Author: Andre Coleman

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM THEORIZING

Curriculum theory is the manner in which the philosophy of certain approaches to advancement and enactment of curriculum is described. Within the wider field of curriculum studies, it is both the analysis of the curriculum historically and a way of viewing contemporary educational curriculum and policy decision.

However, a very useful starting point here is the definition of the word “curriculum.” According to John Kerr’s definition which was adopted by Vic Kelly in his typical work on the topic, curriculum entails planned and guided learning by the school. It is carried on in either groups or on individuals, within or without the school.

There are four manners in which to approach curriculum theory and practice. They are as follows:

Curriculum is seen as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.

In this sense I cannot equate the curriculum with a syllabus. In essence the syllabus is simply a summarized assertion of the heads of a dissertation, the gist of a discourse, and the subjects of a series of lectures. It is attached to courses directed to examination. This view of the curriculum limits planning to a contemplation of the content or the body of knowledge that may be transmitted.

Curriculum as a product, i.e., an effort to attain definite ends in students.

However varied human life may appear to be, it consists in the performance of specific activities. Therefore, education should prepare a student for life, i.e., preparing definitely and adequately for such activities. Despite being copious and varied they can be exposed for any social class. This obliges one to go out into the world of affairs and find out the specifics of which his/her affairs consist. And as such it would be easy to show the abilities, forms, habits, appreciation and attitudes that people need. These have to be the objectives of the curriculum, thus making it (curriculum) a progression of know-how that learners at all levels must have by way of obtaining those objectives.

Curriculum as process.

Looking at curriculum as a process implies how teachers, students and knowledge interact. That is, curriculum has to be seen in terms of what essentially takes place in the classroom set up and what people do to prepare and evaluate.

Curriculum as praxis.

Whereas the process model is impelled by broader principles and emphasizes on judgment and meaning making, it does not formulate unequivocal statements about the interests it serves. The praxis model on the other hand, conveys these to the centre of the course and makes an unequivocal dedication to emancipation. Therefore, action is not merely informed, it is also committed. That is, curriculum is not merely a set of plans to be implemented, but somewhat is composed through a dynamic process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all mutually related and incorporated into the process.

Therefore, curriculum should in due course produce students who are able to deal efficiently with the contemporary world. It should not be presented as finished concept, but should instead include the learner’s preconception and should amalgamate how the learner views his/her own world. In this perspective four instincts are used, to describe how to characterize the behavior of children. They consist of social, constructive, expressive, and artistic. The curriculum should then build a logical sense of the world in which the child lives. As a curriculum designer I have to use livelihoods to connect diminutive account of fundamental activities of life classroom activities. This could be accomplished by combining subject areas and resources. It means I have to make connections between subject matter and the child’s life.

Teaching methods should focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on resolving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, they (learners) should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.

I have to acknowledge the fact that humans are social beings and do learn best in real-life activities with each other. Therefore education must be based on this principle. As a curriculum designer I will have to depend on the paramount scientific theories of learning available. I may borrow from John Dewey’s model of learning where learners behave as if they were scientists. That is,

Be perceptive of the problem.
Be able to delineate the problem.
Suggest the hypothesis to solve it.
Weigh up the consequences of the hypotheses from one’s past experiences.
Test the most likely solution.

With this view on human nature, it is my genuine concern that students should be provided with real-life experiences and activities that center on their real life. This is in comparison to a distinctive progressivism slogan which states, “Learn by Doing!”

According to NCLB Act of 2001, assessments of students is supposed to be criterion-referenced tests where a student is tested on his knowledge of the required content or if he/she can do the required skill as outlined in the state’s standards. Unlike the norm-referenced tests, where student’s performance is based on how he/she is ranks compared to other students, the curriculum has to provide a substitute to the test-oriented instruction as stated by the NCLB Act 2001 on funding. This will enable the student, at the end of his course of study, to apply the knowledge he acquired to real-life situation in his/her daily life.

As contrasted to the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, that is ingrained in conventional preparation for the university and strongly discriminated by socioeconomic level, I strongly propose a type of curriculum which finds its roots in the current experiences, is more autonomous in outlook and looks forward. The quality of this curriculum should:

Emphasize on learning by doing, i.e., hands-on projects, experiential learning
Integrate curriculum that is focused on thematic elements
Strongly emphasize on problem solving and critical thinking
Encourage group work and growth of social skills
Understanding and action should be the objective of learning as contrasted to rote knowledge.
Accentuate collaborative and cooperative learning projects
Emphasize education for social responsibility and democracy
Integrate service learning projects and community service into the daily curriculum.
Select the content of the subject by looking forward to ask over what skills will be desirable in the prospective society.
Discourage emphasize on textbooks as only learning resources in favor of other varied learning resources.
Emphasize on life-long learning and social proficiencies.
Assessment based on evaluation of the learner’s projects and productions.

In conclusion an acceptable curriculum should be that which makes a learner to be creative, self-reliant and make him excel in all aspects of life that suite his desires. It would be unfair to have a curriculum which ignores the social aspect of a child because he/she lives in a society that is ever social. The curriculum should also enable the student to apply that which he/she learns in the classroom in real life experience.

References:
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/module1.html, (2008) Module One: History and Philosophy of Education
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum research and Development, London: Heinemann.
Kliebard, H. M. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893 – 1958, New York: Routledge.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and World.
Blenkin, G. M. et al (1992) Change and the Curriculum, London: Paul Chapman

Focus on Curriculum Development Learning Styles

Introduction: There are different learning styles that have developed with accompanying tests that helps individuals to understand their learning styles. A learning style is a method that is used to educate which is particular to a specific individual and which is assumed that if used by that individual, it will help them to learn their best. It has been described as that particular style that helps individuals to process the stimuli of their mind which helps them to understand what they are being taught.

Though the concept of learning style is relatively young having gained ground in the 1970s, it has become an important process in the modern education especially on matters concerning how teachers use it in the curriculum and how it is used in the development of the curriculum. It has been found out that if teachers understand the learning styles of their pupil, they can help their students to adapt to the needs of their classroom work and hence make the process of learning interesting to them. Therefore it has been found quite important to integrate the various learning styles of students in the curriculum in order to ensure that the curriculum meets the needs of the various students who are taught using the same curriculum. (Wang and Nagy, 2007)

This paper looks at different learning styles that have been identified. It will try to relate the learning styles with how they are being in the curriculum. Hence the focus will be on the learning styles and how the curriculum has been developed to cater for the needs of different learning styles. But first let us look at learning styles.

Models and theories of learning styles

There are more that 80 learning styles that have been proposed but all of them consist of some basic styles. There are three basic learning models that have been identified and that are used by learners. Let us look at these models.

Visual learners

This is a model where student learn through seeing. It is a method in which ideas, concepts, and other information are closely associated with the images that are represented in a graphical manner. The learner just need to see the body language of the teacher and the facial expression that the teacher in order to understand what they are teaching. This method is mostly used by those students who are able to concentrate for a long time and who prefer to sit in front of their classrooms in order to avoid any distraction to their visual aids. These students may think in pictures and at the same time learn form the visual displays like diagrams, overhead transparencies, videos, flip charts, and other materials which use visual aids to communicate. The learners are usually very much attentive during the classroom lessons and they take notes in order to absorb most of the information that is being given by the teacher. (Lawrence, 1999)

Researches have found out that visual learning theory helps students to improve in many education areas including critical thinking where they are likely to link graphics with verbal and visual information and draw understanding from such a relationship, retention where these students are likely to remember most of the information which was visually or verbally represented, comprehension where student can understand new ideas and connect then to their previous experience or knowledge, and organization where the students can actually use diagrams in order to organize large amount of data in a way that it can be easily understood. The base of this learn style lies in the way a student can visualize the data and later interpret it and build literacy along that data. (Sather, 2007)

Auditory Learning Style

This is a style where students learn through listening. In this style, students learn through verbal lectures which include a variety of discussions, talking and listening. The student who uses this style may not strive to be in front of the classroom but they like staying at a distance where they can get most of what is happening. They are able to interpret the meaning of a speech through interpreting the underlying tone of teacher voice, pitch, speed and other nuances of speech. They may not concentrate on writing what is being said but they are very keen on listening what is being said. They don’t rush to take notes but they take time to write their notes. The learners also can benefit a lot from reading aloud texts and also use a tape recorder. This style is used by about 20 percent of the population. In most instances, when these students are learning, the read but they cannot understand if there is no sound in the background. Therefore most to them will be reading and at the same time listening to music or any other background noise. Some of the students have been found to read when there is noise in the background. These learners focus more on the sound that they are hearing that what they are learning. When they are spelling, they usually use sounds. In case they meet with individuals, they are likely to forget their faces but remember their names. These students also like to talk a lot. (Kolb, 2003)

Tactile or Kinesthetic Learners

These can be described as learners who learn by moving, doing or touching. They have been descried as learning best through a hands approach in which they actively explore the physical world around them. Although they may appear like restless students how finds it hard to sit still for long period, they use their restlessness in moving and touching to learns. In this regard, this learning style is said to take place when student carry out the physical learning activity instead of taking their time to listen or watch the demonstration of a learning activity. Student who use this learning styles have been said to the some of the natural discoverers learners as they are able to achieve most of their learning through practical applicability of the theories unlike having thought over something for along time and then initiating the concept. However there is not evidence that has been shown to support the efficacy of the kinesthetic theory of learning.

Going by the above learning theories, the visual learners makes up to 30 percent of the population while the auditory learners are around 20 to 25 percent. There fore kinesthetic learners could make up majority of the population in this regard making up to about 45 percent of learners. Kinesthetic learners have been found to be more efficient in the other physical activities at school and in other areas of application.

This analysis gives us the three major types of learning styles that are used. This shows diversity that exists in the student population and therefore there is need to understand this diversity in order to be an effective curriculum instructor. This indicates that though a teacher may be having student in the same class, they m ay be having diverse needs than the physical needs that the teacher can actually see in the students. Therefore as was said in the introduction, there is need for the teacher to have full knowledge of the diverse learning styles of each and every student in order to cater for their needs. Without such and understand of the learning styles of students, it would be hard for a teacher to identify students and classify them into their respective learning styles. This would help the teacher to serve them well. Let us now look at how the curriculum is developed in order to cater for the needs of these students. (Fang, 2002)

Curriculum Development and Learning Styles

Curriculum is used to support the effort of the teacher in education. A curriculum is just a set of program that gives detail on how students should be taught. It acts as guideline that is systematically made to allow learner to understand concepts it stages. It is an important tool not only to the teacher but also to the learners. Educators place so much emphasize on the design of the curriculum since it has impacts on the education of the students. Curriculum and instruction are some of the most important sectors in education. Hence we can say the curriculum is the base of any education process. (McCarthy, 2004)

As we have said learning theories are very imprint in the education process. This is because they have an impact on the design of not only the curriculum but also instruction and assessment. Learning theories are considered when coming up with the process since they are important in supporting the education process. Learning theories are important in the curriculum since educator place a lot of emphases on the intuition, feeing, sensing, imagination and other aspects that are important in helping the student understand what they are being taught. In the curriculum learning styles are also important in analyze, reason and the problem solving process.

In the instruction, learning theories have an impact in that teachers should come up with their own instruction methods which will help the students understand what they are being taught. Teachers should come up with instruction methods that caters for the needs of the students using the above four learning styles. This means that it will first take the teacher time to understand the kind of learners who are in the class and try to address their needs in the process of teaching. A teacher will use various experiences that have been gained over time. In addition a teacher will be expect to use reflections, conceptualization and experimentations in coming up with the best teaching method that will help the students understand. As instructors of the curriculum, teachers can introduce variety of experiment elements in the classrooms like sound, music, visuals, body movement, verbal lecturing and other methods which will cater for the needs of the students.

For a teacher to know whether they are giving needed curriculum and instruction to the student, they are likely to assess the students. This is a part of the curriculum which shows the effective of the design and implementation of the curriculum. In this regard, teachers must understanding the needs and learning styles of different students in order to come up the proper assessment techniques. Because teachers cannot give different assessment tests to different students according to their learning style, they should therefore employ various techniques in the assessment that will help them to develop all the brains in their classroom. In their regard, the assessment tests should be balance such that it addresses all the needs of students without giving undue advantage to others.

The curriculum is made up of the above mentioned three aspects. That means that there is the curriculum content, there must be defined was in which the curriculum shall be instructed to the students, and it must provide means of assessment for the contents of the curriculum. Therefore the provision of the curriculum must be based on the learning style as had been illustrate above.

Consideration of the learning styles is very crucial in the learning environment since it dictates the way the curriculum is developed. In developing the curriculum, there must be effort to address the needs of each and every student. As we have seen from our analysis, the biggest percentage among the student population perhaps the kinesthetic learner who constitute about 45 percent of the population. Therefore the curriculum must take into consideration this proportion of the population in order to have relevant and effective contents. The content of the curriculum must give specific details which ensure that the deliver of the contents will have more practical work than theoretic work. This is in order to work with the percentage of the population that is high in the population.

Unfortunately many curriculums that have been designed have not kept to the issue of learning theories in the population. This makes many of the curriculums unable to meet their expectation. The expectation of any curriculum is to impart knowledge to the students in the simplest manner possible. This will help them to gain knowledge easily. Therefore if the curriculum is to meet its goals, it must be designed in a way that it addressed the needs of each and every learner in the population. In this regard the curriculum may be having the contents that take care of the learners but the instructors may fail to implement these provisions. This makes learning ineffective and student underperforms.

Conclusion

As we have seen there are various learning styles that are used by students. These learning styles are important since they help each and every student to understand the contents of the curriculum in the simplest way possible. Teachers as the instructors of the curriculum must understand the learning style of their students in order to give them the best instructions that they need in their learning process. The design of the curriculum must also take care of the needs of each and every student. Therefore the curriculum should be developed in a way that its content, instruction and the assessment guides must give each and every student an advantage. This means that teachers as the instructors of the curriculum have a role to play to ensure that the needs of each and every student is met.

Reference

Fang, A. (2002). Utilization of learning styles in curriculum development. New York State

Kolb, D. (2003). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. New York: Wiley

Lawrence, G. (1999). Practical Guide to Learning Styles; Oxford University

McCarthy, B. (2004). Teaching to Learning Styles; London: Routledge

Sather, A. (2007). The benefit of principals and teaching of supporting youth engagement in school; NASSP Bulletin December 2007

Wang, N. & Nagy, J. (2007): The alternate route teacher transition to the class. NASSP Bulletin, March 2007

Introduction

This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all.

Main Body

Defining Inclusion

Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term “inclusion” via different definitions. This explains the various ways “inclusion” can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, “inclusion” will be examined as an educational issue and the terms “inclusive school”, “inclusive system”, “inclusive education” are used alternatively.

As such an issue, it could be claimed that “inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school” (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). “Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity” (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). “Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of difference…It requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture” (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). “Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN” (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to “inclusion” estimated as an educational aspect.

Models of inclusion

Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A.

According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professional’s guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the student’s self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms.

Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997).

In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmate’s support is also available to the child with SEN through the “study- buddy” system.

As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child.

Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework.

The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed.

The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process.

The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method.

The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some “visits” to the regular one.

To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professional’s duty but a whole team’s responsibility.

The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the head’s assistance.

Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness

By proclaiming that “every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs” and that “education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs” ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on ‘h3 educational, social and moral grounds’ (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school.

Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individual’s perceptions, which come as its consequences.

In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professional’s judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to “cure” but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use “normalization” alternatively to “equal treatment” forgetting that “equal: does not always mean “same”. (Vlachou 1997).

Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression.

Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is “normal” or “abnormal”, “superior” or “inferior”. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers’ eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers’ duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one.

What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators’ attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education.

Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion.

Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupil’s differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the “lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints” (Zelaieta 2004: 43).

A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children.

Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of “warrior parents” through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children “as different and as belonging elsewhere” (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents’ attitudes.

The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents’ presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the child’s attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school environment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers’ limited knowledge about disability and other parents’ not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents’ advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001).

Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program.

Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants’ role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks.

The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnel’s lack of knowledge, child’s limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers.

The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from people’s appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose.

Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as “the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs”. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings’ and facilities’ suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupil’s needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools’ efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called “Harbour Community”. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier.

Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues.

The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled people’s life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as “deviant”. Finally, teachers’ opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education.

On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers’ perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice.

Overcoming the barriers – Solutions

Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the society’s function by letting disabled people’s voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers’ and peers’ attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as “circles of friends” or “buddy-systems” (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit.

These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCO’s 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. “This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school” (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupil’s needs, differences and abilities and students are willing to respond to that pedagogy.

This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students’ arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which one’s abilities will accommodate other’s needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007).

“Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which “is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures” (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students with special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000).

After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils’ needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007).

Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides “low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system” (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework.

The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting “the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all” (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed.

The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staff’s knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staff’s and parents’ opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyone’s duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion.

Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each other’s knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004).

Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003).

Collaborative engagement, value others’ opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion.

In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staff’s expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007).

After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p

Creativity Arts Primary

“The philosophical foundation for teaching integrated arts in the primary school is based on the belief that aesthetic and creative education is the entitlement of every child and that the nature and quality of the provisions determines the distinctiveness of cultural life and academic performance in school.”(Bloomfield,2000,pg1).

For this essay I am going to be talking about why teaching creativity in the arts in primary school is an essential part of children’s learning and what children gain from the lessons. I will be reflecting on my own learning experiences in this module as I feel this justifies why creative arts should be taught. I will be explaining how I can use what I have learnt, from this module, in school and talk about the creative lessons I have planned for in school.

“Children’s natural enthusiasm for the arts, as major and valid sources of knowledge, is nurtured from the first day at school and their motivation and commitment is maintained throughout their primary years.” (Bloomfield,2000,pg1).

Creative arts is an essential part of school life as it includes practical engagement of all children as they learn how to paint, compose music, write or to dance, and as they progress through the school year their knowledge of each art form deepens. When children discover social, cultural or historical aspects of the arts they are able to increase their knowledge of the topic by referring to books, articles, artefacts, CDs, recordings and videos. This also gives the children a deeper understanding of their work. (Bloomfield,2000). Creative arts also develop the use of children’s imagination, the way that they respond to their own life experiences and the way they express and communicate their ideas. This can also help their physical development which includes performing confidently, imaginably and good use of space for themselves and others while performing. (Moyles,2002). Creative arts also involves children with different learning needs, audio, visual and kinaesthetic. The lessons are designed to include all children and allow children to achieve their goals.

Each creative area helps develop different skills for learning. I am going to talk about how drama, music and art can aid children’s learning in school.

“Art and design stimulates creativity and imagination. It provides visual tactile and sensory experiences and a unique way of understanding the world.”(DfEE,1999,pg116).

Art artefacts can be found anywhere, all that is needed is imagination to use these artefacts effectively and this can then bring any classroom activity to life. All artefacts that are found can be used to teach the programmes of study in the National Curriculum. “Art is fashioned from world resources, and the natural environment has provided the stimulus for wide ranging art activities both as the stimulus for the design and in the way in which the properties of its material has determined the form of the art object”. (Bloomfield,2000,pg88).

During art sessions children acquire a range of skills which include visual and manual skills, skills to use a wide range of materials and media and problem solving skills. These skills then enable children to formulate their ideas and use materials and artefacts to create their own artefacts in 2D and 3D form. The use of these skills enhance children’s practical knowledge of art making. Children become critically aware during art sessions. They are able to discuss and write about their experiences of art making and develop a metalanguage to discuss their experiences of visual art and design. (Bloomfield,2000).

“Children build up their powers of discussion; they incorporate a vocabulary that has meaning for them from their own creative participation as well as in critical discussion.” (Moyles,2002,pg40).

During a school topic where art is a key focus it is essential to present children’s work either in a portfolio or a class display as this allows the class to reflect on the work they have produced and the value of the process and allows children to comment constructively on each others work. (Bloomfield,2000).

“Music is a powerful, unique form of communication that can change the way pupils feel, think and act. It brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development.” (DfEE,1999,pg122).

Music sessions in school provide vital skills for children to progress through their primary and secondary years. Music lessons enhance children’s listening skills. “Listening is fundamental both in forms of the sounds independently produced and also the collective responses of groups.” Music also enhances group work as it aids inclusion because children, whatever their background or aptitude, have the ability to express themselves successfully in the classroom. Mutual respect and self-discipline is acquired during these sessions as children develop good relationships with each other. (Bloomfield,2000).

“Participation in music and its integration with other art forms provides a rich social environment for children. Performance and presentational work develops a close working relationship within the peer group.” (Bloomfield,2000,pg76).

Music is also looked at as a form of communication. Many professional song writers write songs to deploy meaning and get messages out to the greater world. Musical understanding through singing songs helps children use their voices in an eloquent and effective manner. Children in school are encouraged to adapt music as a form of communication asmusic offers a unique mode of experience where children can receive and express ideas and feelings. This also encourages children to use descriptive language to describe why they have chosen a particular sound to represent their emotions mood or feelings. Music also develops children’s speech as children with musical training have a greater capability to process all sounds, including speech. (Bloomfield,2000).

“ICT is a powerful and necessary tool for the children which both enhances and informs their music, whether as creators, performers, or as investigators.” (Bloomfield,2000,pg87).

Children can use music to find out about the world. There are many links that can be made with music and the celebration of diversity. Children can be encouraged to make music CDs to share with different schools in different communities and countries. Music which the children relate to or which is related to the topic may create different feelings. These feelings can be compared within the group or between different schools. As with music there is no right or wrong answer and it would be interesting to see how other people interpret their ideas and this celebrates diversity. (Bloomfield,2000). When children have recorded their piece it is possible for them to use it as backing music to a performance associated with their topic, this then uses music to enhance and intensify the other creative arts.

Drama can be split into two sections, drama and dance. “Dance education provides children with an artistic language of actions which, linked with their intellectual and physical growth, is transformed into a significant and meaningful mode of communication.” (Bloomfield,2000,pg46). Dance sessions gain children techniques in coordinating movements, inventing movements, remembering movements and then transferring the movements into a dance routine. During these sessions children are encouraged to use their whole body to do this. Dance can be linked to Literacy sessions as children are “using their bodies to express metaphors and symbols through the formulation and organisation of movement patterns that capture and convey meaning.” (Bloomfield,2000,pg 45). This is also a good way to introduce poetry to children, as they are comparing themselves to something different. Children may be encouraged to show how they are feeling as dance has a semantic structure which provides the basis of how children can think, feel and express ideas through movement. Drama and dance can be used to enhance descriptive work of characters the children are portraying. Drama links with literacy development and understanding as it enables children with the pronunciation of words and recitation from stories and poems. (Bloomfield,2000). Pie Corbett believes that children should story map to remember plots in their stories. This is to help them when they are reciting stories to the class. He believes that this way helps develop a child’s memory as they only need their own interpretation of a picture to tell a story. Dance and music linked together is a way for children to express their understanding of themselves and the world as they perceive it. This can encourage children to research different dances and music from different countries of the world. When children participate in these lessons they are including themselves in the coordination of the group. Once children have been given an initial stimulus they are in control of their group. This then develops their skills in working collectively and harmoniously together because a group who can not function this way will have no hope in producing a final piece of work.

Drama can be linked with music as this can provide an effective atmosphere matching the mood for a production. Art can be used to create wall displays, props and set designs for a drama production.

During this module I can honestly say I have felt lost at times. The reason for this was due to my own experiences that involved creative arts at school. During art lessons I was always under the impression that I could not draw. I would always feel embarrassed about my work. The art teacher gave me no confidence in the lessons. It was a case of turning up, doing the work and then be given no constructive feedback. I took this negativity into my first art seminar. I did not feel comfortable doing the tasks that were set but I carried on. I then had a very long discussion with Catherine about my finished products. She then told me that I was concentrating on the negatives factors of my art work and I should look closely at the positives. Even though I believe she was cross with my attitude towards art, she took the time to teach me a valuable lesson. This I will never forget and I can use effectively in my own art lesson. By making me see the positives in my work I was able to achieve more because I felt confident in what I was doing. I was praised effectively but not over praised as I would have thought she was patronising me. This is the correct attitude to have in the classroom whilst teaching. Children know when they have been given false or too much praise and then the praise is not effective. “Praise can alienate pupils because every response is being judged by the praise it receives.”(Cockburn,2006,pg105).

During my time in school I have planned individual drama and music lessons. For the music lesson the class was split into three groups. Each group was given a number of instruments that made sounds related to Christmas. I gave each group a starting point and this was Christmas Eve, Christmas day morning and Christmas day afternoon. I asked each group to compile a composition relating to the starting point. The children knew that this was their first draft of a composition and they would have time to “practise, rehearse and perform” ,(DfEE,1999,pg126), as the teacher was going to use my idea in further music lessons. The children had to note the pattern of their music using symbols; this was going to make it easier for them to improve the composition. The children were left in control of their own compositions as I did not want any of my own personal input involved in their work. Children are far more creative and adventurous when they are left to their own devices and they will learn more about their work. (Bloomfield,2000).

“Tell me and I forget, show me and I may remember, let me do it and I will learn.”(DfEE,1999,pg90).

It is important when using the creative arts that the children have an end product to show for their work. It was therefore essential that our group was able to show off our work on the ‘Railway lines through the snow’ painting. This gave us a sense of achievement and finalised all our hard work. As a group we all developed through the module especially our concert performance. I had to listen to my peers and they had to listen to me. We had to stay harmonised and focused otherwise the concert would have been a disaster. Each member of the group had different personal strengths and we had to use each others strengths to aid our concert performance. I developed all the skills that I have spoken about which children develop during creative arts sessions and I understand if we did not have these skills we would not progress, and achieve our end goal.

“The creative arts permit individual children to conceptualise and understand their strength areas to compensate or overcome weakness in other areas. It also has the impact of motivating children, sustaining their interest and improving their self-esteem. It provides in-depth study and develops all round skills.”(Bloomfield,2000,pg108).

Experience in the creative arts is therefore an essential part of a child’s learning.

References

Bloomfield. A. (2000). Teaching Integrated Arts in the Primary School. London:David Fulton Publishers.

Cockburn A. Handscomb G. (2006). Teaching children 3-11, a students guide. 2^nd ed. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

DfES., (1999). The National Curriculum. London:DfES

Moyes, J. (2002). Beginning Teaching:Beginning Learning in Primary Education. Second edition. Buckingham: Open University.

Palmer, S.(2003) Literacy: What works? London: Nelson Thornes.

Cooperative Learning Academic Social

Literature Review: Cooperative learning is an informative technique in which students work together in small fixed groups on a structured learning with the aim of maximizing their own and each others learning (Johnson & Johnson 1986). Cooperative learning has two very striking aspects on focus; these are academic and social learning benefits. Academic benefits include high grades in all that they achieve, reading intellectual capacity, keeping the kids physically fit, enhanced hypothetical understanding and great triumph in science. Social benefits focus mostly behaviors towards certain tasks and the way they relate among group members, development of higher skill that come from within and self esteem. Social benefits also focus on how they positively relate with others, how they involve themselves in class activities and to develop a positive attitude towards schooling. (Johnson & Johnson 1986, Buron, James and Ambrosio 1993; Gillies 1999: Gillies and Ashman 1998; McManus and Gettinger, 1996)

Johnson and Johnson’s “Learning together” approach involves a more collaborative approach in which students are directed to coordinate their efforts towards task completion emphasizing less on competition. One purpose of the approach is to cater for the third grade leaner’s’ cooperative learning. Several studies on the application of cooperative learning in computer classes have been carried out. Barons (1999) studied the effects of 276 fifth and sixth grader cooperative learning and their ability to form groups during microcomputer learning. The outcome of the four measures of achievement did not go for the idea of cooperative learning or the ability to form groups during microcomputer learning. Seymor (1994) did his study with 57 computer aided design students. Some students worked individually while being given commands by their teacher, another group worked cooperatively and the last group combined both approaches. Seymor made conclusions later on, that cooperative learning proved more efficient in the use of computers.

While cooperative learning has so merits behind it towards the students’ academic achievement, building of self esteem, active learning, achievement of equity and the development of social skills, it surely is not a universal remedy for education; it cannot solve all the problems for the students. (Cohen, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Kagan, 1992; Slavin, 1995), found out that students who had behavioral disorders and had not received proper social skills, performed better with direct instructions rather than with the cooperative approach. Its for this reason that teachers will be advised to have some substantial understanding of how o bring to effect their design of cooperative learning. They should take relative or social-ecological variables into consideration, as proper initial consultation while using cooperative learning requires strong basis in the theoretical and empirical foundation before it is used.

The use of computers in group learning enhances deep learning and critical thinking (Eunsook Hyun 44 (2005) 69–91). The children tend to move deeper into what they are learning and critically analyze the activity, to get a deeper understanding. According to these researchers (Newman, Johnson, Webb, & Cochrane, 1997), the critical thinking chains positive peer self-motivation, learner’s internal evaluation and the amalgamation of newly acquired information with the already existing comprehension. In the early childhood classes, the computer technology can be used as means of motivating collaborative learning (Eunsook, 2005).

Crook (1998), from his own perspective observed that children cooperate and learn collaboratively. If natural and learner-favoring environments were provided, where the children are free to explore, negotiate with their peers, teach and share with their peers, while taking charge of their own learning, would be critical in uncovering the characteristics of young children’s cooperative-learning behavior in now a classroom rich in computer technology. Eunsook (2005) also cites Crook (1991) arguing that technology based activities are effective especially when they help the groups of kids to explore ideas at developmentally meaningful levels.

Roth et al (p.1009) describes how a particular computer display affords the possibility of a coherent conversation. Malone and Lepper (1987) show how certain computer games afford intrinsic motivation. This includes control of activity, interactivity, immediate results, graded goals, conflict and moderate certainty. The outcome of interest was working theories or schemas and the individual technology relationship can be described as anchoring. In Papert’s book, Mindstorms, (1980), he asserts that anything is easy if it can be assimilated to your collection of models. He continues to put it across that what an individual can learn and how he learns it depends on what models he has available. Children tend to assimilate the real things, for instance Mathematics, with what interests them most or what preoccupies their minds most.

Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985, 1991) studied students of age 10 and 14, and found out that a change in how a certain was located, changed the skill of the children. In one of their studies they changed the computer settings in a laboratory. Geometric shapes were to be predicted using a video game setting. In this, the migration of butterflies was to be predicted. The cursor was changed to the picture of a butterfly net and the students were to capture the insects in the butterfly net instead of pointing to the position of the shapes

The authors describe strategic and attention behavior that was more efficient for a particular problem solving task in the more familiar context than in a laboratory context. There appeared to be several aspects of a meaningful or comfortable context that anchor the skill, knowledge or strategy. For a variety of reason, then the technology or the problem is more transparent, understandable if anchored to meaning and effect.

Nicola Yelland (1999) in his article “Technology as play” has tried to paint the picture of how the advent of technology has contributed greatly towards how children learn from the technology through play. Learning is not only fun but children can actively form their own meanings and make sense out of the world around them, in different ways. The angle in which toys were observed has changed considerably over the years after the invention of the new technologies. They have brought other dimensions to objects that previously were taken to play a passive role. Computer software that allows children to engage in play tends to be unrestricted and do not simply require the child to press a button to get a feedback. Such softwares are regarded as high yielding cognitive actions. Some software enables children to play with the real world items such as musical instruments, but now in a different dimension. The children can create their own sounds using these softwares which prove to be so interesting to them and a motivation to even create more tunes.

Nicola Yelland ha also identified, through other research works, softwares that contribute towards play include the electronic games. Some of these games involve the application of education concepts such as early skills in science and art, like making patterns, matching objects and placing object according to certain specifications. Traditional activities can now be complemented with different experiences that have been made possible with the new information technologies. The new information technologies and the activities associated with them have the potential to extend new learning in new and exciting ways.

The question that hovers in many researchers’ minds is whether really children can really learn effectively using the collaborative approach, in a technology filled classroom. Young children are very enthusiastic about technology and therefore, they may be less inhibited about working with computers than adults (Clements, 1994; Haugland, 1999, 2000; Shade, 1999). But the question still remains; how do they behave if placed in a classroom with a great deal of technology. However, little attention in writing has been taken about the impact of this kind of an environment on the computer proficiency of young children.

Tiene and Luft (2001a&b; 2000a&b) completed a number of quantitative studies focusing on teacher’s general perception of children’s collaboration learning in this kind of a facility. The teachers reported that both they and their students improved their technological proficiency during the time they were in the technology saturated environment.

REFERENCES

Charles Crook (1998). “Children as computer users: The case of collaborative learning” Computers and Education pg 237-245.
Eunsook Hyun (2005). “A study of 5- to 6-year-old children’s peer dynamics and dialectical learning in a computer-based technology-rich classroom environment”

Computers & Education 44 (2005) 69–91

Tiene, D., & Luft, P. (2000b; 2001b). “Classroom dynamics in a technology-rich learning environment.” Learning and Learning with Technology 29(4), pg10–13.
Shu Ching Yang and Shu Fang Liu (2005) “The study of interactions and attitudes of third-grade students learning information technology via a cooperative approach” Computers in Human Behavior Pg 46-49.
Margret Carr (2001). “Analyzing the Relationship between the Learner and Everyday Technology in Early Childhood” Journal of Research Science in Education pg 29-33

Title: The contribution to science by a scientist of your choice. 3000 words

This paper discusses the contribution to science made by the English scientist Charles Darwin, (1809-1882), author of The Origin of Species (1859), the originator of the Theory of Natural Selection or Evolution. It examines the manner in which the work of Darwin could be related into the existing science curriculum, considering his work as an exemplar of the scientific method. It also sets out to relate the scientific discoveries and principles involved to other aspects of the school curriculum, especially in the area of citizenship. The contentious nature of Darwin’s ‘discovery’ in his own time illustrates the fact that there is a common interest in the discipline: we are, in a sense, stakeholders in scientific facts and methods, since they help to determine the shape of our daily lives. As the House of Lords points out, ‘….this is not confined to scientists; it extends to those who make policy, whether public or commercial, on the basis of scientific opportunities and advice. Policy-makers will find it hard to win public support….on any issue with a science component, unless the public’s attitudes and values are recognised, respected and weighed in the balance along with the scientific and other factors.’ (House of Lords, 2000, para 2.66). Despite its age, Darwin’s theory continues to be debated, and can inform us about the importance of observational skills and scientific integrity. It also provides precedents for the way science and society interact, which may be useful in our society. As the Royal Society observes, ‘It is thus not trust in science per se which is of concern but the speed of scientific and technological development, the uses to which science is put, and the ability of regulatory and institutional structures to keep pace with this change.’ (Royal Society, 2004, p.13). Darwin’s work brought him notoriety, but also controversy and personal vitriol. (See illustrations). This is where the link between science and citizenship can be made.

How does this contribution map to the science curriculum?

As a 2002 Report by House of Lords acknowledges, ‘The foundations of an interest in science are laid at primary school, between the ages of 5 and 11.’ (House of Lords, para. 6.3) The principle benefit which could be obtained through the work of Darwin is a general accessibility, which would itself enable learners to engage with the curriculum. As Meadows points out, ‘Much of cognition and learning depends on identifying the relevant knowledge that the learner already has in existing memory so that this knowledge can be used as a starting point for learning what is new. Having no starting point…will hamper learning and reasoning…’ (Meadows, 2006: p.112). A variety of authorities and analysts have noted there that are continuing conceptual problems in the way learners, and the wider community engage with science. These are attributable to a variety of factors. Qualitative (i.e. phenomenological) research commissioned jointly by the DTI and the Wellcome Trust revealed public support for the idea that ‘Science makes our lives change too fast.’ (Wellcome Trust, 2000, p.23) Beyond this apparently simple picture there lay a more complex picture, with differentiated levels of understanding and interest claimed for different areas of science. Environmental concerns, health issues and medial discoveries held the greatest interest for 82-91 per cent of respondents, whilst new technology was considered more interesting by 74 per cent. Only 48 per cent of those questioned claimed that energy issues were the most significant for them. (Wellcome Trust 2000: p.21) The same research also discovered that it was possible to categorise respondents into different groups, determined by their interest in science, and the degree of trust they felt in science and scientists. Correspondingly, subjects characterised themselves as ‘confident believers’ at the end of the continuum most engaged with science, to ‘supporters’ half way along the scale, right down to those who stated that science was ‘not for them’. (Wellcome 2000: pp.5-7)

Correspondingly, there are several overlapping benefits which could be obtained through an expanded use of Darwin’s work. Firstly, an enhanced understanding of scientific method, secondly, an improved awareness of the operation of natural laws, and thirdly, the means by which research results are validated, interpreted and shared. The benefits of this could start to be felt even at the Primary phase, as Peacock et.al. argue, ‘Primary science is perhaps best regarded…as an intellectual, practical, creative and social endeavour which seeks to help children to better understand and make sense of the world in which they live…(and)…should involve children in thinking and working in particular ways in the pursuit of reliable knowledge.’ ( Peacock et al., 2007: p.1). It is in this way that a rigorous interpretation of the general principles established by Darwin might be very beneficial, in overturning and challenging pre-conceived ideas about identity and value, such as those often attributed to the so-called ‘hidden curriculum.’ As Bishop and Simpson point out, ‘The pressures of the hidden curriculum are also present with regard to structure. The children themselves can be very forceful in structuring science activities with preconceived social frameworks.’ (Bishop and Simpson, 1995: p.7).

In thematic terms, Darwin’s work is thoroughly supportive of the Knowledge, Skills and Understanding element of the science curriculum, i.e. , Ideas and evidence in Science, Investigative Skills, and subsidiary disciplines such as planning and presenting evidence. By the time students reach Key Stage 3, these skills are being further developed under the headings of Practical and Enquiry Skills, Critical Understanding of Evidence, and Communication. In practical terms, principles developed from Darwin’s theory could be incorporated into the science curriculum as early as unit 1A, Ourselves, and then continued on through key Stage 2 in Life Processes and Living Things. Within the latter, it would be important to focus on sub-unit 4, Variation and Classification, and 5, Living Things in Their Environment, noting how living organisms vary and change according to their context. This theme could be carried on developmentally in the context of Key Stage Three, which incorporates two highly relevant modules, Organisms, Behaviour and Health, and The Environment, Earth and Universe. Moving away from the formal curriculum, Darwin’s theory could help by developing the foundations of causal reasoning and also problem solving, contributing to a general improvement in science standards overall, across all units of study.

How does the work of the scientist demonstrate the scientific method, or is it a counter example?

From an educational and scientific perspective, Darwin’s work is interesting because it is based extensively on observation and deduction, rather than extensive or repeatable physical experimentation. Because of the enormous timescales involved in the evolutionary processes which preoccupied Darwin, it is in effect, impossible to prove, in absolute terms, whether the theory is correct or not. The theory still has its detractors, and direct opponents, who object to it on ideological or theological grounds. Despite this however, it has become a generally accepted scientific principle. Darwin’s work is therefore, in one sense, the purest expression of the scientific method, especially since it was formulated in a vacuum of worthwhile antecedents, and an atmosphere of considerable ideological opposition. The only possible way in which his work might be deemed a ‘counter example’ is the manner in which it ran directly contrary to much mainstream scientific thinking amongst his contemporaries. However, it definitely was a discovery made because of – rather than in spite of – scientific method.

Essentially, what Darwin did was to propose an interpretation of events, extrapolated from a vast amount of biological and geological evidence: he then formulated a specific interpretation of causality which, in his analysis, had only one possible scientific outcome. It is this kind of observational model, based on causality, which can tap into the learner’s innate cognitive ability, even from the youngest age. As Meadows observes of children’s interpretative perception, ‘…By the beginning of school years, it follows basic causal principles, for example that causes precede effects rather than following effects, that they covary with their effects – the effect regularly and predictably appears after the cause and does not appear without it, and the cause and effect are close, or at least linked, in time and space.’. (Meadows, 2006: p.109)

How can the work being discussed be used to address citizenship issues in schools?

As Rose and Rose indicate, it has always been possible to take the view that, ‘…science appears to advance in a more or less ordered manner, irrespective of the prevailing social environment in which it is performed.’ (Rose and Rose, 1970, p.241) The power of Darwin’s work lays in its ability to bridge the gap between science and the community, and it is here that his relevance to issues of citizenship may be found. Darwin’s contribution to science as mirrored to a great extent by the way his work reinforced other areas of academic, philosophical and social study: all of this makes it directly relevant to citizenship issues. As Wallace points out, ‘A reading of the Origin…make it difficult to assert that Darwin’s mind was ‘devoid’ of economic and philosophy. A more sustainable conclusion is that it was permeated by principles of political economy and philosophy in the form of a language which did not differentiate between the political and the biological.’ (Wallace 1995: p.11) In other words, Darwin’s work was implicitly bound up with the values of his host society: it is this which makes it an ideal link between science and citizenship. The only contrast is that we move from a Victorian context, to a present day one. This, it may be argued, has potential benefits for science, education, and society alike. As the Royal Society concluded with regard to the current science curriculum, ‘…many students lacked enthusiasm for…. the subject, and felt frustrated by a content-heavy curriculum which gave them little room to explore controversial and ethical issues that might interest them.’ (Royal Society, 2004, p.21 ) Darwin’s work, it may be argued, is perfectly adapted to facilitate the latter: it is not remote, or obscure, and on certain levels it is highly accessible.

The links between science and citizenship manifest themselves in various ways. Firstly, there is the whole issue of public understanding of, and trust in science. As Meadows points out, ‘…understanding cause builds up into what has been called a ‘naive physics’, a coherent set of notions about how objects behave; if this gives rise to the formation and testing of hypotheses by observation and experiment, it becomes the basis for a physics which is scientific rather than naive.’ (Meadows, 2006: p.109). Darwin’s work teaches us that it is not only the observation of a phenomena, but the cultural capacity to assimilate its meaning, which is important. Scientific matters are not the discrete concern of the scientific community itself, but spill over into the political sphere and eventually concern us all. This is especially true when ethical issues become involved, as they increasingly tend to do in the biological and life-sciences, affecting everything from the air we breathe, the food we eat, the health treatment we can expect, and even the degree of control we might have in determining the health, gender, and character of our children. The important point here is that attitudes vary, from a profound mistrust, to an almost myopic faith in science. As the House of Lords observed, neither position is entirely valid, a situation it attributes sqaurely to schools. ‘In common parlance, “scientific” is almost synonymous with “certain”. This perception, which is probably picked up at school, is virtually true of much old and well-established scientific knowledge. In many of the areas of current concern, from climate change to cancer, it is however very wide of the mark.’ (House of Lords, 2000, para. 4.1) It is not the fallibility of science which is useful from a citizenship point of view, but rather the necessity of maintaining an open mind and capacity for objective debate. It is also important to remember that we all share a collective responsibility for the way that society is conducted, and the manner in which scientific affair are run on our behalf. Again, this is not a remote or academic debate, and at its most intense, can demonstrate the relevance of scientific method in our everyday lives. As the Royal Society points out, contemporary crises such as that created by BSE illustrates this. ‘… BSE highlighted profound concerns about the science advice process and the role of scientists and government officials, the effectiveness policy making and action within departments such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the ability of Ministers to both gauge and communicate risk effectively, and fundamentally the relationship between science and politics.’ (Royal Society, 2004, p.17)

If we take the Key Stage Three Citizenship curriculum as an example, the continued relevance of Darwin’s ideas becomes apparent. In the sphere of political, legal and human rights, we must take account of the DFES guidance that every child is ‘…A unique child….every child is a competent learner from birth who can be resilient, capable, confident and self assured.’ (DFES, 2007: p.5). The essence of Darwin’s thought is that all people are descended from the same ultimate source, and therefore equality before the law, and of political rights, is a prerequisite of an equitable society and civil polity. This in turn leads into the principles of democracy and the idea everyone should have a voice in determining the legislative conduct of government. The importance of maintaining freedom of speech and allowing a diversity of views are also essential to the principles of citizenship as enshrined in the curriculum.

It is important to remember that, without these facilities, Darwin’s scientific ideas might never have received public attention. In Section 2, Key Processes, the KS3 Citizenship curriculum requires that learners ‘…engage with and reflect on different ideas, opinions, beliefs and values when exploring topical and controversial issues and problems.’ (QCA 2007: p.30). Darwin knew that publishing his ideas about evolution in Victorian society would draw fierce opposition from many quarters, because of its dissonance with biblical teachings about the Creation. This opposition was likely to be immovable and resistant to logic: As Hull points out, those ‘…who rejected evolutionary theory primarily for theological reasons…would not have been able to accept it even if all the evidence had been overwhelmingly in its favour – which it was not.’ (Hull 1974: p.450). Similarly, his right to debate his theories with opponents and critics formed an important part of the way in which he fundamentally changed attitudes, way beyond the purely scientific sphere. As Darwin himself wrote of one of his counter-theorists, ‘He will be dead against me, as you prophesied…but he is generously civil to me personally. On his standard of proof, natural science would never progress, for without the making of theories I am convinced there would be no observation.’ (Hull 1974: p.229). As can be seen from this, it should be possible, in a tolerant and progressive society, to express and discuss opposed views in a reasonable way: the freedom to do this, and determination to protect such freedoms, are important tenets of contemporary citizenship. As the Key Stage Three citizenship curriculum puts it, responsible citizens should be able to ‘…communicate an argument, taking account of different viewpoints and drawing on what they have learnt through research, action and debate…justify their argument, giving reasons to try to persuade others to think again, change or support them.’ (QCA 2007: p.30).

In contemporary UK society, responsible citizenship also requires us to understand diversity of cultures and identities, and that movement of people, either temporarily or permanently, is an intrinsic feature of our society and economy. This is fully reflected in the citizenship curriculum, which states that learners should recognise …the hanging nature of UK society, including the diversity of ideas, beliefs, cultures, identities, traditions, perspectives and values that are shared.’ (QCA 2007: p.33) Darwin’s theory of natural selection is supportive of such perspectives in a variety of ways. By teaching us that we all have common origins, his thinking undermines any ideas of intrinsic racial difference, or any barriers erected around such ideas. Since we all developed from the same biological source, there can be no justification for valuing any individual differently: in other words, concepts of ‘biological determinism’ are invalidated. Moreover, any attempt to do so can, by Darwin’s teaching, at once be revealed as arbitrary, subjective and unscientific. There are obvious cross-curricular links to be made here, both historically and in terms of contemporary societies, where such conditions still endure. Children are natural observers of the phenomenon around them, and Darwin’s ideas are profoundly supportive of this. Meadows points out that children ‘…appear to draw inferences about the causes of events they see, to discriminate between self-caused and other-caused movement, to categorize living things that are agents as different from inanimate objects.’ (Meadows, 2006: p.109). Being citizens also accrues us the responsibility to change things for the better: correspondingly, although we have rights in society, we have a duty to ensure that such rights are exercised responsibly, without impinging on the rights of others. Darwin’s theory also taught us that we are, as social actors, entirely interdependent upon each other.

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Coaching is about learning specific skills, to improve performance or to prepare for advancement. To an outsider, coaching situations may look similar. All are based on an ongoing, confidential, one-on-one relationship between coach and learner. Yet each teaching situation can be quite diverse and some of these distinctions are important to recognise, if only to foster informed choice by everyone involved. Therefore this essay defines and explores key distinguishing features amongst coaching. Furthermore taking account of these factors, this essay will discuss and suggests different coaching roles. Any instructional strategy should be based on learning theory because without an understanding of how athletes learn, one cannot expect to achieve intended learning goals (Griffin et al, 2005). The use of student and athlete has been used interchangeable throughout this essay to reflect its meaning. So focusing on this I will look from a behaviourist perspective on how people learn best and what certain influences can facilitate learning, by briefly discussing the place of feedback will identify influential factors this can make to a pupils education and overall learning experience.

Watkins and Mortimer define pedagogy as ‘any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another’ (1999; 3). With coaching being recently reconceptualised as a pedagogy (Cassidy et al., 2004), it is imperative for a coach/teachers to ensure learners are facilitating in their learning, so rather than just teaching a certain skill, they also teach when this skill should be used. By being a coach, in other words, implies being a ‘certain kind of teacher’ (Hacking, 1986; Gee, 2001), but exactly what such being entails remains covered in uncertainty (Richardson, 2002). The role for the coach or teacher has been very directive, instructional or prescriptive (Cassidy et al. 2004, Kidman, 2001). For instance, the coach or teacher deciding when and how athletes/students should perform specified skills or movements. This has led to the coach being regarded as the sole source of knowledge, transmitting this in a unidirectional way with learners having a passive role in the learning process (Potrac and Cassidy 2006). Furthermore, this occupies a position of centrality and influence in the sporting environment (Cushion et al. 2006, Smith and Smoll 2007). Therefore, Lyle’s (2002) research suggests there is a strong belief that the quality of coaching is one of the most important environmental factors in determining performance improvement with success. Signifying not only the behaviour of the coach being an influential socialising agent but might also impact on performance, learning, and a range of many other psycho-social outcomes.

Coaches and teachers can be implicitly or explicitly, by their beliefs about learning. By practicing and behaving according to their own beliefs, directly impacting on how the coach’s role is perceived and enacted within the coaching process, such as tradition of the sport taught, socialisation experiences etc. Research suggests knowledge and practice, remains largely based on experiences and the interpretation of those experiences (Cushion, Armour, and Jones 2003; Cushion 2006; Gilbert and Trudel 2006). This however, is regardless of the implementation and availability of education programmes and courses. Furthermore, Douge and Hastie (1993) believe that the accumulating years of involvement doesn’t necessarily guarantee that an agent will become an effective coach. Chelladurai also expands suggests that “future research could focus on generating items based on the experiences and insights of both coaches and athletes” (1990; 340). Indicating that there is no single behaviour, role or approach that is either a defining or essential component to an athlete’s/student’s centeredness (Popkewitz, 1998; Cain, 1989). In fact, the amount that a coach feels compelled to act in a single way; the more likely they are to impose limits on their athletes because their own behaviour is constrained (Daniels 2001, Cain 1989) not only implementing interventions but could interfere with coaching preparations.

There are many different ‘building blocks’ which aid coaches in the effectiveness of their coaching and improve their coaching practice, although there are a number of reflective cycles to assist coaches, Gibbs (1988) offers a model of coaching effectiveness ideal for the beginner coach involving the following six elements:

1) Description – Describe as a matter of fact just what happened during your critical incident or chosen episode for reflection.

2) Feelings – What were you thinking and feeling at the time?

3) Evaluation – List points or tell the story about what was GOOD and what was BAD about the experience.

4) Analysis – What sense can you make out of the situation. What does it mean?

5) Conclusion – What else could you have done? What should you perhaps not have done?

6) Action Plan – If it arose again, what would you do differently? How will you adapt your practice in the light of this new understanding?

This framework is an ideal excellent starting point for coaches/teachers in their investigations of the coaching process itself, not only this but Bandura states “People not only gain understanding through reflection, they evaluate and alter their own thinking” (1986; 62) enticing coaches to un-earth their theory in use, inevitably extending learning in both coach and athletes. Paradoxically focusing on this, coaches and teachers have varied roles to consider, whereby they can aid the need for the following specific knowledge and skills:

Interpersonal skills.

Communicating and establishing trusting relationships with whom they are trying to change their practices. Coaches must be able to observe accurately and provide appropriate feedback.

Content knowledge.

Having an understanding of their subject matter, this includes how knowledge of a discipline is developed through curricula and learning materials. Experience with others coaches at the different level indicates that a certain level of content-area expertise is necessary to be a subject area coach. However, expertise also may create tension when coaches are labelled experts. Most important is for a coach to establish a collaborative, reflective relationship.

Pedagogical knowledge.

To lead, coaches need to understand how students and athletes learn, including knowledge of the tasks, questioning strategies, and structures that can help students/athletes develop their own ideas.

Knowledge of the curriculum.

Familiarity with the structures and experiences offered by a curriculum is important, including understanding the fundamental ideas behind a curriculum and how those ideas connect across different ability levels.

Awareness of coaching resources.

Aware of specific knowledge of professional development materials, literature, and resources that can be used to support development of subject or pedagogical knowledge and better understanding how to teach.

Knowledge of the practice of coaching.

Coaching strategies and structures, such as how to use pre and post observations or on-the-spot coaching; the role of questioning and effective strategies; how to use resources of teaching practice (curriculum materials, student work, scripts of classroom dialogue, etc.); and the pro’s and con’s of demonstration lessons and coaching sessions.

All specify a requirement of the coach/teacher, however, athletes have been shown to have different preferences and different responses to coach behaviour (Reiman, 2007) and in complex social and interpersonal settings, individual differences are sure to play an important role (Smith and Smoll, 2007). However, not all people are the same, nor are circumstances and contexts, and consequently a ‘one size fits all’ approach will not work for all learners and in all situations (Amorose, 2007). Moreover, Jonassen (1999; 235) suggests possible ideas “by starting the learners with the tasks they know how to perform and gradually add task difficulty until they are able to perform” therefore facilitates learning in both coach and learner encouraging decision making roles. There are four components which influence: the coach, the athlete, knowledge and the learning environment. Focusing on these statements further and the literature researched indicate many influential factors one in particular being feedback which the following section discusses.

Indeed, all coaching is based upon some theory about how we learn with behaviourism strongly informs coaching, resulting in an instructional approach that emphasises the use of feedback and rewarding behaviour. Feedback from coaches is an essential aspect of learning. Whereby coaches use feedback to encourage pupils to respond to their own learning by discovering where they are now in relation to where they would like to be, and to determine how to do better next time (Hargreaves, 2005).

Fundamentally feedback can be used as a tool to support and enhance learning (Ofsted, 2008) in both education and coaching practice. More recently, it has become the source of heated debates and has seen a dramatic increase in the amount of literature relating to feedback and in particular operant conditioning approach (Skinner, 1958) which is based on the well established principles of individual learning that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Although some citations are dated in this section however; it is still relevant today as there are many expectations and implications which are placed on coaches and teachers to provide meaningful support and feedback to enhance learning.

It’s believed by Smoll and Smith (1989) that coaches must have extensive task knowledge so that they can issue proper instruction about desired behaviours and reinforce individuals when they do well. However, findings by Komaki et al (1989) illustrate the need for consistency in verbal reinforcement and feedback to initiate an increase in the frequency of desirable behaviours and decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviours. Thus, according to Mayer (1983) can elaborate and expand on learners knowledge, building on existing cognitive schema (Mayer, 1983), this can be reinforced by way of feedback.

There are, however further expectations placed on teachers. Piaget’s work is concerned with the expansion of knowledge and understanding, with ways in which new information is dealt with by learners. However, Pritchard (2009) has identified concern in the amount of time coaches have available to give sufficient feedback, more so with coaching and teaching in groups rather than one on one. Although Boud (1999) suggests that when pupils take responsibility of their own learning this will allow them to deepen their understanding.

Not only does insufficient time have implications but a message (feedback) can also have the potential to be misinterpreted. It is generally accepted that certain feedback might be taken personally by pupils, and lead to defensiveness and loss in confidence. ‘We judge too much and too powerfully, not realising the extent to which pupils experience our power over them’ (Boud, 1999; 43). Self-esteem, it is believed, is affected by receiving negative or unexpected feedback. Research by Young (2000) suggests, however, considerations should be made from the opposite perspective: it is the student’s level of self-esteem that affects the messages they receive—both positive and negative. Those with low self-esteem tend to view all feedback as a judgement of ability, whilst those with high self-esteem do not. Indicating certain implications which could severe interpersonal problems

Certainly, teachers and coaches if they are truly person centered should be continually open to learning and how their athletes/students learn and achieve effectively as shown throughout this essay, however there are so many areas and this essay has only covered a few. It might be valuable that by creating the best possible atmosphere for learning and performance, coaches and teachers can and would be less concerned about a certain coaching style or behaviour and more concerned about whether whatever they do impairs or facilitates learning. In this sense, receptivity, flexibility and differentiated responses in coaches and teachers are likely to maximize the outcome (Cain, 1989). In reality, the teacher or coach has a role to play in identifying and addressing certain problems and assisting, deconstruct knowledge relating to aspects of sporting performance (Potrac and Cassidy, 2006). Finally, this then provides the learner with the personal and informational resources for learning (Cain 1989), giving a unique opportunity to make significant changes in a person life.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a reflection and example of such a structured session using an approach whereby learners work out solutions to tactical problems themselves with the coach facilitating their learning.

In the UK there are thousands of individuals who are qualified coaches because of the availability of coaching courses. However, research into coaching have shown that coaching courses only act as a starting point, with coaches in Jones et al.’s (2004) review points to the fact that the immensity of learning actually occurs through experience. Thus this alone does not guarantee capability this is elaborated in these words:

‘It is not enough just to do, and neither is it enough just to think … Learning from experience must involve linking the doing and the thinking’ Gibbs (1988; 9).

The process of reflection is linked between doing and thinking (Martens, 1997; Gibbs, 1988) moreover, Bandura believes “People not only gain understanding through reflection, they evaluate and alter their own thinking” (1986; 62). Reflection has its origins in Schon’s (1983) work, where he defined a reflective conversation as the following cycle: appreciation; experimentation and evaluation. Later, other reflective models were put forward. Johns’ (1995) model consists of 26 questions that the coach must ask themselves, whereas Gibbs’ (1988) model consists of six. This reflection will use the Gibbs’ model to reflect upon a situation that arose during one of my coaching practices. The basis for this is because it’s uncomplicated and allows a beginner coach like myself to follow, whereas Johns’ tends to be more complex decision-making (Johns, 1995).

Before moving on to the process of reflection, it’s important to note that this paper will take a pedagogical approach. Watkins and Mortimer describe pedagogy as ‘any conscious activity by one person designed to improve learning in another’ (1999; 3). With coaching being recently reconceptualised as a pedagogy (Cassidy et al., 2004), it is important for coaches to ensure learners are facilitating in their learning, so rather than just coaching a certain method, they also teach when this skill should be applied. Therefore, I will reflect upon a coaching experience of my own, using Gibbs’ (1988) model, to access whether learners were given the possibility to progress in their learning.

Description

I decided to coach a basketball session, focusing on shooting techniques and positioning. The games for understanding (TGfU) approach (Bunker and Thorpe, 1982) was used opposed to the more traditional coaching/teaching model. Teachers in the traditional model teach skills first and tactics later. As Light and Fawns (2003) have articulated, ‘knowing the game’ is to play it and demonstrate knowledge-in-action (Schon , 1983). Advocates of the TGfU model endorse tactics first, while skills are introduced afterwards (Bradley, 2004; Turner et al, 2001). So basically, what to do comes before how to do it. A mini game was introduced at the beginning of the session along with a brief explanation of certain rules required to give shape to the game and determine the variety of tactics and skills required for a successful performance. The session was going well with players participating with enthusiasm by contributing to certain questions then furthering their decisions. However, after a while I ran out of certain ideas for further progressions.

Feelings

Having sensed with apprehension that some learners were getting uninterested and even slowed down and eventually stopped playing. Research has suggested this is because players can lack challenges and so therefore their intrinsic motivation to participate decreases (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Conversely feeling the pressure to make a change or how to put in challenges to be successful in their performance, dismay started to set in as I didn’t have a further plan.

Evaluation

The TGfU approach was effective in increasing enthusiasm because it was fun. This was backed up by Griffin et al (1995) who said that the TGfU approach may be more enjoyable for players than traditional technique drills; are, and so they’re more motivated to participate. Also, by probing the players to answer questions about faults in their technique, I was also facilitating the development of players’ critical thinking and decision-making skills; two important cognitive skills (Kirk and MacPhail, 2002). However, when the session started to become less interesting I was unable to make certain changes due to a lack of experience of different activities. There was also concerned in stopping and re-starting the game as research also suggested that learners feel this interrupt the flow of the game (Lieberman, 2008).

Analysis

I’d realised that in the early stages learners were going through a learning process. The game allowed them to obtain physical skills and techniques, whilst the questions and communication with peers facilitated their cognitive development (Kirk & MacPhail, 2002). However, being unable to enforce new activities the learners’ learning process began to even out. This is believed to be because of a lack of challenge denting their motivation to continue (Ryan & Deci, 2000), thus decreasing or stopping participation would further the opportunity to learn.

Conclusion

I felt I had developed well through this session but was always looking at ways to improve through listening, reading and reflection. Thinking over my lesson, I’d realised that there were certain ‘blind spots’ in my coaching. Although the tasks enabled the players to learn, success by progressing further questioning enabled decision-making skills and communicating with each other to solve meticulous problems. Therefore, incorporating a cognitive based learning approach; where learners were required to solve realistic problems (Dolmans et al., 2005). In relation, structured scenarios where players would need to decide whether it was best to shoot, which pass to use and dribbling techniques and enticing communication amongst their team to score or win. It was also vital that learners understood why they were carrying out and practising certain drills. If players understand why they were doing something, their motivation to change their practice in order to improve their skills and team play could then be improved. Therefore encouraging players to question and communicate the varying drills and by asking what it is going to be useful; for what reason.

Action Plan

Games have an essential cognitive dimension that has been to some extent limited by the traditional coaching/teaching model (Light, 2002; Light and Fawns, 2001). The TGfU approach utilises open ended questioning however it is believed to be more time-consuming in the early stages and errors are likely to be a plenty (Kroll, 2004; Prawat, 1992) but giving learners greater ownership of decision-making process would enable them to think for themselves in a game that is largely based on making appropriate decisions. Therefore, when planning future sessions I will account for various problems that may arise and the activities that I’ll put into practice to solve them (e.g. how and when to modify the games, when to stop play and question, when to bring players out of the game for individual questioning etc.) Finally the issue being the use of open ended questioning with learners. Such questioning would also enable students to make a cognitive leap, particularly when teaching invasion game strategies (Butler, 1997).

To conclude, the process of reflection has allowed me to notice that my session had both positive and negative aspects. The positive aspect was that the TGfU approach was effective and enjoyable (Griffin et al., 1995), but the negative aspect was after a while, my session became tedious. Gibbs’ (1988) model also made me question why certain things happened, with me putting this down to challenges for the learners. Finally, Gibbs’ model really assisted me in thinking what I could do in the future. After reading Schempp et al.’s (2006) literature on certain planning, I realise that I could create certain plans for the different problems that can arise during teaching.

Classroom Teacher Children

What Characteristic patterns of classroom discourse are apparent in the passage below?

Context: This discourse takes place in a first-grade classroom in the USA, where the children are approximately 6 years old. The teacher has been reading from a book on hurricanes and tornados.

1. Manuel: Uh, if tornados go to the Antarctica, what the penguin gonna do?

2. Teacher: Oh, you know what*…

3. Male Child: They could go under water.

4. Teacher: Could they go under water? What kind of protection could a penguin have?

5. Bernardo: If there’s enemies // if there’s enemies, how could a penguin go underneath the water if there’s enemies?

6. Teacher: Oh, he wouldn’t want to go underneath the water would he? Well, who’s his enemy?

7. Children: The seal.

8. Teacher: The seals, yeah. Good thinking, questioner, yeah.

9. Children: [several students speaking at once]

10. Teacher: Alright, Manuel had his hand up first. He asked a really important question. He said, ‘well, what can a penguin do if he knows that a tornado is coming’? Wasn’t that your question?

11. Bernardo: No, that was mine.

12. Teacher: Well, together you were kind of talking about it. Now listen. That’s a really good question. Now let’s try to the question…

13. Teacher: Now, I’m going to go over and get a book. In fact… Alejandro, no, Manuel, you go over and get the Emperor penguin book. The one from National Geographic on the table over there. (Adapted from the Shuart-Faris and Bloome, 2004, p. 106).

From their beginnings children grow up learning language. This complex learning process is often taken for granted, as babies absorb and begin responding to the language which surrounds them. Bancroft (2007) suggests that these early language developments take place primarily between the dyad, in other words the child and his/her main caregiver (p.14). As children get older they become exposed to, and learn from, a much wider group of people and this helps to develop their ability to use language effectively. While the development of language skills is an on-going process, the children in the example of classroom discourse above have clearly already developed many of the skills essential in spoken language. These children can conform to the basic rules of conversation, such as turn taking and responding to prompts, recognising the teacher as being the initiator and themselves as respondents. They have also already developed enough comprehension of vocabulary to be able to participate in the discourse and have enough language knowledge to behave appropriately within the context of a classroom discussion.

At approximately six years of age, these children appear to have already developed some of the skills which Crystal (1995) identified as essential acquisitions for young language learners; an extensive vocabulary, with words such as ‘enemies’ and ‘underneath’ along with comprehension of words such as ‘protection’, and knowledge and use of grammatical structure, such as the sentence formation shown in lines one, three, five and eleven (cited in Bancroft, 2007, p. 5). This discourse, according to Crystal’s (1995) theory, is a reasonably representative example, as he claims that at least three quarters of all grammar is understood by most children by the time they first attend school (cited in Bancroft, 2007, p.5).

Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) were the first linguists to describe the structural element of classroom talk, otherwise known as Initiation-Response-Feedback exchange or IRF (cited in Mercer, 2007, p.122). Mercer (2007) explains that IRF exchanges between teacher and pupil are considered to be standard interaction, with the teacher asking questions and the pupil(s) responding (p.122). As a result of their research, Wills (1983) and Edwards (1992) concluded that children quickly become familiar with the use of IRF within the structure of classroom discourse, and will automatically begin to participate in it (cited in Mercer, 2007, p.124). In the transcript above we can see clear examples of IRF; in both lines 4 and 6 the teacher asks direct questions to their pupils. In the first IRF exchange the teacher asks two questions and while the first was a closed question which could be answered by one ‘correct’ answer, by following it immediately with an open question, it would seem that the teacher was attempting to make the children consider the subject before prompting a discussion. In the second IRF exchange, seen on line 6, the teacher again asks two questions at once, these however are both quite closed questions which indeed are followed by all of the children answering together with the correct answer of ‘the seal’.

The most common form of IRF, consisting of closed questions being asked, has received criticism from educational researchers such as Dillon (1988) and Wood (1992) who feel that little opportunity is given for pupils to develop their ability to reason, argue and explain using language (cited in Mercer, 2007, p.123). Mercer (2007) however argues that, by including open questions in these exchanges, IRF can be used positively to shape pupils awareness and help them gain deeper understanding. He concludes that, while he accepts criticisms of IRF, caution must be taken in simply associating language structures, or verbs used in questions, with language functions, the act of asking a question, as what is ultimately more revealing is looking at the context in which these exchanges occur (p.124). A good example of this is a recording on the U211 DVD (2007) of a teacher speaking to secondary school students about a project they were participating in. As we are able to hear this discourse we can assess the use of tone, intonation and stress patterns, along with the language structure and language function to give a much clearer idea as to the effectiveness of IRF. Throughout this IRF exchange the teacher is encouraging the students to share, and expand on, information about their project, using open questions along with informal, supportive and friendly intonation (Unit 20). Without the ability to hear the classroom discourse exchange in our question, we should acknowledge that we can only make limited judgements as to the mode of IRF used.

One aspect of classroom discourse which is not present in our example is that of specialised technical terms. Children in education will inevitably encounter these terms, as Mercer (2007) explains, which come from specific vocabularies of the different subjects within their curriculum. The fact that technical terms are lacking from our example could be due to the age of the children, as pupils will progressively become exposed to, and begin to use, these terms as they go through their education. Mercer notes that the use of this language can be confusing for pupils and easily misinterpreted, with children reliant upon the teachers skill in helping to learn and understand them (p.127).

In our discourse example a teacher is present and is initiating, shaping and controlling the conversation. Mercer (2007) however comments on how school based language interaction between teachers and pupils differs greatly to that between pupils only. He suggests that pupils working in groups or pairs without the presence of a teacher tend to make extended contributions to the conversation, are more willing to share knowledge, offer explanations and express uncertainty, probably due to their shared status (p.131). Teachers undoubtedly play an important role in the education of children, however we should consider whether more pupils in our example would have shared their knowledge if they had been discussing the topic without the teachers presence. We can see on lines 7 and 9 more than one child talking at once, firstly to provide an answer to a closed question and secondly in inaudible speech, but besides these there are only two children who offer answers in this, admittedly small section, of discourse.

While researching the topic of classroom discourse, Halliday (1985) stressed the importance of a child’s understanding and use of the distinctive register of written English (cited in Mercer, 2007, p.139). Halliday’s theory of functional linguistics was the basis of the development of the genre approach, which recognised that language needed to be used in different ways dependent upon the context or medium for which it was being used (Maybin, cited in Mercer, 2007, p.140). In other words, as Mercer (2007) explains, children need to learn education ground rules, or conventions, in order to recognise and utilize language effectively (p.138). These ground rules include learning specialised words, patterns of classroom interactions and the differences between spoken language and written texts (DVD, Unit 20). Mercer (2007) also acknowledges that rather than these ground rules being directly taught, children will learn them through their teacher’s example and feedback (p.139). In our example we have no written comparison for the transcribed spoken language, and it is therefore difficult to assess just how different the language would be if the children had been writing about tornados rather than discussing them. Maybin (1994) suggests that ‘written genres tend to be more condensed and abstract’ (cited in Mercer, 2007, p.139). In line 5 of our example we can see an example of this, with Bernardo possibly speaking while still determining what it is that he wants to say. Had he been asked to write his question, we would be unlikely to see any evidence of the false start or repetition of the words ‘if there’s enemies’ which we see in his speech, as the ground rules of written language require the thought process to be completed prior to writing.

One of the most important points about our example, as mentioned earlier, is with only a written transcript of the conversation it is difficult to be able to fully analyse the discourse. Intonation, rate of speech and facial expressions, also known as paralinguistic features, play an important role in spoken language (Mayor, 2007, p.71), and without knowledge of this we cannot be sure of the rapport between the teacher and their students. We can see clear evidence of IRF in our example, but what we cannot gauge is the extent to which the teacher was engaging and encouraging the pupils. What is clear is that the complete process of learning is extensive, with children developing unspoken rules of language alongside the curriculum. Learning, by example and through the feedback, the ground rules of language – the construction of different forms of language, specialised technical terms and discourse patterns – is just as important as learning specific set information, as without it children would grow up unable to communicate effectively.

REFERENCES

(2007) ‘English as a classroom language’in Resource and Reference Materials 1, The Open University, p.25 – 30.

An A-Z of English, U211, DVD 2.

Bancroft, D., with contributions from Gillen, J., (2007) ‘English as a first language’, N. Mercer, J. Swann and B. Mayor, Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, p.5 – 36.

Mayor, B., (2007) ‘English in the repertoire’, N. Mercer, J. Swann and B. Mayor, Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, p.43 – 72.

Mercer, N., with contributions from Barnes, D., (2007) ‘English as a classroom language’, N. Mercer, J. Swann and B. Mayor, Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, p.117 – 142.

Classroom Management
Introduction

Classroom management is a term that refers to the techniques and skills that teachers use to keep students organized, focused, on task, orderly, attentive, and academic productive, during class. When teachers implement the classroom management strategies effectively, they minimize the behaviors that obstruct learning for both individual students and group of students while maximizing behaviors that enhance or facilitate learning. A lack of classroom management is also a major factor that makes teachers leave their profession within their first year. I am facing some challenges with the students that I teach. I have developed an appropriate solution and action plan that I would follow to achieve it. I have learnt several things from my research that would help me in my future classroom management.

PROBLEM: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

As a primary school teacher who is on placement, am faced with several issues regarding disorderly and disruptive behavior from my student such as talking, getting up from their chairs to walk to other students desks without permission, disobedience, aggressive behavior and refusal to finish assigned task or school work. My inability to control their behavior them has led to my lack of teaching them properly as required. The first reason for this issue is that this is because of my inexperience since this is my first role with a school setting of dealing with different children. Secondly, it is due to an underprivileged family background that most of the children come from. For example, some of them are from single parent family, other are living in extreme poverty conditions, and some parents are not concerned with their children education. Lastly, this is because of the different student’s ability to grasp information, For example lack of attention.

EVALUATION RELATED TO MY SOLUTION

To solve the above problems, I have realized that I need to implement a classroom management component. This is because the environment in which the students learn in is very important, and can create a learning atmosphere. Secondly, my behavior towards the students, how I interact and treat them is a concern on how they would act. I would develop a level of dominance in the class, through body language in a different situation, eye contact with the students, for example, when affirming an action to them. In addition, I should develop a positive attitude towards the students in my class, encouraging them to participate in class activities, treating all students fairly and equally.

The other important thing is to express my expectations from them. For example, how they should act in class, at the beginning of the lesson I clearly tell them what I expect from them at the end of the lesson. In addition, how they should relate to one another and ultimately make agreements with them on different issues in class that they should do and not do. We agree with them the repercussions when they do not follow the agreements we have set together. I would prepare different learning skills and lessons to be able to incorporate the student’s interest instead of relying only on my scheme of work. I would also get involved with what the students go through outside the class. This would include learning more about their homes, if they are in need, are they from divided homes, language barriers between them and me, and lastly handle students with special needs carefully.

ACTION PLAN
Room Arrangement

When the students enter the class, they are hit with exciting colors on the walls, with windows lighting reflecting on the different things on the wall, as they walk to their big circle table. They can look at their colleagues as they are facing each other. When they look at the wall they see arts, maps, famous people, and student work all portrayed in different posters that are colorful around the class. No work is in white paint. From my desk that is also in the circle, I will start the lesson. The students will get out their books and colorful pens to note today’s lesson. I believe the classroom set up would have a significant effect on the student and the environment would make them think discuss, and reflect on the lesson. The set up would help me walk around the class and look at what they are doing and their sitting arrangement will make them be able to interact with one another making room for discussions. The student work on the wall will help them feel part of the class. Classroom Rules

The best rule I would have will be a class is a place of learning, and we should all respect each other. If I respect them and they respect each other and me, I believe this would create a safe environment for learning. I would allow the students to eat and drink in class as long as they dispose of their waste correctly. However, I will notify them from the beginning that the privilege withdrawal things get out of control. I would create a class constitution if the behavior of the students were inconsistent. I will involve the students in making the rules, and allow them to discuss which ones to be in the constitution. I believe that involving them would make it a must for them to obey, and they will not fight back on the consequences of not obeying. I would make them write the final copy and hang it in class. To add on I would give them a copy to take to their parents to read, sign, and then return to school. This would help make the parents involved in what we are trying to do in class. In addition, I will be giving the students a newsletter monthly to take to their parents describing what we are doing in class. I believe involving the parents in their children schoolwork will make them support their children at home with any issue arising.

I also want to create an environment whereby there is a good student teacher relationship with my class. This is so because my students are from different backgrounds, and want to create an atmosphere where they feel they are equal to each other by the way I treat them. I do not want to assume their capability in education by the way they look or act. I do not want their background difference to affect communication in class. I believe this is the foundation of most behavioral problems begin. Therefore, I would like to create an environment whereby I accept by students as unique people with different cultures that I can relate, respect, and like them. In addition, be able to communicate and listen to them. I want my student to be able to relate their life experiences in our class exercises, teaching them to appreciate and celebrate cultural differences. I want to have an open forum class meetings whereby we discuss what is working or not for us in class. In addition, then implement the suggestions and ideas we have discussed. Am interested in finding out what the students are thinking of, and converting the environment to their liking as much as possible. This would make the student feel part and in control of their learning. In the case of a consistent misbehavior, I would ask the student to meet me after class. I would start by praising him on what he is doing well in class and explain to him how his behavior is interfering with the class. In addition, I would advise them on what to do to stop the behavior. In a class if they persist I would isolate them to seat alone at the back, if they persist I would call their parents to come to school and then we discuss the three of us. I believe in involving the parents in disciplining the child but disagreeing with sending the students at home. Class Procedures

I want to develop consistency with the procedures I use in class. For example, I will be putting the class program on the blackboard for them to copy when they come to class, use assignments sometimes to engage them in their writing skills. In addition, I will use interactive notebooks for them to do all their homework and class work in them. I would staple loose assignments to the notebooks this would help them when revising for exams. I would them stamp every student book that has done the homework. I would then collect the books after every two weeks to grade them. The stamping is to make the students finish the assignment before the two weeks. The stamping is just a motivation for them to do the homework on time before the grading day. I will assist those who are not understanding with the home and class work. I will also grade their class participation in class. This would make them participate in various class activities. Encouraging all students

Bill Rogers has different techniques on classroom management starting with preventing to positive management and ending with consequences. This is a very humane and logical approach to handling students. He gives strategies that teachers can use to work with the students for both of them control how the student’s behavior, instead of a teacher being authoritative, strict, and disciplinarian. Rogers’s first plan shows techniques to use to prevent problems dealing with discipline. Secondly, he distinguishes responsibilities from rights claiming that they need to balance. Under the rights, Rogers’s majors on how the students have a right to learn, feel safe, respected, and handled with dignity. I believe at the beginning of the term students be told their rights and explained to what they should do to have them. It is significant vital for the students to feel emotionally and physically safe for a good learning atmosphere to be established. Teachers should emphasize on how they treat each other, with full of respect and no calling each other names.

Still at the establishment stage, he emphasizes on teachers consistent in establishing rules for the class. I agree with the rule because it would create accountability for the student concerned. However, if the problem persists force should be used to correct the child. Establishing attention is a preventive technique. Teachers should not speak over the noise. I agree because there is a particular place in class where I stand and the students keep quiet.

Rogers talk about positive correction as a way to view the correction. His emphasis on address what a student should do instead of majoring on the problem. He should just state it and leave to give the student the right to choose to control their behaviors and not doing things just to please the teacher or other students. This has helped because when I find a student out of line, I tell them to stop and walk away, giving the student room to correct the mistake. Rogers’s deals with consequences by assisting the student find a connection between outcome and behavior. He insists that the consequence should be reasonable and related. I agree with the point because it gives the students a chance to decide about their own behavior. This would strengthen the teacher student relationship because the student feel fairly treated per the mistake done.

Conclusion

I have learnt that classroom management is a key component in any educational setting. I will use it to create a good environment for learning and to make my student feel safe participating. It does not mean punishing the behavior, but it involves setting up the right tone in class, preventing bad behaviors and encouraging a good relationship with the students, while encouraging them to do well and setting high expectations for them. I believe it is possible to create the environment that would limit the behavior problems from the start in my classroom.

References

Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. (2003). Classroom management that works research-based strategies for every teacher. Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Whitaker, T. (2003). What great principals do differently: fifteen things that matter most. Larchmont, N.Y.: Eye on Education.

Canter, L., & Canter, M. (2001). Assertive discipline: positive behavior management for today’s classroom (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Canter & Associates.

Abu Nemrah, M. (2006). Classroom Management and Organization. 2nd Edition. Amman: Dar Yafa.

To what extent has childhood been viewed as a social and cultural process rather than a ‘natural process’? – Illustrate your discussion with reference to Book 1, Chapter 1, ‘Children and development’.

Childhood is such a fundamental and integral part of humanity that on first considerations, we may take it for granted as an entirely natural process. The biological journey of maturation is a universal shared experience. Yet even if childhood is recognised only in these limited biological terms, it is still influenced by social factors i.e. the health and life choices of the mother during pregnancy. In the civilised world, there are very few who would be prepared to argue that childhood should be viewed as an entirely natural process. Contemporary developmental theorists recognise the child as an active agent whom is developing both physically and psychologically; the individual experience of childhood is dependent upon how they interact with their environment and how that society understands their specific nature and needs. The attitudes to children and views of childhood vary dramatically between different periods in history and different cultures, and are also actively evolving within our own culture; therefore it is, currently, more accurate to view childhood as a social and cultural process rather than a natural one:

“The immaturity of children is a biological fact but the ways in which that immaturity is understood is a fact of culture….childhood is ….constructed and reconstructed both for and by children” (James and Prout, 1997, p.15)

Woodhead (2005) illustrates that historically, throughout Western culture, childhood has been viewed as both a natural process and as a social and cultural process. It has also been viewed as an interactive process between the two. These changeable and evolving attitudes confirm James and Prout’s assertion that “childhood is constructed and reconstructed”. By comparing and contrasting the origins of the four main Psychological perspectives of Child Development and acknowledging their legacies to modern day practices, I intend to conclude that childhood has probably been viewed to a greater extent as a social and cultural process than it has a natural process.

It has been proposed that ‘childhood’ is in itself a recent invention. Philippe Aries (1962) is chiefly accredited with underlining the socially constructed character of childhood. He studied the history of literature and paintings and concluded that in mediaeval times childhood didn’t exist. Obviously younger members of the species existed but they were not granted any special or distinctive status. Once weaned, they were thrust into adult society. Aries claimed that the awareness of children’s distinctive nature did not emerge until the end of the fifteenth century. This can de illustrated in the emergence and gradual rise of schooling and paediatrics.

Aries has been criticised for making general conclusions which rely on limited sources. The largest group of children would have been the poor, and they would not have been represented. However the broad framework of his argument (the socially constructed nature of childhood) is the foundation of subsequent studies:

“The idea of childhood must be seen as a particular cultural phrasing of the early part of the life course, historically and politically contingent and subject to change”. (James and James, 2001)

There are four main perspectives of child development. These theories stem from three opposing philosophies which attempt to define the essential nature of humanity as embodied in the newborn child. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) believed children to be inherently sinful. He believed that development should be shaped by control and discipline. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed children to be inherently innocent; his supporters advocate that development is shaped by following children’s natural stages. The theories of Hobbes and Rousseau are classified as nativist theories; maintaining that childhood is a natural process. John Locke (1632-1704) didn’t view children as either inherently sinful or innocent, but rather a ‘tabua rasa’ (blank slate) to be written on by experience; those influenced by him maintain the chief factor of development is experience. Locke’s Theory is classified as empiricist; advocating that childhood is a social and cultural process. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) believed children to be born with mental structures specifically designed to interpret information from the environment; the essence of development being interaction. Kant sets the tone for the ‘transactional models’ of development; not viewing childhood as exclusively a natural or exclusively a social process, but a combination of the two.

Thomas Hobbes believed that all human beings were born with original sin, therefore all children were born evil and had to be ‘saved’. The prime factors of development were control and discipline. He was an important influence to the formation of the Methodist church. The theory that children were inherently sinful was very desirable and easily identifiable from an Armenian perspective; people believed that children learned obedience to God through obedience to their parents. Childhood was a time of strict parenting and harsh discipline:

“Severe beatings of children in the name of discipline were common occurrences. Heaven was sometimes described to children in Sunday school as “a place where children are never beaten”. (Newman and Smith, 1999)

This view was apparent in the early nineteenth century in Hannah More’s evangelical writings on child rearing. She too argued that it was a fundamental error to view children as inherently innocent and it should be down to society to curb their evil dispositions. The omnipresence of God and Satan in every person’s life was an unchallenged premise:

“The hard line view of infants as limbs of Satan persisted throughout the eighteenth century”. (Ezell, M.J.M, 1984)

This harsh and unsentimental view of children was not just religiously, but also demographically and economically motivated. Infant mortalities were extremely high; between twenty and fifty percent of babies died within their first year. Many parents referred to their child as “it” until they reached an age when survival was probable. Although it is problematic to speculate, it seems plausible that parents were consciously detached from their children as a coping mechanism, should they not survive into adulthood.

Although Hobbes advocated a nativist perspective on the essential nature of children, the religious attitudes which he and his contemporaries would have taken for granted as truth are now dormant in the majority of Western societies (apart from some remaining puritan cultures). Any who did share the popular religious view would not have been recorded. This validates James and Prouts assertion that childhood is “constructed and reconstructed”. Hobbesian views of childhood did not unfold naturally, but were constructed through social discourse.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed the exact opposite to Hobbes; that children are not inherently sinful, but are inherently innocent, and would develop naturally in positive ways if allowed to do so. He referred to children as ‘noble savages’, this romantic notion supposes that all humanity is born pure and good until corrupted by civilisation. The environment does not have a positive, but has a negative affect on development:

“Everything is good in leaving the hands of the Creator of Things; everything degenerates at the hands of man”. (Rousseau, 1762)

During the eighteenth century, views of childhood began to change; children were seen as innocent and in need of protection, (not unlike the way we see them today) consequently though, they were also viewed as weak and susceptible to temptation. Along with the notion of protection came the notion of discipline, as parents taught their children to avoid the enticements of their social world. Until the late 1800s, child labour was commonly practiced and accepted. It is reported that up to half of all workers in northern factories were children under the age of eleven. Children worked as long and as hard as adults. Because of their small size, they were sometimes given difficult and hazardous jobs, like cleaning out the insides of narrow factory chimneys. In poor urban families, parents often forced their children to engage in scavenging and street peddling. Rousseau’s observations were not surprising given that the desire to protect children was coupled with their seemingly inevitable exploitation. Although chiefly belonging to the realms of Romanticism, Rousseau’s theory did have practical psychological applications. He is attributed with presenting the first truly developmental account of childhood, through his emphasis on maturation and stages of development. His book; “Emile” (On Education)(1762) suggests children should be allowed an ‘Age of Nature’ covering the period from birth to twelve years. This should be a time in which children be allowed to play and have their natural innocence respected.

It is Rousseau’s emphasis in allowing the child to indulge their natural stages of development which is his legacy to child development. Fredrich Froebel (1782-1852): the pioneer of the kindergarten movement and designer of toy building blocks shared Rousseau’s vision:

“The child, the boy, man indeed should know no other endeavour but to be at every stage of development wholly what this stage calls for” (Froebel 1885).

The idea of natural stages of development sets the tone for contemporary teaching templates by setting guidelines for what is considered ‘developmentally appropriate’ practice, especially the balance of play and teaching within early years education.

Although Rousseau’s legacy can be illustrated in modern day views of childhood, it is his practical advice about nurturing the Childs natural development, and not his nativist perspective which persists.

John Locke’s theory contrasts both Hobbes and Rousseau’s. He didn’t believe that children were born inherently evil or innocent, but rather a blank slate. He saw the character of childhood as extremely malleable; experience being the sole factor of development. He recommended parents as tutors, responsible for providing the right environment and offering moral guidance in which to shape and nurture their children into mature, rational adults. Locke was the pioneer of the Educationalist movement. His essay,” Some thoughts concerning education” (1693)asserts that; “a Childs mind must be educated before he is instructed”. Although some of his critics accused Locke of “despiritulising” childhood, his theory permeated throughout society:

“The root of all corruption is poor Education” (Osborne London Journal, 1732.)

Locke’s theories echo contemporary debates concerning modern family values. The infamous ‘Back to Basics’ conservative campaign of the early 1990’s suggested that a breakdown in traditional family values was responsible for a degenerating Britain. In May 2002, Patricia Amos was jailed for sixty days because of her daughter’s persistent truancy. Most recently, in response to a spate of teenage shootings in East London in February 2007, leader of the opposition; David Cameron controversially proposed that absent fathers are responsible for an emerging class of feral children. These attitudes don’t assume that children are passive receivers of their environment as Locke believed, but do demonstrate the huge onus of social responsibility he proposed.

Immanuel Kant viewed the key influence on development to be interaction. He agreed with Locke that experience plays a crucial role in learning but argued that knowledge could not arise from what is taken in by the senses alone. Kant acknowledges the child as an active agent in their own development. He deems it unreasonable to assume that children are just passive receivers of external stimuli or blind followers of a pre-determined biological pattern. The precipitator of development becomes the continuous interaction between the two. Both nature and the environment are equally significant.

Kant creates the framework for the transactional models of development which assume the child to be an active autonomous agent in their own development and attempt to explain this relationship of cause and effect that they have with their environment. This is the most popular start point for modern child development theories, such as social constructivist theories.

The religiously dictated views of Hobbes and Romanticism motivated views of Rousseau are unconvincing to a modern audience. Their legacies are derivative of their child rearing advice and not their rigid perspectives. James and Prouts assertion that “childhood is constructed and reconstructed is convincing enough to dispel these solely nativist theories. Locke’s emphasis on education (although not to the extent he proposed) is echoed by today’s politicians. It seems reasonable to assume that the real character of childhood is an interactive process between the two as proposed by Kant. . In the civilised world, the onus of social responsibility to our children has always been great and is growing. Underlining the socially constructed character of childhood has had a great influence on our attitudes; therefore childhood has probably been viewed to a greater extent as a social and cultural process than it has been viewed as a ‘natural process’.