, who expect us to use our knowledge to care for their children. A high duty of care is needed for children because of their narrow ability to care for themselves as they are still learning, and the younger the child the higher the duty of care is. An example of this is the Occupier’s Liability Act 1957. This consideration should be even greater if a child is known to have learning difficulties or is known to have a medical condition which may make them more vulnerable than the average child to foreseeable risk of harm. If we do not meet the duty of care then we would be fully responsible and be held accountable for following negligence to occur (Lutzenberger, 2010) (Meggitt C, 2011; 40). The EYFS is the framework that ensures all parents and carers that their children will be kept safe and will help them to succeed. The EYFS also helps to achieve the five stages of every child matters. Since September 2008 it is a legal requirement to use the EYFS to meet the learning and development of all children in all early year’s settings which complies with the welfare regulations (section 40 of the childcare act 2006) Also we have safeguarding which states the expectations of what must be done to ensure the safety and wellbeing of children and young people We do this by doing assessments, getting advice and support from the appropriate people.

Examples of how we do this in my setting.

Within our setting we carry out daily checks to ensure that the environment inside and outside is safe before the morning session at 8am. We have a check list of things to do for example check all fire doors are unlocked , all gates outside are locked, no wet floors and all plugs have safety covers etc. We tick them off every day when they are done. We have daily rotas for change of nappies, dinners and lunches and vacuuming. We all contribute to ensure it is clean and the end of the session and at the end of the day and before and after meals we disinfect tables chairs we are stopping the spread of infection. We ensure that at least one member of staff in each room has been trained in first Aid and that we have the right equipment. To complete accident forms when an accident occurs and getting the parent/carer to sign to say there have been made aware. We sign in and out every child that enters and leave the setting we also have one at the main doors for staff and people that come to drop or collect children.

How duty of care contributes to the safeguarding or protection of individuals

One part of my work is to always put the children and young people first, keep them safe and protect them from significant harm. We must follow the guidance of every child matters and promote safeguarding and the welfare of the children and young people. We should also make sure that the person caring for a child especially alone is suitable to do so and has a CRB check. Many things help us to provide the care to keep children and young people protected and safe, some of them are:

Risk Assessments: By doing risk assessments for all of the activities we do and for the playing areas ensures that if any risks concerning equipment, venues and activities will be found therefore reducing the risk of injury or harm to the children and young people. Also spotting potential hazards and eliminating them this could include germs and transferable diseases, we can minimise this just by cleaning surface and toys with an anti-bacterial to promote good health.

Policies and Procedures: By having rules and policies in place it give a good guidance of what is suitable in the setting from an adult or child that is at an age of understanding the rules and boundaries.

Making observations and assessing children: By doing this I am able to check to see if individual child or young person is progressing and developing at suitable rates, following the EYFS. Also by doing observations it will help us pick up on and recognise any signs of neglect or abuse so that these can be reported to the relevant third parties to protect the child or young person.

Training and development: I and all other childcare providers must keep up to date on compulsory training such as first aid and safeguarding. No one should be left to car for a child or young person alone if they do not have the appropriate training to care for a child which as on 2015 will be a minimum of level 3 training in childcare.

Task 2: Potential conflicts or dilemmas that may arise between the duty of care and an individual’s rights

It could cause conflict if a piece of information is shared about a child or young person without the parents’ consent. Information about a child or young person is collected and stored in a locked unit in the main office or on a computer with a password protection data base with the parents or carers consent. Data protection act 1998 clearly states that all information should not be shared and kept safe but accessible to professionals with the parents or carers signature. The parents or carers should have free access to this information on request, the only exception to this is in a very small number of cases such as if a child or young person are at risk of significant harm. Another issue that may cause conflict is if we have to tell a parent some information that they may disagree with or would not like to hear. As early years practioners we put the children’s welfare, development and learning first but if we noticed a child is lacking in speech we would talk to the parent and discuss that the child will need the appropriate support and help at home. This is an issue that parents may find hard to come to terms with and although they would want the best for their child they may reject the comments of the practitioner and think it is criticism instead of it actually being concerns for the child. By taking the parent into a quiet and confidential space so that they can take in it is main focus for child’s best interests. It is important to involve the nursery manager or senior staff in the discussions.

How to manage risks associated with conflicts or dilemmas between individual’s rights and the duty of care.

The microsystem is the most influential system because the child has direct interaction with these individuals; that interaction occurs on a consistent basis over an extended period of time (Brofenbrenner, 2004). Family is the most significant relationship of the microsystem; they play an intricate part in the ecological human development. The most time is spent at home with the family; they provide shelter and safety, and also provide emotional support for the child. The parent for example, interacts with the child on a daily basis, they provide a safe and healthy relationship and an environment for them to grow and prosper. The way the parent plays with the child, teaches them, and communicates with them has a lot of influence on their development.

The parenting style a child receives paves the way in their ability to communicate with others, their self-esteem, and the attitude and behaviors they exude.

The main parenting styles are authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and non-involved. The authoritarian parent is strict and demanding; this creates a child that grows up to behave withdrawn, fearful, and distrustful of others. On the opposite end of the spectrum is the permissive parent. The child raised in a permissive household is more likely to be aggressive, impulsive, and have little self-reliance. The healthy balance between the two styles is the authoritative parent who raises a content, cooperative, and self-reliant child (Berns, 2010). The parent gives the child the ability to create secure attachments with others and to have a healthy and positive disposition. The emotional connectivity of this relationship is a direct reflection of a child’s ability to connect and communicate with all other systems. Parenting styles are not the only ways that family can influence development; family structure also has a great impact.

The nuclear family consists of a mom, a dad, and the children, but not all households are structured this way. Divorce is an unfortunate reality in this day and age and the adaptation plays a large role for the child. Not only does the child not get to live in a household that has both parents which provides a healthy surrounding and assures the child of love, but they may have to listen to the consequences of how each parent deals with the divorce itself. Counseling, mediation, custody battles, and fighting are all situations that the child may be surrounded by. The financial consequences will affect the family and the child would not live in the same lifestyle as they would if both parents were together because the income would be cut in half.

Peers, community, and schools also affect the child. The peer groups help the child gain independence and discover their sense of self. Negative experiences with peers such as bullying can hurt the child’s self-esteem, affect how they interact with their others, and their ability to communicate and socialize with their peers with ease. School is another very important relationship. This gives the child a chance to learn the fundamentals needed as an adult and to help them develop different skills and appropriate behavior. Every child learns differently; they may be an auditory, visual, spatial, or kinesthetic learner. It is the teacher and school’s responsibility to discover this and take the best course of action to implement and teaching style that works best for the child.

The second system that influences development is the mesosystem. Mesosystems may be described a links in a chain. They consist of linkages and interrelationships that exist between two or more of the individual’s microsystems. These interrelationships involve a variety of settings that the child is immersed in; the influences that “bind us together” (Feldman, 2008). Examples of this system may be the linkage between family and peers, family and school, school and community, and so on.

Schooling is the perfect example of the mesosystems linkage between family and school. The more involved the parent is with the child’s school, increases the likelihood of that child excelling in school, receiving higher grades, and attending college in the future. The involvement that the family has with the child’s learning before they enter school creates a positive attitude towards their future learning. When it comes to the child’s relationship with school, the more perceptive that the family and teachers are in their learning with affect their educational experience. They will learn how to complete tasks, problem solve, and understand rewards and consequences.

There is also an important linkage between school and the community. Higher funded schools have more resources available to students; these resources extend the learning process. More books, informative television programs and movies, supplies, crafts, and the ability to go on field trips may provide a more stimulating environment and positive outlook on a child’s involvement and learning at school. Community support and donations can help increase learning in the classroom.

The exosystem is the third system of Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development. These influences are indirect; the child itself is not an active participant, however it does have an impact on an active member of their microsystem. This may consist of the parent’s career or financial situation, political systems, social support networks, etcetera.

As stated above, exosystems have an indirect affect on the child through career, their socioeconomic status, or the government. A parent’s socioeconomic status affects the child because they may not have the means to purchase educational materials or live in a nice home, if they have a home at all. Children born into poverty statistically have lower self-esteem, are less likely to excel in school or are more likely to drop out, and they are more susceptible to violence and crime.

A parent’s job may also influence a child indirectly. A parent that has to travel a lot for work or stay late hours must place their child in non-parental child care. Different forms of this non-parental care will affect that child differently. There are child care centers, family day cares, and in-home care of a nanny that may be used to watch over the children. The accreditations are different for each type, and there are different programs, such as health, nutrition, and learning programs. Although there are many different options that the family has when they do not have the ability to stay at home with the child, but it is still no substitute for being cared for by their parent.

Although sometimes a parent has no choice but to place their child in a day care program, there can be some developmental consequences

to this. The child will be able to socialize with peers more easily, but they tend to be less cooperative and unresponsive with adults. The longer the child stays in non-parental care, the more likely they are to develop insecure attachments, are at risk for problems with emotions and in behavior. They are also more likely to be aggressive and defiant.

The final system involved is the macrosystem. This system is societal and has a larger context involved in culture. This type of system influences the developing child in a much broader context; the beliefs of the family and their lifestyle, education, religion, and mass media. What society places as the social norms, expected roles, and what a relationship is supposed to look like.

Macrosystem influences come from cultural views in society. Views of roles, such as gender roles, have a set of associated behaviors that are expected in that individual. A boy must be a strong provider and shouldn’t cry, or a girl should be a nurturer and domesticated are examples of these gender roles inflicted on society. Different values and lifestyle are also a large influence to that child. Believing in the necessity of owning a large home, having expensive cars, or that as adults, they need to be married with a white picket fence and 2.5 children. Morals and values stem from the family’s beliefs and religious law; although sometimes the religious laws coincide with federal. Religions such as Catholicism, Lutheranism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Atheism, are all extremely different from one another and go along a different belief system with different sets of values which influence the individual. Children that grow up believing in some form of Christianity may have different values than a child that grew up in an Atheist household.

Mass media and culture are intertwined, but the influence of media is widespread and comes in a variety of forms; screen media, print media, audio media, and interactive media. Media influences “value, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior” explains Berns (2010, pg 321). At least one form of media can be found basically anywhere and is used to communicate and spread information to a large group of people simultaneously. Screen media that comes in television form spreads so quickly and easily influences young and impressionable minds. In some respects the exposure can be a good thing; it is mentally stimulating, can be educational and useful in a classroom to help students understand information in a different way. Programs for younger children such as “Dora the Explorer” and “Blues Clues” are a great way to teach young children colors, numbers, mathematics, and linguistics. Unfortunately there are downsides to this. Not all programs are suitable for young children; they may contain graphic violence, foul language, and sexually explicit material that is inappropriate for this age group. This information can ingrain the idea of what life “should” be like or how the child “should” behave, this sets up negative associations and roles. Violent and graphic material could result in negative behaviors such as aggression or bullying others, it may also cause the child’s imagination to run wild which may be scary, exciting, or intimidating for the child. Too much time in front of the television, or focused on any type of media really, can take away from time spent with the family and engaging in family activities, or it can also affect physical activity. Print media is found in books, newspapers, magazines, and articles. Print media is beneficial because it enhances language and reading skills, it helps with comprehension, and overall cognitive development. Children may understand the sense of who they are because of all the stories and tales they read. A downside to this is that the child may confuse negative actions and material with reality and fantasy. Just as with screen media, print, audio, and interactive media instill the ideas behind different stereotypes; this can be a major concern for problems in the future and self-esteem. Overall between all forms of media there are positives and negatives. They increase cognitive functioning and development, but children are impressionable and graphically violent and sexually explicit material is not good for young children and should be monitored by the parent.

It is now apparent that ecological systems affect development Urie Bronfenbrenner was correct in his theory of the bioecological model of human development. There is significant data to show how influential the four systems influence a child. The microsystem consists of close intimate relationships of those in direct contact with the child; they are involved on a consistent basis and appear to be the most influential relationship. Family, peers, school, and the community are all examples of a microsystem. They all have a large impact on the child’s socialization skills. Because a child spends so much time with their parents, this is the foundation for success. Teaching their children early what behaviors are acceptable or not, having a comforting and balanced parenting style will really help the child be cooperative, self-reliant, and content. Placing a strong focus on the importance of academics will help the child to succeed in school, also choosing the correct school to help the student learning in an environment suitable for their needs. Peers have a massive impact on the child’s communication and interaction with others so it’s important that the parent keep positive influences around that child. The microsystem is the primary system of influence so keeping secure, positive, healthy relationships will help the child’s development as they begin to feel the effects of the other systems. Like the links in a chain, the mesosystem combines the importance of the impact that the microsystems have on each other. Just as school and family influence a child, the relationships between the two systems also have a direct impact on the child. This does not only consist of the two relationships, but all relationships in the microsystem. The indirect affect of the exosystem, such as the stressors of a parent’s career, will have its own impact. Long hours at the job can result in the child being enrolled in some sort of non-parental child care. The type of care provided could benefit the child in their education and learning skills, but may also have a negative impact on their emotional comfort and attachment caused by the lack of the parent being around. Finally, the macrosystem is the combination of culture, religion, mass media, and other influences that are widespread. Mass media has many benefits to the child’s development. Media is mentally stimulating, it can increase imagination, and teach the child different skills such as language, communication, mathematics, colors, and other skills. Parents do need to monitor the media that a child does interact with. The graphic violence and sexually explicit material can be damaging for young and influential minds. They can create different stereotypes that can affect the way the child socializing with others, or their sense of self. The more time spent around different forms of media can take away from the quality time spent with the family, and can decrease the amount of physical activity for the child. Overall, the four different systems involved in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development massively impact the socialization and cognitive development of a child.

Many children become pregnant while attending school and this has significantly caused them to stop attending school until the child is born and in many instances they forfeit the opportunity in completing their secondary education. The researcher sought to clarify the impact of teenage pregnancy on children between the ages of 13 – 17 years old by doing an in depth thesis on the statement. This was to check if children are being sensitized at school on sex education and if the parents are helping them to gain better understanding of what will happen to them when they start having sexual intercourse. This study will be carried out on twenty teens at two prominent institutions that host teenage mothers in Kingston and St. Andrew

The researcher will seek to gather this information by using instruments such as questionnaires and interview. The data that will be collected will be presented on tables and graphs along with detailed explanation.

The researcher will test to see if the impact of teenage pregnancy on children between the ages of 13 – 17 years old is a factor of low self-esteem for teens and if it limits them from being an important factor in society.

Based on the findings, recommendations will be made.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Pregnancy for a teenager can be a philosophical event with long term implications for the young mother, father, family, and friends. Pregnancy is the state of being pregnant; the period from conception to birth when a woman carries a developing fetus in her uterus. http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=pregnancy. Thus, teenage pregnancy is the period between ages 13 to 19 when a teenager gets pregnant. For this research, the researcher will look at children between the ages of 13 to 17 years old, in an effort of heightening awareness on pregnancy.

Jamaica, like many other countries has an overwhelming amount of teenage pregnancy. This has caused children to stop attending school until the child is born, and in many instances, they forfeit the opportunity in completing their secondary education. They are more likely to obtain inadequate prenatal care, have inadequate nutrition, increased pregnancy complications, sexually transmitted diseases and higher risk of low birth weight.

Santrock (2008) states that teenage pregnancy creates health risks for both the baby and the mother. He went on to say that infants born to teen mothers are more likely to have low birth weights, a prominent factor in infant mortality, as well as neurological problems and childhood illness. They often drop out of school, some of them will resume their education, however, they do not generally catch up economically with women who postpone childbearing until their twenties. The consequences of an early, unplanned pregnancy place the teenage mother at a distinct disadvantage in her attempts to achieve economic security. Based on the Child Care and Protection Act of 2004, a child must attend school and be given an education whether she become pregnant or not. However, social and cultural taboos make it very difficult for a girl to remain in school during her pregnancy.

Teens do not always have good support systems, parenting knowledge and skills and coping mechanisms to deal with stress. Teen mothers are less likely to finish high school leading to lower paying jobs and limited job skills; they are more likely to be financially dependent upon family and eventually on assistance programmes that are provided by the government such as the Programme of Advancement Through Health and Education (PATH).

Teenage mothers face rejection by family and friends. They face parental anger, ridicule from community members, and abandonment by their children’s fathers. At times, teenage mothers who leave school are not prepared for parenting and as such, poverty often pushes mothers into transactional sexual relationships. Oftentimes, this is carried out with multiple partners to obtain resources necessary to support their children and themselves. This further increases the mother’s vulnerability to exploitation and domestic violence as well as child abuse.

Statement of the problem

Over the years, it has been noted that a lot of children have gotten pregnant during high school education. This has caused them to be out of school for a period of time. From fear of being “caught” some children tried to hide this from their parents by “banning the belly” and this has a negative impact on the fetus will affect the child. The teenager is no longer concerned with issues of being a teenager only and there are missed opportunities for self-development and advancement. The potential societal impact of teenage pregnancy is an increase in financial burden on families and the country. It also lends itself to high crime rates, uneducated and unproductive citizens, underdeveloped and unskilled workforce, infant and maternal mortality rates.

Teenage pregnancy has negative effects on the victims and their families. They are at times looked down on and depending on their socio-economical background. They may also never regain the opportunity to continue their education, which will impact on their lives and the life of the new born. Not being able to resume their education will also plummet them in taking minimal jobs and at the same time, they might have more children as a result of low self-esteem.

Sub-problems

The researcher strongly believes that if children are more educated about pregnancy, they are less likely to become parents at an early age. They will be aware that it is best to abstain from sexual activities until they are capable of being responsible parents. Children would know that there are contraceptives that they can obtain to prevent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Children are affected, physically, socially, economically, sexually and psychologically.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to investigate the impact of teenage pregnancy on children between the ages of 13 – 18 years old.

The researcher is aware that because of socio-economic factors such as single parenting, divorce and unemployment, parents might be frustrated and do not talk with their children about sex, as a result children will be informed from their peers and may want to experiment. The children, some of whom are naA?ve, and lack basic knowledge and who do not understand may succumb to peer pressure which may result in unwanted pregnancies.

The researcher hopes that this research will widen the factual knowledge that is available and that practical steps will not only be recommended but also instigated to address and even eradicate the problem. The present study will seek to explore and identify how the factor relative to the impact of teenage pregnancy can be corrected by having more talks in schools and educational forum so that other children do not get caught in the web of teenage pregnancy.

The researcher also hopes that the relevant authorities will review and implement programmes within these schools to assist parents and students who might have gotten pregnant and to help the others from becoming pregnant.

Hypothesis

The researcher hypothesizes that teenage pregnancy impacts children between the ages of 13 – 17 years old as this slows down their educational process as they are no longer thinking about themselves but about their child.

Basic Research Questions

Do you feel that the sex education you received at school was sufficient?

At what age did you become sexually active?

Definition of Terms

The Oxford Concise Dictionary (1999) defines the following key words except number 5.

Pregnancy – the condition or period of being pregnant

Teenager – a person aged between 13 – 19

Teen – of or relating to a teenager

Sexual Intercourse – sexual contact between individuals involving penetration, especially the insertion of a man’s erect penis into a woman’s vagina culminating in orgasm and the ejaculation of semen.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) – Infections that are transmitted through sexual contact. Patterson (2008)

Impact – a marked effect or influence

Parenting – be or act as a parent toaˆ¦

Chapter 2

Literature review

Parents have a lot to do with whether their child becomes teenage parents. It is important for them to talk to their children about sex and the implications that it will have on them. Apart from getting pregnant, having unprotected sex can let one catch a sexually transmitted disease. Parents should have a close relationship with their child, which will allow the child to talk to them about anything. They should talk to their children about sex as the child will hear it from school and may want to try it out.

Parenting styles have an effect on children cognitive development. Cognitive is the thought process, thus it reflects the way we acquire and manipulate knowledge. According to Baumrind (1971), there are four types of parenting styles. These are authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful and indulgent. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and control on the child and allows little verbal exchange. This type of parent may say, “you do it my way or else” (Santrock, 2006). The authoritarian parent may physically abuse the child frequently, enforce rules without explaining them and show range towards the child. These children are unhappy, fearful, and anxious. They often fail to initiate activity and have poor communication skills Santrock (2006). If you are an authoritarian parent, children will not want to come to you and discuss matters about sex with you as they may fear you will want to bully them.

The authoritative parent on the other hand provides children with warmth, attention and autonomy, although they set limits and are demanding. They encourage their child to be independent and individualistic. They also engage them in discussions and explanations over matters of discipline and family decision making. Parents listen patiently to their children point of view as well as provide guidance. According to Santrock (200), authoritative parent will say “let us talk about how you can handle the situation better next time”. Authoritative parents are effective in shaping how a child thinks and will help guide them in decisions making, this will allow the child to have confidence in their parents and will feel free to talk to them about anything.

Santrock, 2001 states that approximately one of every five births is to a teenager; in some urban areas, the figure researchers as high as one in every two births. He further went on to say that infants born to teenagers are often premature.

Patterson, 2008 reported that a majority of children in the United States who are sexually active report that they do not use contraception when they are having sexual intercourse. The reason they do not use contraceptive is because it is not readily available to many teenagers. They also state that embarrassment caused them not to use contraceptives. As children are not using contraceptives, there are a high percentage of children getting pregnant and also contracting sexually transmitted diseases.

Snowman and Biehler (2003) said that one contributing factors to teenage pregnancies and births is the relatively low frequency of contraceptive. They further went on to say that the relatively high levels of sexual activity and low levels of regular contraception among teens are particularly worrisome because they put teens at risk for contracting sexually transmitted diseases.

Gary Collins author of Christian Counselling, states in his book that sexual experimentation, including intercourse, sometimes becomes a way for teens to act like adults and gain peer acceptance. He went on to say that teenagers often feel intense social pressure to experiment sexually. Sometimes sexual behaviour is not an acting out; instead, it becomes an attempt to overcome inhibitions, find meaningful relationships, prove ones virility, bolster self-esteem or escape loneliness, Collins (1988).

The increase in teenage pregnancies has become a serious national problem. Not only is their concern for the care and welfare of the babies, but there is clear evidence that, compared to their classmates, teenage parents get less education, earn less money in life, hold lower-prestige jobs, experience less vocational satisfaction and have a higher than average rate of divorce and remarriage, Collins (1988).

Chapter 3

Methodological Design

This will be both a qualitative and quantitative study. A qualitative study of research focuses on words, observation, stories, visual portrayals, meaningful characterization, and other expressive descriptions. A quantitative study of research is based on collection and analyzing of numeric data. This data will be obtained from questionnaires, and interview questions.

The study will be conducted at two prominent institution that host teenage girls in Kingston and St. Andrew between the ages of 13 – 17 years old. It will seek to gain an awareness of teens that are pregnant and try to get an understanding of how they feel. Suggestions will also be made to assist them in making something of their lives after the baby is born and also to direct them to agencies that will assist them.

Play is a fundamental aspect of early childhood. Through play, young children can begin to explore and understand the world around them from an early age, whilst simultaneously gaining a sense of enjoyment from what they are saying and doing. Piaget (1962), cited in Ariel (2002), identified four general developmental stages of play; these increase in complexity as the child matures. These stages are, in chronological order: functional play, constructive play, imaginative play and ‘games with rules’. Therefore, it can be argued that imaginative play, as part of a sequence, builds on the skills learnt and nurtured through constructive play, and prepares children for play situations involving ‘rules’ and other constraints. Bodrova (2008), however, disagrees with this notion by arguing that rules must be an integral part of imaginative play. These rules are not determined by the children themselves, but by the constraints of the imaginary roles that they are playing. It is therefore possible that, in many cases, imaginative play overlaps into other types of play and incorporates more advanced and regulated thought processes than may be superficially apparent when observing what happens during imaginative play.

What happens during imaginative play?

Vygotsky (1986), cited in Bodrova (2008), emphasises that three elements need to be present for a play situation to be defined as ‘imaginative’: an imaginary situation, the playing of roles and the formulation of rules intrinsic to each assigned role. Singer (1994) echoes this sentiment by stressing the point that one or more children playing roles does not, in itself, constitute imaginative play: this is a misconception held by many people, including early years educators. The use of the word ‘imaginary’ is, however, misleading to a certain extent. According to observations by Dockett (1998), the majority of make-believe situations do not take place in ‘fantasy worlds with fairies and monsters’; rather, they are situations drawn from the child’s own memories and experiences. These can be, but are not restricted to, examples of what they have seen and heard at home and school.

Another view of what constitutes imaginative play is held by Ariel (2002), who regards it as ‘a kind of mental activity rather than a genre of external behaviour’. More emphasis is placed on the thought processes required to create an imaginary situation than the words and actions involved during its enactment. These involve a child bringing mental images to life and identifying how they are being represented in real life, but also acknowledging that they are doing it for fun. It is the simultaneous combination of these thought processes that differentiate imaginative play from other types of play such as functional and constructive play. It can therefore be argued that the child must have reached a certain level of cognitive functionality to be able to think in such an ambivalent way about the way they are playing.

However, no specific mention of the manipulation of and interaction with objects is made in either of these definitions. Although the use of objects is not a prerequisite of imaginative play, they can play a major part in the visualisation and representation of a fantasy (Tsao, 2002). Such objects could include, but are by no means limited to: toys, movable objects such as chairs and boxes, immovable objects such as tables and beds, and costumes. Smith (1995) discusses the way that, in imaginative play, objects can be transformed into other things to perpetuate the fantasy. However, no recognition is made of the way in which objects, once transformed, can assume different properties, such as size and shape, depending on both the imaginary situation and the type of imaginative play taking place.

What types of imaginative play are there?

Imaginative play is one of the general developmental stages of play. However, there are substages within this level that are dependent upon the child’s mental development. Ariel (2002) identifies three stages: firstly, solitary play, where the child enacts everyday experiences; secondly, parallel play, where the child starts to introduce other characters to their experiences (although the child always plays the central role); and thirdly, sociodramatic play, which is much more structured and less self-centred. Each of these substages is assigned to different years of the child’s life, although it must be stressed that these are approximations based on Ariel’s view of how well developed the ‘average child’ should be at each stage. Furthermore, these stages appear to be discrete; it is not made clear how one level develops into the next, and what internal or external factors cause this development.

In contrast, Dockett (1998) states that there are only two types of imaginative play: simple and complex. According to his observations, there must be six distinct elements present for it to be considered ‘complex’ play: imitative role-play; make-believe with objects; make-believe with actions and situations; persistence; interaction; and verbal communication. There are no classifications made between these two extremes; from this, it can be concluded that, if one or more elements cannot be observed, then it is ‘simple play’. Another important point to consider is that, unlike Ariel’s stages of imaginative play, no clear timescale is given regarding the age and developmental stage of the child with relation to these two stages of imaginative play. However, the two elements of ‘interaction’ and ‘verbal communication’ suggest that more developmentally advanced forms of imaginative play can only take place when a child is involved with other children, rather than playing independently.

Imaginative play can take place with or without objects or ‘props’ (Singer, 1994). Singer argues that non-toy objects, such as chairs and cardboard boxes, are used more frequently in all types of imaginative play than objects defined as ‘toys’, such as dolls and model cars. The reason for this is that toys are often limited in the number of functions they can serve in the child’s imagination due to their close link with reality. Taking the aforementioned model car as an example, it looks like a real car (but is obviously considerably smaller). It would be difficult to transform it into any other object or creation. Similarly, it is limited in its functionality; it can be pushed or pulled around on different surfaces, but it cannot effectively interact with other objects in general. Conversely, the simple cardboard box provides a range of possibilities for transformation and interaction, as illustrated by an observation by Singer (1994): upon seeing the box, a child calls another to say, “It’s the best toy ever! It’s a fort and a space shuttle, a bus, a pirate ship, a sled, a clubhouse, and a castle.” What is not clarified, however, is the author’s opinion on whether or not the use of toys is beneficial, both to imaginative play itself, and to developing young children’s skills and attributes.

What skills and attributes can be developed as a result of imaginative play?

During the early years of children’s lives, it is important that they develop a range of skills and attributes that will further their development both in and out of school. Broadly speaking, these skills and attributes fall into three categories: social, emotional and cognitive.

According to Tsao (2002), children’s participation in imaginative play can facilitate their integration into peer groups through the elements of collaboration and interaction, which are in turn underpinned by verbal and non-verbal communication. This benefit is, however, dependent on the child being at the stage where they choose to play with others rather than independently. Ariel (2002) builds on this concept of collaboration in particular by arguing that children often ‘transfer conflicts to the realm of imagination’. This involves resolving personal differences that may arise during imaginative play without breaking character or leaving the confines of the imaginary situation. By doing this, the children are able to continue playing together without the risk of altercation in reality. It can be argued that this type of interaction can initiate the development of rudimentary diplomacy and empathy skills, even at a relatively early age.

A different view is held by Bodrova (2008), who believes that such forms of social development, whilst important in their own right, cannot be realised without the prior ‘building blocks’ of emotional development. She argues that self-esteem and self-confidence are the two emotions that benefit the most through imaginative play, and the best way to start this process is to play independently with objects and toys rather than with others. However, no distinct link is made between the stages of individual and shared play: it is unclear how these emotions, particularly self-confidence, can be developed without some form of initial interaction. Singer (1994), on the other hand, takes the view that the most important aspect of imaginative play is the way in which it brings both pleasure and a large degree of emotional satisfaction to the child or children participating in it. This serves to highlight the issue that, above all, imaginative play should be fun. Through this sense of enjoyment, children will benefit emotionally without being aware of it. It can therefore be argued that the child’s need for emotional fulfilment can be a reason for, as well as a consequence of, imaginative play.

Opinions are divided regarding the most significant benefit to children’s cognitive development through imaginative play. Smith (1995) and Tsao (2002) emphasise the strong link between imaginative play and creativity. Although it could be argued that this connection is self-evident, due to the intrinsically creative nature of imaginative play, it is nevertheless important to acknowledge its existence. Another important point to note is the fact that children can also develop creativity outside the medium of play by, for example, writing stories and drawing pictures. Imaginative play, while important in its own right, is simply one part of the whole process of developing creativity in children.

Conversely, Singer (1994) and Ariel (2002), whilst accepting the potential benefits to children’s creative skills, believe that the development of academically related skills is a more significant consequence of imaginative play. These include, but are by no means limited to, the enhancement of vocabulary by practising new words (Singer, 1994) and the advancement of basic decision-making skills (Ariel, 2002). In imaginative play, children need to identify what objects are (especially if they have been transformed to suit the imaginary situation), what different places and characters are called, and so on. These words will be used repeatedly throughout the play episode; therefore, it is not only good practice for children to say and hear them, but it also facilitates effective verbal communication and keeps the imaginary situation going. In addition, situations frequently arise where children, whilst playing a role, need to make choices regarding, for example, how to react to something someone else has said or done, what object to use, or where to go next. As before, this decision-making process, which is often quick and well improvised, according to observations by Ariel (2002), is another essential way to keep the imaginary situation going. These skills, along with many others, can be beneficial to the children’s holistic development, not only in an imaginative play situation, but also in other areas of their lives.

Are these skills and attributes transferable to other areas of the children’s lives?

The skills and attributes developed in imaginative play can also be beneficial both to the development of the child’s state of mind and their behaviour, particularly with regard to what is required of them as they advance through the education system. Singer (1994) holds the belief that ‘children can sustain themselves in periods of stress with the hope generated from such imagined explorations’. This stress could be caused by any of a number of contributory factors, such as an increased academic workload or an unsettled home life. However, imaginative play allows children to detach themselves from reality, albeit on a temporary basis. According to research by Ariel (2002), this ‘time out’ can have a calming effect on the child, by ‘pacifying them and providing them with ways out of their emotional entanglements’. What is unclear, however, is how long this calming effect continues. The question remains of whether the use of imaginative play for this purpose of emotional detachment is a long-term solution to stress-related issues, or merely a short-term ‘fix’.

Revisiting an earlier theme, Bodrova (2008) states that rules, determined by the roles played by the children, are an integral part of imaginative play. She extends this point by arguing that this following of rules can contribute to a child’s readiness for formal schooling, where they will have to abide by sets of class and school rules. During their participation in imaginative play, the child has to ‘promote their intentional behaviours’ and follow the directions of others so that the imaginary situation can progress. According to research by Blair (2002), cited in Bodrova (2008), the practice of this self-regulation of behaviour by ‘playing by the rules’ in imaginative play often transfers itself to non-play contexts where predetermined sets of rules exist, such as formal classroom settings. The child will be more inclined to follow these new sets of rules, and their behaviour will improve as a consequence.

One other important behavioural aspect, particularly with regard to younger children, is paying attention and the ability to concentrate. Generally speaking, younger children have a much shorter attention span than older children (Dockett, 1998). It is important for children to be attentive and focused when they are faced with formalised situations later on in their schooling, such as assemblies and tests. According to research by Smith (1995), participation in imaginative play focuses children’s minds on the situation in hand, and they become totally immersed in the roles they are playing. One observation by Smith (1995) was of a group of children playing ‘castles’. One child was allocated the task of ‘sentry duty’: this involved keeping watch from the top of the ‘castle’ while some other children played soldiers going about their daily business inside the castle. The sentry’s role was to warn the soldiers if the ‘enemy’ (played by three other children) was approaching. The child playing the ‘sentry’ role considered his task to be highly important, and was able to maintain a high level of concentration throughout, pretending to look in all directions and scanning the imaginary horizon. Smith (1995) argues that these higher concentration and attention levels in imaginative play will permeate into non-play contexts. However, it can be argued that this will not necessarily happen in the case of all children, because acting in an imaginary role is one matter; behaving in real-life situations is another matter entirely. Much depends on the character and personality of the child, and the behaviour expected of the child by the adults in their life.

What roles can early years practitioners, parents and other adults take in imaginative play?

Imaginative play can happen in any setting, both in children’s school and home lives. According to the evidence gathered so far, the same opinion is shared: it is important for adults to play some sort of role in children’s imaginative play. However, opinion is divided on the issue in two key respects: the level and timing of intervention, and the purpose of intervention.

With regard to the level and timing of intervention, Singer (1994) believes that parents and practitioners should ‘initiate imaginative play and then step back and allow the children to play on their own’. In effect, the adults give the children an initial idea, and the imaginative play stems from this stimulus. This is not necessary in all cases, however, as many children will formulate their own ideas independently. Conversely, Bodrova (2008) takes the view that all children, regardless of the development of their play skills, require higher levels of adult mediation if they are to benefit from imaginative play in any social, emotional or cognitive way. As a reasonable proportion of imaginary situations are drawn from the child’s past personal experiences (Dockett, 1998), one possible way to address this issue is to take an active approach by introducing the children to new experiences (Bodrova, 2008). These can include field trips to suitable locations, and child-friendly books and videos that relate to suitable, interesting topics. This will give children a greater knowledge base from which to draw their imaginary situations and characters, thus increasing the variety of their imaginative play.

With regard to the purpose of intervention, children can be advised, if necessary, on how to construct imaginary situations and enact imaginary roles. This often takes the form of the modelling of play skills (Ariel, 2002; Tsao, 2002), such as co-operation and the invention of characters. This is particularly important if the child has shown themselves to be less advanced in these areas. This is not necessary in all cases; sometimes, children’s play skills may have developed independently and instinctively. In contrast, Smith (1995) believes that the most important reason for adult involvement in imaginative play is to ‘facilitate the achievement of particular educational and instructional goals’. He argues that imaginative play has a better chance of ‘nurturing key life skills’ if the adults in the children’s lives encourage it and participate in it whenever possible. One active way for adults to participate in this developmental process is to take the child out for walks in order to teach them about the world around them, highlighting points of interest along the way, and answering any questions the child may have about what they can see, hear and so on. This will assist in the development of key life skills such as confidence and the awareness of one’s surroundings. In addition, this helps to expand the child’s knowledge base through questions and simple explanations. All of these qualities will be important in the child’s home and school life in the future.

Further research questions

In what kinds of ways can objects in imaginative play contexts assume different properties?

At what age or stage of development do children engage in ‘simple’ and ‘complex’ play?

Is it preferable to use toys and other objects in imaginative play? If so, why? If not, why not?

How effective is the participation in imaginative play as a long-term solution to stress-related issues?

Do any theorists believe that imaginative play should have minimal or no adult mediation or involvement? If so, who and why?

Introduction

Childhood is a stage that is distinct and abundantly filled with cognitive, emotional and physical changes. During this period in a human life, wonder, innocence and imagination are rampant. Many skills and lessons are learned that will assist with the course the child’s future will follow. This could be described as one of the most essential periods for the development of the individual they will eventually become. Some scholars have questioned whether each individual has a core self. Using some examples of the research of George Mead and John Hewitt- among others- it reveals that there are key aspects of the self that are developed by interactions within cultures and those inner communities.

For some children there is a period of time where an imaginary friend is an essential part of this course of self-development. It is difficult to say if the presence of an imaginary friend is something that comes from the core self or if it arises after a certain amount of socialization. I will examine the presence of imaginary friends in younger children lives, specifically those within the preschool years. My intention is to explore the function(s) these imaginary friends might accomplish in the development of the role, identity and self within the child.

DISCUSSION

One concept came from work done by George Herbert Mead, who is one of the leading theorists dealing with work of symbolic interactionism and the development of the self. His work established concepts of position, play, game, and other basic theories based on relationships between the self and societal impact. Mead’s stages of development seem to rest entirely upon

relations with others. Mead (1934) saw the self as something which ripens and results from associations with other individuals. One of his theories, the “double”, is signified by the establishment of the self as an entity. Some experiences can lead to the birth of a ‘double’ and can be represented by imaginary friends created by the child, and which allows them to control their experiences through play. He suggested that entities are formed by human activity. The goals of those activities have two important inferences; people live in a world of objects and societal conduct is oriented to goals and purposes. (Hewitt, 2003). When one recognizes his/her self as an object, involvement in societal interaction is possible. (Mead, 1934)

Another key factor in Mead’s theory is the development of the “generalized other” which-he believes- is vital in the maturity of the self. His concept of the “generalized other” is like a performance, a viewpoint that a person must creatively assume in order to take into account the formation of his/her own conduct which is created with principles, expectations and ideas influenced by the members of a particular societal group (Hewitt, 2003). The game and play stage must be passed through to reach full development. The play stage is identified as a period a child learns to take the identities of others and pretends about being the other. This developmental period, known as the play stage, allows the child to assume the role of another person and imagines him/herself to become that person, trying to assume and foresee what he/she imagines the other person might do.(Handel, 1988). During this stage, very important abilities are acquired; the development of role understanding, the capability to assume the status of others, the sharpened sense of one as an entity, and the ability to establish boundaries within that role…it is a phase a child will discover and expand insight of themselves and others. During this era, a child can learn and increase their understanding of their entire universe, including themselves.

While the play stage usually correlates to the time frame children have imaginary companions it is essential to have a complete understanding of the next stage, the game stage. The essential difference between the play and the game stage is that in the latter the child must comprehend the attitude of all the others involved in that game (Mead, 1934).

Advancement to the game stage is when children can incorporate and think about not only their

accomplishments but identify with the actions of others. This awareness comes from interactions with other people. After the game stage has passed the child has arrived, optimistically, at the point they are able to have formed a “generalized other” and can imagine themselves as another entity, whether it be a person or society.

The development of a “generalized other” and obtaining a sense of roles and boundaries is extremely important in becoming a successful individual within society. Children do not strictly follow the socialization that they are exposed to; asserting one’s autonomy is one way of establishing their independence and separation from others. It appears that imaginary friends can help to serve this role. The exact way that an imaginary friend is manifested is unknown-however, much research has been performed on this topic– but there is no argument that it is a creation belonging to and originated by the child alone.

Marjorie Taylor (1999), a psychologist who has studied children and their imaginary friends, does affirm that typically, an imaginary companion is an excellent example of a private act of fantasy controlled by the child him or herself.

The imaginary friend cannot be seen, interacted with or known without the aid of the child. It is a complete product and interaction that belongs solely to the child. There are also signs that even quite young children never completely loose touch with the fantasy status of their imaginary companions (Taylor, 1999).

A child who has an imaginary friend is a common phenomenon and does not automatically result from psychological problems or neglect. However, it should be noted that situations, such as psychological issues and/or neglect should not be overlooked when assessing a child with an imaginary friend.

Imaginary friends can serve various positive objectives in areas of the child’s development.

An imaginary friend could aid in creating feelings of importance, power, confidence, and could possibly lead to a greater acceptance of the self. Having an imaginary friend is one of the first independent acts separating the child from his/her mother or the child’s primary caretaker.

One of the endearing things about imaginary companions is that children can boss them around, direct their activities, and dictate their communication with others. There are a few case studies suggesting that if children’s sense of control over imaginary companions is diminished, the pretend friend sometimes disappears (Taylor, 1999). This interaction can assist a child to exercise his/her autonomy and develop more individual interaction skills. A second function

of imaginary friends is the ability to assist the child develop stronger social boundaries. Several scholars consider the importance of imaginary friends to be a catalyst for development. Commonly, imaginary friends offer an outlet which a child can use both reality and fantasy to learn right and wrong as well as what is acceptable in the context of different roles.

Machin wrote: fantasy allows children to contemplate moral and social issues at a

safe distance in the land of make believe (Machin & Davies, 2003). An imaginary

friend could possibly be an agent between fantasy and reality and an instrument with which the

child can explore their boundaries.

One indicator that imaginary friends might be representative of children becoming autonomous is that they usually do share the information with their parents. Research has shown that although the parent’s lack of knowledge regarding their child’s imaginary friend does not automatically come from the child’s refusal to reveal information about their friend.

An imaginary friend could possibly be a means a child uses to differentiate between fantasy and reality and an instrument with which the child can explore their boundaries. Children learn through the responses of others and that their behaviors have consequences (Handel, 1988). A child’s creation of an imaginary world also offers an alternate place where children can learn about the needs, feelings, and expectations of others. Discovering about roles and societal boundaries and expectations from imaginary friends could possibly tie into the transition between Meads’ play and game stages, bridging the gap between the play and game stage since the child not only interacts with the imaginary friend but also exhibits its reactions and thoughts.

It is complicated to identify if imaginary friends serve a positive function in a child’s development of sense of self, role acquisition, and identity based on this research. Research of

prior studies led to my theory that imaginary friends may serve with developing identity in children and assist the child learn societal boundaries. The growth of these characteristics in a child usually results in their ability to function well when interacting with others, allows a certain level of confidence in themselves, and provides a level of independence and/or willingness which will assist the child to implement their autonomy. Fundamentally, it appears that

imaginary friends offer those that have them a chance to find structure in a non traditional fashion.

According to many previous studies, approximately one third of all children between the ages of two and a half to four years of age have one or more imaginary friends and they tend to be more frequent among females.

Some in the academic community, as well as, many within the general public do regard the existence of imaginary friends as a wonderful manifestation on the part of the child and will engage in dialogue and recognition of the imaginary friends. However, at the same time as there are those that acknowledge imaginary friends, there are many that do not think that the existence of an imaginary friend presents a positive influence or role in the child’s development. It has been noted that the existence of an imaginary friend can actually cause tension within a family due to accommodations to involve this imaginary friend of their child’s in family activities.

Many parents are also cynical of the imaginary friend due to the possibility that the child may use the imaginary friend as a defense for the child to blame bad behavior upon. However, the suggestion that using the imaginary friend as an excuse is not certain.

The most widespread characterization of an imaginary friend is an invisible character, named and referred to in conversation with other persons or played with directly for a period of time, having an air of reality for the child but no apparent objective basis (Taylor, 199) A greater part of imaginary friends take human form, have names, and are believed to really “see, think, feel, know or act.” Imaginary friends have been depicted as having a high level of importance to the children that still have them and/or to the adults that had them during childhood and these imaginary friends continue to typically complete some sort of nurturing function. Since many of

these companions take on traits that are part of a child’s daily interaction, one could suggest that these friends are influenced by the social world of the child and also serve to help the child develop more ways of learning how to interact. In addition, connecting with a friend, whether imaginary or not; a child is establishing their concept as an entity. This is important for social interaction and learning about human conduct, expectations and societal boundaries.

Imaginary friends serve several levels of companionship functions that divert the child when out with a parent and/or caregiver, desiring play and social interactions, or situations when carrying out day-to-day routines. Some visits from the imaginary friend are very rare, while other times the appearance of the imaginary friend is a daily occurrence. Some children actually engage and play games with their friends while other children will just talk to the friend. One child (me) had their imaginary friend present during a move which correlates to the idea that an imaginary friend can be used as a means to adjust and learn about new situations. It appears these imaginary friends help those who had them- in some way- and performed some beneficial purpose.

Though the capacity to evaluate this question would be incredibly difficult, it would be valuable to study where imaginary friends come from and how and why they are created. More research needs to be done with children who currently have an imaginary friend and in a way that information could then be compared and contrasted between those children with imaginary friends and those children without imaginary friends. On the other hand, while it may be ideal to explore this issue further, there are drawbacks to studying children. When interviews are being performed with children, it is uncertain that what they are answering is actually what we are asking them.

Additionally, when dealing with imaginary friends and pretend play there is the added component of the child’s ability to distinguish between reality and fantasy. Unfortunately, there is no way to approach this issue which would be infallible.

CONCLUSION

Mead was accurate when he alluded to the fact that imaginary friends play a significant role in the development of the self. There are no blatantly bad indicators that imaginary friends are harmful. Nevertheless, there still exist many negative perceptions, both in research as well as within the general public. These perceptions link imaginary friends to problems later in life, ranging from unacceptable social behavior to forms of mental illness, including psychosis. It must be noted, there are cases where this link can be found, however, these cases include indicators of other problems, mental, emotional or physical.

This culture is has become overly dependant on exposure to the media. Imaginary friends are quite often used for entertainment purposes and are frequently misrepresented. Taylor contends that imaginary friends are framed in a negative light; however, not every aspect of media portrayal is negative. Overall the media-meaning movies, books, etc. – tends to over-exaggerate circumstances and highlight the negative aspects. Earlier work has shown the opposite and my findings from this research indicate that imaginary friends, more likely than not, could boost childhood development, confidence levels and establish stronger boundaries. Furthermore, while performing and compiling my research on this controversial topic, I have found that more information exists to support that the existence of an imaginary friend can assist a child deal with

a myriad of issues and situations that may not be successfully dealt with and/or overcome without the assistance of an imaginary friend.

This essay will be discussing about one of the three types of Brunei’s citizenship. Brunei citizenship is divided into three categories. It is categorise by color which are yellow, purple and green and these color will be the color of the identity card hold by each of Brunei citizenships according to which citizenship they are categorised. In Brunei Darussalam, different identity card holder will get different specialty offered by the Brunei’s government because in Brunei Darussalam, Brunei government is responsible for its citizen welfare. Specialty means welfare in terms of education, health care and job offer. The welfare given is different from one identity card holder to another.

IDENTITY AS CITIZENSHIP AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS

The focus of this essay will be on the purple card holder and my focal point is on students. The issue will be discuss after I elaborate the details of the purple citizenship status and their human rights in their stay in Brunei Darussalam. The purple card holder is for a citizen who came into Brunei Darussalam and married to a Brunei woman. This citizenship will also descent to their children if the father are not a local Bruneian. The child whose father holding the purple citizenship is categorise the same as their father’s citizenship even though they are born in Brunei. Purple card citizenship can also be given to people who plan to live permanently in Brunei Darussalam. The specialty given to the purple citizenship is different from what is given to the yellow card citizenship. Yellow citizenship is the pure citizenship which is called as local people. There is another citizenship status in Brunei which is a green card holder which will not be include in this discussion but the best description is this type of citizenship is for temporary foreign worker who work in Brunei with two years renewable visa.

The local people are the community who are given the specialty from the government in terms of education, health care and job offer. Local students are given scholarship for education. They do not have to pay anything for their primary school and secondary school even texts books are provided without any expense demands. Unlike the purple card citizenship, although they are born in Brunei they have to pay the school fees. The school fee is paid monthly and the cost will be increasing as they went to a higher level of education. Regarding health care, people with purple citizenship have to pay the amount of BND$30 for every prescription unlike the local citizenship which is the yellow card holder they only paying an amount of BND$1 for their prescription. They also have to pay for their stay if they were admitted in the hospital while local people pay nothing.

Other than that, the purple card holder also cannot work as a government staff only until they get their yellow citizenship. The issue that questions this situation is why as a permanent citizenship (purple card holder) do not get the government specialty even though they have been staying in Brunei permanently and even some of them are born in Brunei. In Brunei if a local resident (yellow card holder) students applying for university they have to have an outstanding result in order to get a scholarship. If they are qualified with their result they will continue their study to the university and they will be given monthly allowance by the government. Unlike the purple citizenship, even though they get an outstanding result but they cannot enter the university by scholarship. They have to pay the school fee which is at the amount of BND$4000 per semester and this will cost them an overall of BND$24,000 for the whole degree course which took four years to be completed.

As of the different welfare, occur some cases in Brunei where some parents did not afford to pay their children’s school fee and despondently their children are categorise as a very outstanding student in school. Sometime the students have to quit even at their early primary or secondary school because they could not continue their study due to financial matter. What makes it as a fair decision to differentiate a student with foreign father to pay for their education but they have been in Brunei since they born and are not going to another place to stay and grow other than in Brunei. If the government let them get the same benefit as the local resident will that harm the government in any way? This is the question which really needs a clear explanation especially for those who faced this situation.

The children are considered as Brunei asset but why they have to be treated like foreigner. If the government cannot make any change to this children welfare who else can support their future. If the government cannot overcome this situation what will happen in the future if the number of unemployment is increasing. This would trouble the country and even adverse the future of Brunei because of the regardless of some outstanding asset.

Below are the law and regulations of Brunei Government for applying the yellow card citizenship as stated in Brunei National Registry Members Section. Available: http://www.imigresen.gov.bn.html. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011. The yellow card citizenship are recognise as the people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam. Only this people are eligible to get the welfare specialty given by the government. So in order to get the entire welfare from the government the resident with purple card holder can apply to change their purple card to yellow by the following regulations.

ABSOLUTE EFFECTIVE BY THE LAW (CHAPTER 4 OF THE NATIONAL STANDARD OF BRUNEI)

Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam:

1 – Section is recognized as the People’s Representatives of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam.

2 – Assign legally in the country while the application is made.

REGISTRATION BY [Chapter 5 (1), 6 (1) and 8 (1) OF THE NATIONAL STANDARD OF BRUNEI]
CHAPTER 5 (1) THE APPLICANT IS BORN IN STATE

Requirements for Applying for Status as the People of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam:

The applicant has reached 18 years when the application is made

The applicant is recognized as permanent residents to have Entry Permit / Residence Permit for 12 years from the date of issue

Resided continuously in the country for 2 years prior to application

Qualifications to people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam:

Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned)

Malay Language Examination

Citizenship Status should divest Origin

Obedience Oath lift Seta (after obtaining consent of His Gracious Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam.

CHAPTER 6 (1) APPLICATION STATUS BY FATHER / MOTHER / PARENTS lift CITIZENS OF BRUNEI

Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam

The applicant is under 18 years old when the application is made

Father / Mother / Parent Adoption is recognized as a people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam

Legally residing in Brunei Darussalam during the application is made.

Eligibility To be people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam

Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned)

Shall deprive Kewarganegraan Original Status

CHAPTER 8 (1) THE APPLICANT IS BORN ABROAD

Application Requirements Status as a people of His Royal Highness Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam

The applicant is under 18 years old when the application is made

The application is recognized as permanent residents with Entry Permit / Residence Permit for 20 years from the date of issue

Resided continuously in the country for 2 years prior to application.

Eligibility To be people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam

Good behavior (to be reviewed by the parties concerned)

Passed the Malay Language

Shall deprive Kewarganegraan Original Status

Faithful Obedience Oath lift (after getting Perkenaan His Gracious Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam)

As the regulation stated in the law of Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei it shows that it is applicable to be the people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam as long as they are qualified according to the law and regulation of National regulation. Somehow what can be seen from the regulation is it took a very long time for a purple card citizen to become and even apply the yellow citizenship. It is at some points wasting their time waiting and also wasting their money to spend on expense demand as a purple citizenship while at the end they will still to be recognized as a yellow citizenship.

Therefore in this case time is really matter because through time it shows how much we spend for the expense demand and we could thing how worth it is to spend that amount of money just to go through that time estimation stated in the regulation. What if within the time the students are not be able to continue their study just because they cannot afford to pay the fees and after a long time when they get the yellow citizenship but at that time it is already impossible for them to continue their study because of their age factor. In Brunei there is school regulation where only certain age can enter certain level of education as stated in Education System. Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. If they could not continue their study just because of this matter then who are to be blame and who are to be responsible for their future. According to regulation on chapter 5(1) for applicants who born in Brunei. They can only apply the yellow citizenship if they reach their age of 18 years old. But if we think about this prudently why do the parents have to pay for their education until they reach their age of 18 years old and then after that they are conform to be a local citizenship. This is a waste of money.

Of course in terms of future it is sometimes under the responsibilities of their parents. But what if the father earns low income just because he cannot work with the government. The government cannot offer any job and he has to work at private sector with low salary because he is still waiting for the yellow citizenship and he could not get the job offer by the government since he is still holding the purple citizenship. This will affect the future of their child especially when they have number of children to depend on them. As stated in Job Vacancy. Available: http://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011 which is showing the conditions for applying government job as below:

General Conditions:

The applicants of the people of His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam.

The applicant knowledge of kerasmian religion, customs, culture, social development, economics and politics of Brunei Darussalam.

Willing to work anytime outside normal working hours on working on a rotation basis (shift) or during public holidays and also be willing to serve in any district in the country.

In order for a child to rely on their father’s citizenship as stated in the regulation chapter 6(1) the father has to have a permit of 20 years as a purple citizenship (permanent citizenship) and the child must not yet reach the age of 18. Let’s say the father has not reach the estimation time staying in Brunei for 20 years and the child are already eligible to apply the yellow citizenship, this would delayed the child from making the application for the yellow citizenship until they reach their age of 18 years old. There are also cases happen to purple citizen students where they have to postpone from entering the university because they have to wait until they reach their age of 18 years old to make them eligible to get the scholarship to enter the university as the regulation stated in admission. Available: http://www.ubd.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011.

They also do not have any option for example to work with the government even though the finished their study in the government school by fee because they have to have the yellow citizenship. In cases like this also happen that the child cannot make the application to get the yellow citizenship at all because if they already reach their age of 18 and was born abroad and their father have not reach the 20 years being a permanent resident they are no longer eligible to make an application. This is because as stated in chapter 8(1) if applicants are born abroad they are only eligible to make application before they reach the age of 18 years old. They also having problem to apply for scholarship to study abroad.

In Brunei, students with outstanding A level result will be eligible to get study abroad scholarship but the condition is they must be holding the yellow citizenship as stated in Scholarship. Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011. For students who are holding purple citizenship, they cannot apply for this scholarship even they have got a very excellent result. Therefore some of them who did not afford to pay for a very expensive school fee cannot continue their study to a higher level of education especially university. Sometime they have to waste their time waiting for their citizenship application to be approved by the Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei.

For applicants stated in chapter 8(1) the law and regulation of Department Of Immigration and National Registration Ministry of Domestic Affair Brunei for applicants who was born abroad in order to be have the yellow citizenship of Brunei they have to pass their Malay Language Test. If they do not pass the test they have to try until they can get through and qualified to be the yellow citizenship. In this cases happen that they have to try for so many years to be qualified but what is worth trying in years in order to get the scholarship if the scholarship has limit the requirement only to students who is below 25 years old. In Brunei if someone is to apply for education scholarship they must be not more than 25 years old. If someone with purple citizenship are recognised as the yellow citizenship after their age of 25 years old than what is worth fighting for doing the test in years while according to their academic qualification they are actually qualified to continue their study.

For those who can afford to pay for their education to university level and manage to complete their degree with outstanding qualification that does not mean that they can work with the government. This is because the regulation to work with the government is they must have a yellow citizenship. If they do not qualified in terms of citizenship their academic result will not be considered by the government even though they are qualified in terms of academic qualification. In the end they have to spend years working with private sector and earn lower income which is not suitable for their academic qualification and what have they been going through will continuously happen to their children as well. Some of them also have to move to other country to seek for appropriate and suitable job for their qualification.

CONCLUSION

There are so many things to be considered and analysed in this issue. The regulation delayed the application in terms of the demand of the time requirements to be the yellow citizenship. Most applicants have to wait for a very long time until they are applicable to be the yellow citizenship. Along their journey to get the yellow citizenship they have lost so many valuable things such as their time, their effort and even their future. If this happen continuously to the resident of Brunei specially the purple citizen it will leads to a big lost to the country in terms of losing the intelligent assets and also will leads to massive number of unemployment in the future. It is not erroneous to put a law for people to apply the yellow citizenship of Brunei. But the time required for the purple citizenship to apply the yellow citizenship should be decreased for the country and resident own good and for a better future.

(2,860 words)

Bibligraphy:

admission. Available: http://www.ubd.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011

Education System. Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011.

Job Vacancy. Available: http://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011

Members Section. Available: http://www.imigresen.gov.bn.html. Last accessed 19th Jannuary 2011

Scholarship. Available: http://www.moe.edu.bn. Last accessed 15th Jannuary 2011.

The rate of divorce in the United States is approximately forty to fifty percent involving families with children. A majority of children experience the consequences of divorce as painful. Children will go through similar responses to divorce such as fright, guilt, depression, and rage. Throughout and instantly following the divorce a child maybe coping with changes such as losing a parent, the marital disagreement and family ineffectiveness that lead to the separation, the adjustment in parent-child relations that could be affiliated with short-term distress and emotional neediness of family members, and other threats to the comfort of the child that are evoked by the uncertainty of the circumstances.

Divorce can happen at any age for the child but at certain age’s children’s development are more affected. Children depend on their parents when they are younger so only having one parent around can affect them. There is the infancy stage, pre-school years, school age, and adolescence stage. During the infancy stage the mother may be so overwhelmed from the circumstances that it may lead to depression and she will not be able to perform her motherly duties to the infant properly. Disturbances in feeding, sleeping, and elimination patterns could occur if the infant is not being taken care of correctly. If the mother does not have depression, she would be spending more time away from her child because she would have to work more which means that a daycare or babysitter would have to take care of the infant. In the preschool years from ages three to five the child is more alert that a parent is missing. The child’s personality and coping mechanisms now play a role as well and they try to understand the reason for the separation. Some changes that may occur are starting to have tantrums, wetting or defecating in the pants, different eating and sleeping habits. During this period the child develops affection towards the parent of the opposite sex. This could be a problem if you have a daughter and her father is not in her life. When the children are in the school age from age’s six to twelve the children’s influence of their parents lessens and the influence of the peers and teachers become significantly more important. Teachers and peers play a big role in a child’s development. When you interact with peers this means that you talk about yourself and your family. This could hurt a child whose parents are separated. During the adolescence stage, this means being independent from your parents. A majority of adolescence behaviors become unpredictable. They can act younger than they are like a child or act much older and mature like an adult. The effect of divorce on an adolescent can overstrain them as they try to break away from their loved ones, or it matures them faster into adulthood. Adolescents have the option to detach and seek help such as, at school, a peer or peer group, a relative, and in the neighborhood. Children may have rigorous or continuous disruptions in development, but some children go through the same situation and after everything is resolved they are well-functioned individuals.

Dealing with parental lost associated with divorce is extremely difficult for a child. They feel rejected, isolated, and powerless, they are hoping for reconciliation and hoping that the other parent will move back home. All of these make the child vulnerable for depression. This occurs most commonly in the twelve to fifteen year old age group.

When the family unit that provides organization and support breaks down this causes disorganization in the child’s life. Anxiety occurs within the child where by they may feel responsible for the divorce, torn between mom and dad. All of these feelings make the child anxious about rejection, abandonment, and not being loved. They did not want to anger their parents and were worried about their parents’ and own welfare. Parental divorce places children at risk for adjustment difficulties, so parents and teachers should be aware of these signs that appropriate intervention be given.

There are going to be different responses to the divorce depending on the gender of the child. The impact of divorce on boys is more vulnerable than the effects of divorce on girls. Boys will have behavior disorders and problems in interpersonal relations in school with peers and teachers and at home. Girls will have disturbances in emotional and social development which may disappear but reappear during adolescence because of problems with heterosexual relations. The loss of a father is more stressful for boys than for girls because a boy often craves a fatherly figure in his life and needs to learn appropriate sex-typed behavior, an occurrence that is not as vital for girls of the equivalent age.

There are several changes that children go through after the divorce is completed. The financial issue plays a big part when a mother or father attempts to raise a child. It is very difficult and stressful for parents. There are some women that depend on their husbands and when they get divorced, they have a difficult time financially and struggle. They will end up moving to affordable housing and is associated with a poorer community. When you move children to a different neighborhood they lose friends, neighbors, and enter a different educational system. Also, there may be delinquent children in the new neighborhood that a parent would not want their child associating with. The school system may be poor and the recreational activities will be lacking.

Clearly, a parent-child relationship is important but, that changes when a divorce occurs. There is still conflict between the parents and the child ends up in the middle of it. The parents are bad mouthing each other and trying to persuade the child to be against the other parent. For the most part a child wants to maintain a relationship with both of his/her parents. It is impossible to be able to decide which parent that you would want to reject and a child would not be able to make that decision. When a parent is talking negative about another parent, the child will be unsure how to view that parent.

When a father is absent from a child’s life it impacts them. This role could be taking over by a stepfather, a sibling, a friend, a neighbor etc. The fatherly role that is being taken over by someone else may be different from the actual father. There are several roles that a father plays in a family that is not divorced, which are supporting his wife economically, assisting with household duties, taking care of the child, emotionally being there for her, and shaping the child’s behavior. The child is not receiving these fatherly roles when he is absent and it could affect the child. Fathers are more likely to keep in contact with their son than their daughter. Fathers that are involved with their children have more of an impact on their child’s development, than do fathers who are not involved in their child’s life.

Helping your child through the divorce is essential. Parents should explain to them what is going on so they understand. How the parents explain divorce to the children and brings the problem to the open, lets the children know there is conflict between the parents. The parents should be working together for the well being of the children. It is important to discuss the child’s future; they must be honest with the children and tell them that you are unsure who they will be living with. Also, it is extremely important for you to allow the children to express their concerns and feelings and always keep it at their level.

Considering the large rate of divorce in this country, the effects of divorce vary depending on the development of the child during the first year prior to the divorce. The use of mental health professionals as the advisors of the court review where the child should be placed in the best custody. There are also utilized for visitation issues, disciplining of the child, and severe disturbances of the child. Regardless of these issues, the main concern and interest is the welfare of the child to sustain a healthy and stable emotional life.

As difficult as a divorce is on a child, the child needs continuity and should know what to expect. They need to know who they will be living with and should be disciplined by both parents the same way, no matter whose house they are at. Allow the child to voice his or her concern and express his or her feelings as well. Most importantly, there needs to be a relationship with both parents and extended families that their child’s emotional stability will remain intact.

This paper explores how play helps in the mental, social, emotional and cognitive development in children. By explaining the theories of play, it also explores how play has changed over the years due to technological changes and the cognitive, mental, social emotional and social changes which take place when children play. Other aspects of play which are explored includes its contribution as an outlet for children to deal with experiences in the environment.

Play is so important to a child’s development that it is promoted by the United Nations 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 31.1, which recognizes ”the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts” (WHO, 1989). Recognizing that children need time to engage in self-driven play is of essence among parents, caregivers and educators. Play promotes the cognitive, social, emotional and physical development of the child hence it should not be underestimated. Children also develop and strengthen skills such as language development, problem solving, negotiating, and sequencing skills which will be used in further learning (Singer et al., 2006).

The role of play in children development has been illustrated in various models and theories. For instance, Jean Piaget’s models of child development and learning are based on the perception that when a child grows, it develops cognition structures and mental images (schemes) or linked concepts to understand and respond to physical conditions in the environment. This are necessitated through play activities thus according to Piaget, a child’s structure in cognition develops from innate reflexes to complex mental activities (Singer et al., 2006).

According to Almon J. (2004) Piaget identifies four developmental stages which include Sensory motor where the child at birth to two years builds concepts about how reality works with the surrounding environment. At this stage, a child doesn’t have object permanence (knowledge that physical objects exist when not sighted). In the pre-occupational stage, the child doesn’t conceptualize abstractly and needs physical circumstances which are concrete (age of seven to 11 years). At two to seven years, the child is in the concrete operational stage where he begins to conceptualize and explain physical experiences by logical structures and can also engage in abstract problem solving. In the formal operations stage, cognition structures are adult like and encompass conceptual reasoning.

On the basis of the above stages therefore, Piaget develops the cognitive theory of play which outlines the cognitive principles of how cognition can be built in children (smith D., 1995). According to this theory, Repetition of experiences through play necessitates assimilation in the child’s structures of cognition thus the child sustains a mental equilibrium. New or different experiences cause loss of equilibrium and change the child’s cognitive structure to accommodate new conditions hence more and more structures of cognition are erected. Formalized learning as well as language development is enhanced in playing children. Coolhan K. et al. (2000) suggests that opportunities for learning oral communication is presented to the child and this early development of language will later be useful in reading and writing. In addition, children develop problem-solving skills as they play. Some of the playing activities they engage in require critical thinking skills like building with blocks, playing with water and sand, doing puzzles, or constructing and designing their imaginative play area (Huertwitz S., 2002). Free child driven play will make a child curious about his or her world and this facilitates further learning. Therefore according to Ginsburg K. (2001), when allowed to pursue areas of their own interest, children are likely to develop a positive attitude towards learning. According to Jean Piaget, Play creates an atmosphere which is relaxed where learning can take place easily.

In addition, Piaget suggests that play is not similar to learning and for development in cognition to occur, there has to be assimilation and adaptation. He further refers to play as assimilation in the absence of accommodation. Jean Piaget outlines four types of play namely physical or sensory motor play where a child engages in repetition of physical activity such as swinging of the feet or back throwing of the head for sheer enjoyment of doing so. In symbolic play, the child has a mental representation of non present realities. In this type of play Piaget suggests that
“It is primarily affective conflicts that appear in symbolic play. If there is a scene at lunch, for example, one can be sure that an hour or two afterward it will be recreated with dolls and will be brought to a happier solution. If the child has been frightened by a dog, in a symbolic game things will be arranged so that dogs will no longer be mean or children will become brave” ( Piaget, 1912).
Examples of types of play which encompass Piaget’s types include; Games of pivots (Construction) which Involve learning accidentally from symbolic play. On this type of play, Piaget suggested that they are “initially imbued with play symbolism but tend later to constitute genuine adaptations or solutions to problems and intelligent creations” Piaget, 1962. Other games include Games having arbitrary rules, games involving two or more players, board games with rules, sports and card games (almond J., 2004)

Hurtwitz S. (2002) suggests that creative play forms part of creative activity in children which enables them to express themselves openly and without judgment and its shown when familiar materials are used in an unusual way especially when children engage in imaginative play and role-playing. Creativity nurtures a child’s emotional health and the experiences underwent during their first years of life can significantly develop their creativity. It fosters mental development by providing opportunities for trying out new ideas, ways of problem-solving and thinking (Singer et al., 1996). Children need to be provided with creative materials and experiences like drawing/painting, photography, music, field trips, working with wire, clay, paper, wood, water or shadows. Time is needed to explore these materials on their own in order to purse their ideas. This involves time to think about how to plan, design, construct, experiment and revise project ideas. Varieties experiences like field trips, celebrating holidays and activities with other ethnic groups and encouraging children to bring visitors to school leads to creativity. Children should have more personal experiences with people and situations outside of their own environment, in order to incorporate them in their play (Smith D., 1995).

According to Piaget, play in children enhances cognitive development which is achieved when there is a continued equilibrium between assimilation (imposing a schema which exists on the world) and accommodation (where the schemas are modified to fit the world).For example through pretence play, a child imposes mental schema on the world thus assimilation and they also observe or imitate past events or activity thus accommodation; play also facilitates creation of tension between accommodation and assimilation which contributes to development in the child (Coolhan K. et al., 2000). Piaget additionally suggests that when children play with objects (pivots) they develop symbolic abstract thoughts and they construct their knowledge through social group interaction which is internalized into thought. Fantasy play or solitary play in infancy become cooperative and negotiated thus contributing to the social, cognitive and emotional status (personality) of the child (Singer et. Al., 2006).

Play develops social skills in children especially when playing house and taking up the roles of different family members. Vygotsky cites a situation of two sisters playing at being sisters. They acquire good behaviours and relations between them that are never noticed in daily life situations. Therefore play allows interaction between children as they communicate with each other, socialize in play and listen to ideas of others (Vygotsky, 1978). Cooperation is also enhanced in these children as they discover the importance of working together and sharing the play tools available. Incase of conflicts, they are able to negotiate for better continued playing. Moreover, a socially healthy child adjusts well in school are more likely to perform well academically (Smith D., 1995).

Motor skill development is enhanced by active play activities in children. They gravitate to physical activity when left on their own. In play, they perform many activities like running and jumping which leads to physical fitness. Children who don’t play are more prone to obesity and many other complications. Apart from large muscle skills, active play also enhances the development of small motor skills when children build, paint or play with clay. Acquisition and refinement of skills necessary for successful learning in school is via active play (Ginshburg K., 2001).

Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory and related it to play in children. According to him, play gives children a good platform to speak out unfulfilled wishes and helps in revealing hidden, unconscious wishes and conflicts. Through play, children resolve tensions and build their cognitive, emotional and moral aspects of life thus contributing to their personality.

Children initiate play activities and through this, they are able to communicate symbolically through verbal and non verbal means, e.g. through such play activities like narration and story telling or those which involve assigning roles (Singer et al., 2006)

According Freud, Play in children helps to relieve various forms of anxiety which include objective anxiety, the fear of the external world; instinctual anxiety; the fear of ones own instincts and the anxiety of conscience (super ego). Freud further suggests that children during infancy cannot oppose actively and defend themselves from the outside world either physically or by modification according to their will. Their ego thus in all kinds of ways “endeavors to defend itself against it by means of physical force or to modify it in accordance to their own will” (Freud, 1936)
The ego in children according to Freud thus defends itself by denial of reality by fantasy, transformation of reality to suit own purpose and fulfill own wishes and it is at this point that the child accepts reality. He suggests that children express denial in form of play using word or art. He suggested that;
“A small handbag or tiny umbrella is intended to help a little girl to pretend to be a grown-up lady. Toy weapons of various sorts enable a little boy to ape manhood. Even dolls create the fiction of motherhood, while trains, cars, or blocks produce in the minds of children the agreeable fantasy that they can control the world”. (Freud, 1936)

Erik Erikson derived the theory of child development in which he suggested that development and socialization processes occur in specific predetermined stages and he focused on the social aspect of development. He divided life in eight stages each with a unique time frame and characteristics. According to Erickson, each stage of development has a negative outcome and he termed this as an ‘identity crisis’. In Erickson’s stages therefore, I will focus on the first four stages which are crucial to play and the child’s social development (singer et. al., 2006)

According to Erikson, “satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to support the second storey” (singer et al., 2006). Erickson also suggests that learning Trust Versus Mistrust occurs in the first one or two years and at this stage he asserts that if the child is given well nurturing and love, play is facilitated hence trust and security is developed. On the other hand, if handled badly, insecurity and mistrust is inculcated in the child and this limits play activity which will later manifest in the child as treatment of others with suspicion and mistrust (Smith D., 2000).

The second stage, Autonomy versus Shame, according to Erickson takes place in early childhood, between 18 months to four years. The child if well parented comes out this stage sure about himself, has elation with his control and is proud and not ashamed. If poor parenting is given, play activity is curbed and thus a psychosocial crisis which encompasses a stormy child with tantrums negativism and stubbornness ensues (Hurtwitz s., 2002). This crisis is negative to play activity in the child affecting the social development of the child.

According to Erickson, The third stage, Initiative versus Guilt, results in occurrence of crisis during the play age in later preschool years. At this stage, the healthy developing child learns to imagine play activity and to broaden skills via active play of various kinds which may include fantasy. The child also learns to cooperate with others and to lead as well as to follow. However if guilt is inculcated in the child, he becomes fearful, does not participate in play, depends unnecessarily on adults and play skills are restricted in development and imagination (singer et al., 2006).
The fourth stage as per Erickson is Industry versus Inferiority which occurs between school age and junior high school and at this stage, the child masters skills of life with regard to relating with other peers in accordance with rules, continuing from free play to play which may be structured by rules and participates in formal teamwork e.g. baseball while engaging in social studies and arithmetic (Alman J., 2004). Homework is necessary and self-discipline increases yearly. Therefore a child who has passed the previous stages successfully through play activity and good nurturing will be industrious.

Basing on the above stages, Erikson perceived the world of play as important to early stages of development of a child as it offers a safe place for the child to work through his conflicts for example children can be seen pushing dolls in preschool in the same way that they were pushed. They also engage in role playing family members or other people and this often common. According to Erickson, play creates a safe world in which consequences are neither strong nor the limits rigid. For example, some of the favorite things children in preschool do include role playing, parents, teachers, monsters and wild animals (Smith D., 1995).

According to Erickson therefore, play gives the child an opportunity to organize ideas, fantasies and feelings in a plan of play. Therefore play facilitates emotional development and allows exploration of ideas and relationships with less doubt, guilt and sham.

Classical Theories of Play

According to the Surplus Energy Theory, a child is motivated to play if he or she has a need to release surplus energy and play occurs due to surplus energy which exists when children are set free from their parents self preservation activities. Through the aimless numerous play activities, surplus energy is released. However this theory does not explain why people and children with little energy engage in play activities (Ginsburg K., 2001).

The relaxation theory was devised by Lazarus in 1883 and Patrick in 1916 and it plays a role in children and is a mode of releasing inhibitions which have accumulated from fatigue as a result of relatively new tasks to children. Therefore in children, Play replenishes used energy as a result of unfamiliar activities of cognition that child engages in. According to the relaxation theory, children and other people play because they need to relax and be away from normal life’s stresses (Singer et al., 2006). The preparation Theory (Instinct/Practice) on the other hand suggests that play prepares children for adult life through teaching: e.g. through such activities as team work and role playing activities (James et al).

The recapitulation theory perceives hat activities which re-enact events from history are intrinsically rewarding e.g. hunting, throwing games, hide and seek and chasing. However, many of these activities do not reflect history (Hurtzwitz, S., 2002).

According to the Cathartic Theory, children play because of the need of expression of disorganized and painful emotions in a manner which is harmless. For example, children may re-enact their punishments e.g. by scolding a doll. Children can release and complete previously restrained feelings by playing e.g., bursting balloons, pounding clay, or punching an inflated bunching bag) (Schaefer, 1999). This kind of emotional release is important in psychotherapy (Ginsberg, 1993).

The Compensation Theory perceives play in children occurs to satisfy the psychic needs through their work e.g. boring and repetitive activity. However, this theory does not fully account for the motivation to play. Children who may want to hit their friends because of anger can redirect this action into play using ”war-like” board games (chess, checkers), card games (war), or competitive sports activities (Almon J., 2004).

Some of the modern and post modern theories of play which have been formulated include:

Competence/Effectance Theory which perceives Humans as being out to seek and optimize their arousal levels. This is due to the need to generate interactions with the environment i.e. from child to adult. According to this theory, arousal optimization and need for interaction with the environment leads to an effect which gives children a feeling of competence and is rewarding to them. Though this theory accounts for general motivation, it cannot separate play from work (Smith D., 1995).

According to the Pre-Exercise Theory developed by Groos (1898), play in children is a necessary practice for essential behavior in later survival. Thus the playful tactics for example fighting animal games or the rough play of children are the portrayal of skills which will assist in their survival and coping later in life (singer et al., 2006).

Other theories include the recapitulation theory by G ‘ Stanley Hall (1906) and Wundt (1913) which perceives play not as an activity which necessitates future instinctual skills but serve to relieve children of unnecessary hereditary instinctual skills carried. According to this theory, “Each child passes through a series of play stages corresponding to and recapitulating the cultural stages in the development of the race”.

Appleton in 1919 devised the growth theory which define play as a response to generalized growth drive in children and facilitate the mastery of skills which aid them in adult function. On the other hand, the Ego Expanding theories were developed by Lange in 1902 and Claparde in 1911 and they perceived play as the way of nature to complete the ego and thereby forming the personality of the individual in terms of cognition, social and other skills ( Ginsberg K., 2001).

According to infantile dynamics by Lewin, play takes place as a result of the child’s cognitive life space which is unstructured thereby causing failure to differentiate real and unreal. Therefore, in Lewin’s theory, the child changes into a behavior of playful unreality in which things can be changed and are arbitrary (singer et al., 2006).

Buytendijk devised another current theory of play in which he suggested that “the child plays because he is a child and because his cognitive dynamics do not allow for any other way of behaving” (Smith D, 1995) therefore it expresses uncoordinated approach to the environment that the child develops.

The Cathartic Theory (Freud 1908), perceives play as representing an attempt to partly satisfy drives or solve conflicts where the means for doing so lacks in the child thus a child has temporarily worked through a drive through play hence temporary resolution to the drive.

Among the modern and post modern theories is also the Psychoanalytic Theory by Buhler (1930) and Anna Freud (1937). They suggested that play in children does not only represent wish-fulfilling attempts but also attempts to cope with anxiety provoking situations which may overwhelm the child thus according to Freud and Buhler, play in children is both defensive and adaptive to deal with anxiety (Singer et al., 2006). Other current theories are Piagets cognitive theory which has been explained in the earlier stages of this paper.

Play does not only promote normal child development, but also helps them deal with experiences existing in the environment. Children who lack verbal self expression are able to articulate their feeling and issues through play (Haworth, 1964). Play acts as a means of helping children deal with emotional and behavioral issues. In therapy for example, toys and play materials are provided to inform the child that that space and time is different from all others and that the child should feel free to be fully themselves (James et al)). The child then plays out concerns and issues, which may be too horrific or anxiety producing to directly confront them in the presence of anybody who can help them to feel heard and understood. Symbolic representations through play activities with dolls and puppets give children emotional distance from emotionally attached experiences, thoughts and feelings (Coolhan K. et al., 2000).

Play is also used to conquer fear in children and thus playfulness in children dispels depression and stress (Coolhan K. et al., 2000). Therefore allowing a child to play hide-and-seek in a darkened room can help in conquering fear of the dark. Moreover, dramatic play with hospital-related toys can help to significantly reduce hospital-specific fears. At the same time, Fantasy play helps a child to move from a passive to an active role for example when a child engages in role-playing giving an injection to a doll patient. Fantasy play in children also fosters the expression of several defense mechanisms like projection, displacement, repetition, and identification (James et al).

In as much as Play contributes to the cognitive, social, emotional and mental well-being of children, free time for children to engage in playing has been greatly reduced by technological development which has brought factors such as hurried lifestyle, changes in family structure, and increased attention to academics and enrichment (Hurtwitz S., 2002).

Children who are under forced labour and exploitation are not able to get time and freedom to play. In the current world, there are issues like war and neighborhood violence in which case children are not able to play due insecurity. Children from poverty stricken homes have no resources that facilitate safe playing. However, even those children from well off families with adequate resources may not be benefiting from play due to an increasingly hurried and pressured lifestyle that prevent them from protected self-driven play (Almon et al., 2004).

Many children due to technology are currently getting less time for free exploratory play because they are hurried to adapt into adult roles and their future roles at young tender ages (James et al). Parents are misled with carefully marketed messages that model parents expose their children to every opportunity available to advance hence they go on buying many enrichment tools to ensure their children take part in many activities instead of free exploratory play. Some children may be given specialized books and toys meant to stimulate them to develop adequately while others are provided with gyms and enrichment programs after school (Ginsberg K., 2007). Many of these tools and programs are available and highly advertised to parents who believed they are necessary for good development of their children. Therefore in many occasions, much of the time is spent organizing for special events or taking children to those events which also deplete the family’s financial resources. Free self-driven play which is important to children is replaced by highly packed adult-supervised or adult-driven activities, and this limits creativity in children (singer et al., 2006).

In addition, this hurried lifestyle brings stress and anxiety related disorders like depression for some children. Increased pressure to perform well in academics possibly manifests in school avoidance and somatic symptoms. The reduction in play may also be due to passive entertainment via television or computer/video games. In contrast to the health benefits of active, creative play and the known developmental benefits organized activities, there is ample evidence that this passive entertainment is not healthy and has harmful effects (Smith D., 1995). In other cases, children who are exposed to videos and computer programs at an early age get addicted to TVs, Computers (laptops) where they engage in computer games or chatting via internet and other staffs most of the time, and for such children, their creativity and motor skills is usually low (Coolhan K. et al, 2000).

It has been established that increased attention on academics and other enrichment activities by children plus the family due to the effects of technology and modernism has replaced children’s play. After school children rarely get time to play. Instead they are forced to sit at the table and complete their homework given in school. At the same time, their parents put on them pressure to study extensively forgetting to spare any little time for play (Ginsberg K., 2001).

In addition, schoolchildren are allocated less free time and fewer physical outlets at school; for example in the U.S.A, many school districts respond to the ‘No Child Left Behind Act of 200137’ by reducing time committed to recess, the creative arts, and even physical education in an effort to focus on reading and mathematics. Due to technology, the art of building also does not favor play in children and this trend affects the social and emotional development of children. Moreover, many after-school child care programs prefer an extension of academics and homework completion over organized and free playas well as physical activity.

In conclusion, play generally affects the ability to store new information in children since their cognitive capacity is developed by a significant change in activity. A change in activity does not mean in academic instruction, class topic or formal structured physical education class but strictly free-play recess (Coolhan K.et al., 2000). Less time for play in schools may be contributing to discordant academic abilities between boys and girls. This is because schools with sedentary learning styles have become a difficult place for boys to survive successfully (Almon J., 2004).

The pioneer of the highly practiced discipline of psychology, Sigmund Freud, has become unpopular amongst the modern students of psychology (Mayseless, 2006). Nevertheless, Sigmund Freud’s theory of oedipal crisis still remains intact. No one has been able to go against Oedipal theory, which says that children learn the way to behave from no one else, but their parents. Oedipal theory of Sigmund Freud clearly states that children correlate more with the parents of same gender. A daughter is more attracted to her mother and likewise, a son is more attracted towards his father. Oedipal theory implies that the way parents would then behave will impact how children behave. For example, many of us must have seen that little girls are very fond of putting makeup so the question is how is it that the little girls knew putting on makeup is good (Boeree, 2009). The deal here is that the daughters have been observing their mother and imitating their mothers. This reinforces that parent’s attitude and behavior shapes children’s personality. This is a learning process for children and no one ever learns in isolation. Every observation, interaction and experience leads to an addition of learning. This leads us to the central idea that the kind of company your parents involve you with, the schooling they give you and the life dynamics they teach you are the critical factors that lead to a child’s success.

Schooling

A child experiences a lot of stress when the child is in the stage of transition such as new school, new neighborhood, a new teacher or even exams (Harris, 2010). In these transitory situations parents can introduce children to new surroundings and parents can continuously ask their children if they have any concerns of queries. This is a way a child can successfully and without stress cope up with situations he faces during his school times. The process of accommodating and adjusting begins with the parents at home where they train their children in how to deal with tough situations. The students whose parents are interested and involved in children’s schooling have advanced career and educational objectives. And parents’ persuade on how their children believe about the future and execute in school continues through teenage years. In order for children to arrive at their potential, they call for their parents as knowledgeable advocates (Brown, 2009).

Since parents generally raise the children to whom they have passed on their genes, that’s hardly ever a trouble: they are likely to split and maybe be glad about the qualities of their children: And the atmosphere they present their children with may further carry their abilities: educated parent’s may give birth to a similarly verbal child, then bring his/her in a home full of books (Halfon, 2002). The job of teaching children begins in home. Teachers have the children seven hours a day, 180 days a year. During the other 17 hours of the school days and the other 185 days a year can have both constructive and unconstructive result on the child’s ability of accomplishment in school. Nothing will assist schools do well more than parents who give a secure and affectionate atmosphere, who look after their children’s physical and emotional needs (Dana, 2008).

Good quality teachers are vital to students, but good parents are crucial (n.a, 2009). If you desire your child to accomplish something, bear in mind that educational success begins from home. However, let me take this occasion to direct the readers that no school can be an alternative for and no child can shine without the supervision and support of a devoted parent. Children today live in two different worlds: home and the world outside the home. There is small difference between these two worlds, but the system for how to behave in them is fairly different. Displays of feeling, for example, are often acknowledged by parents but discouraged by teachers or friends. Rewards and punishment are different too. At home, children may be told off for their failure and praised for their accomplishment; outside the home, they may be a mockery when they make an error or mistreated when they behave appropriately.

Parents are the driving force behind children in the world. Children whose parents are concerned about their schooling have superior career goals than other children (Stevenson & Baker, 1987). But the difficulty these days is parents hardly spent time with their children which used to be the cases earlier in the days, due to the fact that parents have to work to support the family and children have begun school. Also, children start to make their own friends and get involved in after school activities. The important thing that could help children to be success in their lives is family unity.

Life

Parents should direct children in family harmony. Family unity is a family being as one in happy and peaceful. Also, the meaning of family harmony is that in spite of how tough the circumstances are, it will carry us together and make our relation stronger. It would have nice to have parents to implement systems at home. For example, if parents would be home children would do homework instead of going outside to play. Another example is having dinner together. There are many things that can be discussed at the dinner table. Talks about how the day went by, the happenings at school, work, upcoming events, share funny stories and express concerns about things that are important to us. Having parents spend time with children are very good example of family values. To be able to inspire children to success, one of the key factors to consider is the emotional up bringing of the child. One of our pressing challenges is to gain knowledge of and recognize the new information there is on hand to us relating to the growth and development of the brain and emotions and how this procedure affects our performance as individuals and society as a whole. Studies have shown when the emotional needs of the fetus and infants are intentionally or unintentionally ignored or unnoticed, these babies grow up to be very angry teenagers and adults.

Life

Parents need to understand the emotional requirement when the baby is to be born and after birth as well to help them rise as good human beings (Chugh, 2010). Parents should make a conscious attempt to recognize and praise your children for their good traits. Sometimes it is essential to take a gap from the hurry of life and enjoy the magnificent qualities that your children have. Don’t think for an instant that a mental note is sufficient. Point out your children’s good qualities and let them build upon them. Talk to your kids in a constructive way. Talk to them in a friendly way about any topic they wish to talk about. Avoid falling into the trap of talking to your kids only when you need to discipline them. Children get your concentration most effortlessly when they are getting into nuisance, but don’t make this the only time you talk to them because your language will be less than pleasing. Give your children the advantage of positive communication and they will be more likely to talk to you in good times and bad (Ramirez, 2008).

Be conscious of the way you pay attention to your children-particularly when you are busy (Ramirez, 2008). Take care to promise your children that you believe that what your children say is vital. At times when you are preoccupied, it is effortless to make the error of answering your children without giving full attention to what your children are saying. Take note of it and pay more concentration to your children. As a parent, you would surely take offense if your children answered you in this way. Be sure to look at them when your children are conversing to you. This may take a little extra effort, but it will make you give them the attention they deserve, and your children will see that you believe that what they say is important (Ramirez, 2008).

Conclusion

It is rightly said that education begins from home; parents are the most important factor in a child’s development towards success in school, college and professional career (McEntire, 2006). From emotional to physical development of the child all starts from home, if children are having a rough time at school and among friends, parents are the one who can comfort, nurture and take care of them and teach them the ways to stand up for themselves when it matters the most. Major part of a child’s life is spent with the parents and not at school therefore main part of learning is also taught at home, schools are only there to polish the skills, it is the parents who play the most vital role in the success of a child (McEntire, 2006).