Author: Andre Coleman

The theory of gerotranscendence has been chosen for the purpose of this essay as it represents an alternative ageing theory and can be useful when planning to carry out a research project in a nursing home with the aim to find out how elderly people experience their daily life in an institution. The theory of gerotranscendence may help provide a more balanced understanding of the quality of life of the older adult living in a nursing home (Tornstam, 1989: Tornstam, 1997b). A brief description of the theory of gerotranscendence follows.

Fawcett (2000) argues that the theories on human ageing may be divided into two main categories: biological ageing theories, and the psychological and social ageing theories. This essay aims to describe, analyze and present a critique of Lars Tornstam’s theory of Gerotranscendence.

According to Tornstam (1992, 1994, 1996a) human ageing is characterized by a general process towards gerotranscendence. Gerotranscendence is a shift in meta-perspective, from a materialistic and rational view of the world to a more cosmic and transcendent view. It is a natural and individual process that leads to maturity and wisdom in old age (Tornstam, 1996b).

Within this essay, the basis of this theory will be explored, together with the analysis of its development. Moreover, the theory of gerotranscendence will be viewed in the light of the nursing science and whether it is easy and logical to comprehend. Values and assumptions will also be reviewed. These are the topics that this essay will attempt to discuss in relation to the nursing practice, education and research.

2.0 – Description of the Theory of Gerotranscendence

The theory of gerotranscendence was developed by Lars Tornstam, professor of sociology at the University of Uppsala in Sweden. This theory has been developed as a reaction to the prevailing ageing theories within gerontological nursing (Tornstam, 1992).

Tornstam (1992, 1994, 1996a) states that human ageing, i.e. living into old age, is characterized by a general process towards gerotranscendence. This process involves a change in the way individuals perceive basic concepts, and it occurs after a certain point in life. The definition of reality also changes as a result of this. In a normal ageing process this shift is made from the middle-aged person’s definition of reality based on a materialistic and rational vision, to the ageing person’s more cosmic and transcendent vision. Tornstam turned to eastern cultures and religion, in the form of Zen Buddhism in order to formulate his theory (Tornstam, 1992, 1994, 1996a).

According to Tornstam (1994), a transcendent vision of life involves a change in the perception of time, so that the boundaries between past, present and future are erased. In the same way the boundaries between the self and other individuals may also become diffused. These boundaries between past, present and future, and between self and others, which in a materialistic and rational way of thinking are so important, become superfluous in old age (Tornstam, 1992, 1994, 1996a).

As a consequence, the individual with a transcendent perspective experiences in old age a need to spend more time on meditation and less on material things and superficial social relations. The material world is avoided, whilst the older adult turns to spirituality a more important concept in life. A person who has experienced gerotranscendence view the younger generation as captured in a materialistic conception of the world, spending their time on superficial relationships and things (Tornstam, 1989). Thus, as Tornstam sustains, after mid-life there is a new conception of life, which in turn brings a change in how we look at life i.e. a shift in meta-perspective, as Tornstam labels it. This new meta-perspective provides the individual with an easy way to understand what to value in old age (Tornstam, 1994).

The shift in meta-perspective is normal for all individuals according to Tornstam, since it is genetically conditioned. Gerotranscendence is the end result of a natural process towards maturation and wisdom in which reality is defined differently than in mid-life. Due to its natural origins, gerotranscendence lead the older adult to have an increased life satisfaction after mid-life (Tornstam, 1994). The progression towards gerotranscendence may be hindered or accelerated by cultural characteristics. The presence of predominant values of effectiveness, materialism and independence in Western culture may obstruct or retard such process (Tornstam, 1997c).

Tornstam suggests that the theory of gerotranscendence is one of several valuable theories on ageing (Tornstam, 1994). Other theories, such as the social breakdown syndrome, may be relevant for some elderly people (Fawcett, 2000). This theory is meant as a supplement which represents another paradigm. However, Fawcett (2000) suggests that two paradigms may be valid at the same time, it is only necessary to know what they represent.

3.0 -Theory of Gerotranscendence: An Analysis
3.1 – Concept Analysis

No definition of the concept behind gerotranscendence is provided by the author (Thorsen, 1998). Rather than providing a definition, the author of this theory chooses to describe the concept by an analysis of social values combined with a portrayal of the distinctive features of gerotranscendence (Thorsen, 1998: Gamliel, 2001). One may argue that the lack of a direct definition of the concept behind this theory may itself cause vagueness in its usage both in education and practice. Within practice nursing, there is a general agreement within the literature that signs of gerotranscendence are often interpreted as pathological rather than a natural process (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten & Carlsson, 2000: Wadensten, 2007). Wadensten and Carlsson (2000) argued that a lack of a clear definition of the concept behind gerotranscendence may result in an incorrect and/or absent theoretical framework to relate to, influencing both nursing in practice and nursing research (Meleis, 1991). Perhaps Tornstam has chosen not to define the concept because he thinks that a brief description would only serve to narrow down the understanding of the concept (Fawcett, 2000: Watson, 1997). One may also argue that the lack of concept definition can be used as an advantage both in nursing research and practice as it will unconsciously increase its applicability in different contexts (Meleis, 1991).

Is the Concept logically derived?

The concept of gerotranscendence is in many respects a logical one since it is intuitively easy to understand as it may make the readers recognize their own ageing process and their experiences with older adults (Meleis, 1991: Wadensten, 2006). Within an academic point of view, this type of intuitive feeling for a concept is not considered very scientific, but is probably important since it makes it easier to grasp the general idea of the theory. On the other hand, the lack of definition makes it more difficult to understand.

Secondly, Tornstam derives the concept of gerotranscendence from concepts present in Eastern cultures and eastern Philosophy, such as Zen Buddhism which are rather unfamiliar and unscientific from a Western cultural and logical point of view. Concepts such as mystical, meditation, cosmic communion and especially his description of diffuse borders in time and between objects, makes the concept of gerotranscendence hard to understand in a logical sense both in nursing education and nursing practice (Thorsen, 1998: Wadensten, 2007a). The shift in meta-perspective i.e. past, present and future become diffused, whilst the self and others become indistinct are often denominated to be pathological in Western cultures (Wadensten, 2007a). From this perspective the concept of gerotranscendence may appear illogical.

In line with these arguments, Wadensten and Carlsson (2000) investigated whether nursing staff in Swedish nursing homes could recognize signs of gerotranscendence. Qualitative interviews and an interview guide based on the theory of gerotranscendence were used.

Findings showed that staff noticed signs of gerotranscendence; however most of these signs were interpreted as ‘pathological’ sustaining previously raised arguments (Wadensten and Carlsson, 2000). If the theory of gerotranscendence is used to provide an interpretative framework, these signs would be seen as normal aspects of ageing.

3.2 Theory Analysis
The basis of the Theory of Gerotranscendence

Tornstam (1992 and 1997a) argues that within gerontological research there is a prevailing research paradigm which negatively affects nursing and gerontological research and alternitavely health care distribution. He (Tornstam, 1994) states that gerontology is encapsulated in a natural science paradigm, entailing that research is primarily focused on the behavior of the elderly, where the individuals are regarded as research objects only, discarding experiences, attitudes and behaviors. This research paradigm generally states that the researcher shall assess and analyze the actual facts concerning a phenomenon in an objective and unbiased manner. Tornstam (1992 and 1997a) argues that within this prevailing gerontological research the latter is not achieved.

Gerontological and nurse researchers can modify the paradigm by asking the elderly themselves about their understanding and experience of their own situation, in other words a more phenomenological approach. Wadensten (2005) conducted a qualitative descriptive study in order to introduce the theory of gerotranscendence to older people. Participants were invited to participate in group sessions at a day centre during which they discussed their ageing process. A video on the theory of gerotranscendence was shown, and participants were asked to discuss the description of the ageing process described in the video with their own personal experiences. From this study, Wadensten (2005) concluded that involving the elderly in their own care is an opportunity to use aspects of the theory of gerotranscendence as an intervention in nursing. Wadensten (2005) argued that nurses are in an ideal position to improve the quality of life for the older adult and to promote health using a phenomenological approach, through discussions about ageing.

Furthermore Tornstam (1992) claims that the anthropological research tradition may be useful in this respect. An immediate reaction in the nursing literature (Thorsen, 1998: Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten, 2007a; Roy, 1984 consider referencing actual article) proposes the following questions:

Does Tornstam himself consider this criticism when formulating his own theory?

Does reversing the prevalent paradigm mean that one is assuming the perspective of the elderly? Isn’t it a researcher in mid-life who is performing this “reversal”?

Does turning to Eastern religion and philosophy mean that the elderly in Western cultures are not being taken seriously?

It is conspicuous that Tornstam, who criticizes gerontological research and theory development, appears to fall into the same trap as the other theoreticians. Some authors argue that the basis of the theory of gerotranscendence is acquired only from a little number of elderly. Others argue that such theory should be developed by asking elderly populations within a Western culture. However Tornstam (1989) justifies the latter as he thinks that they are captured in a materialistic and rationalistic world. Tornstam reverses the values he claims are predominant in the West, stating that they are the real values of the elderly.

Tornstam also does not ask the elderly from a Western culture about their vital spiritual values. Most of the elderly in the West have their spiritual roots in this religion. Perhaps nursing practice, research and education would have felt more familiar with Tornstam’s ideas if he had based his theory on Christian philosophy and Western Cultures.

What Kind of Theory and at Which Level is it Valid?

Tornstam recounts his own increasing feeling of doubt when the theory of disengagement was rejected by the gerontological community. He had first agreed that the theory should be rejected, but later he felt intuitively that this theory had an explanatory force which gerontological researchers were unable to achieve. Tornstam thus used logical reasoning combined with his own feelings when formulating the theory, which indicates a theory based on deduction (Tornstam, 1989).

On the other hand, empirical data have evidently been vital to the formulation of the theory. Tornstam reacted to the many myths on ageing that persisted even though empirical research proved the opposite (Tornstam, 1989). He also noted that the elderly themselves reported being very satisfied with their lives, even though they had evidently reduced their social activity, and also did not feel lonelier in old age than earlier in their lives (Roy, 1984). These empirical findings clearly contributed to the formulation of the theory of gerotranscendence. Moreover, it provides a new understanding of what is called ‘passivity’ of the elderly (Tornstam, 1989).

The theory of gerotranscendence is mainly developed through deduction, but also with input of empirical data, and hence is doubtless quite typical. It is hard to define the theory as either deductive or inductive, but it is probably primarily deductive (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten, 2006).

Generalisation Potential of the Theory?

The theory states that all humans will naturally develop towards gerotranscendence, that this is a universal phenomenon. In other words, the theory aims to apply for all individuals (Wadensten, 2006). What about the difference between Eastern and Western values? The theory also includes strategies to explain why the expected development towards a transcendent existence does not occur. These explanations state that cultural characteristics may prevent such a normal development. On the other hand Thorsen (1998) argues that in Western post-modern cultures the ageing processes are becoming manifold, often contradictory. Elderly present versions of the selves that are becoming complex, multiplied (multiple selves), acting at different scenes, stamped by varied cultural values, presenting mixed versions of activity and passivity, engagement and retractment, wordliness and transcendence (Thorsen, 1998). This in turn sheds further doubts on the ageing process and how such process should be viewed by the healthcare workers, nurse researchers and the elderly themselves. Redfern and Ross (2006) argue that despite numerous theories of ageing, interpretative frameworks and guidelines of care, the ageing process and the care involved cannot be standardized into one single definition and/or guidelines of care.

What is the Aim and Intention of the Theory?

The theory of gerotranscendence attempts to explain why a transcendent form of life is the most natural one. His explanation is that this is a biological necessity for everyone. Tornstam also explains why we don’t see so much transcendence among the elderly in our Western culture (Wadensten, 2006). He claims that this is because our culture does not allow or appreciate transcendence, and instead regards such phenomena as unnatural and irrational. It may also be discussed whether the theory presents predictions about a positive old age. The theory states that a transcendent old age is positive and this may be understood as a normative prediction on old age. On the other hand, Thorsen (1998) warns that Tornstam’s theory should not be viewed as a universal process, applicable for every human being. Thorsen (1998) narrates that old age and its process are embedded within society as the latter contains notions about normative “appropriateness” to various age groups.

4.0 – Critique of the Theory
Is the Theory Coherent and Consistent?

The theory is predominantly coherent, for a reader it is easy to understand what Tornstam means when he describes the ageing process as a development towards a more contemplative form of life. Thorsen (1998) highlights some unclear arguments from the theory presented by Tornstam. Thorsen (1998) argues that the theory of gerotranscendence points out that throughout mid-life an individual is more materialistic and rational.

If it is true that we are more materialistic and rational in mid-life should that not apply to everyone, also those people living in the East? If this is a genetic factor it should apply to all people. Or do cultural characteristics take precedence over biological factors? (Thorsen, 1998). Thorsen (1998) considers this part of Tornstam’s theory to be somewhat vague and inconsistent. In line with this perspective Thorsen (1998) argue that old people, like young people, are undergoing an individual and social process of change. At the same time individuals of all ages are influenced by changes in the ‘spirit of the age.’ Thorsen (1998) argues that irrelevant from the age group; changing cultural characteristics leave their stamp both on the individual’s world-view and his/her perception of self. The main argument of Thorsen (1998) is that he rejects the notion proposed by Tornstam that transcendence is determined by intrinsic genetic factors.

In fact Thorsen (1998) states that self is neither cultural, ahistoric, bodiless and genderless in the ageing process. This argument puts more doubts on how the older adult and the ageing person should be viewed within the society, more precisely within the healthcare system.

Furthermore, one may question whether there is consistency between Tornstam’s own paradigm and his theory. According to his research paradigm the values and opinions of the elderly themselves shall form the basis of theories on ageing which in turn provide an interpretative framework in health care education and practice settings. The theory of gerotranscendence is logically derived from another theory and is based on empirical research with the elderly as research objects. One may argue that it is hard to find the consistency here between Tornstam’s theory and his paradigm. Likewise, the consistency becomes somewhat ambiguous between Tornstam’s research paradigm and his own research to verify his theory as the author applies the survey method (Tornstam 1994) to verify his own theory, which may seem rather peculiar viewed in the light of his severe criticism of the natural science paradigm. Tornstam (1996b) also states that phenomenological philosophy and anthropology may be useful points of departure for approaching the theory. It can hardly be said that Tornstam himself employs such a theoretical basis; it was not before the qualitative study in 1997 that he introduced this approach.

The implications of the above argument on nursing education involve that further research is required in order to test the validity of the theory of gerotranscendence, as research on the latter is limited. This is also sustained the nursing literature reviewed for the purpose of this essay (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2000). Within the practical settings, the implications of the above argument involve the revising of the practical guidelines provided by Tornstam, based on his theory (Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). Although these guidelines provide an interpretative framework for nurses within nursing practice, when viewed in the light of lack of rigorous nursing research about the topic, one needs to consider their specificity and sensitivity to identify the signs of gerotranscendence in the older adult.

Is the Theory Useful for Nursing?

The theory of gerotranscendence is formulated in a gerontological research community and is not specifically linked to nursing (Gamliel, 2001: Tornstam, 1997b). Will the theory of ageing in general and this theory in particular be useful for nursing? In order to answer this question one must first explain what is meant by useful. Theory may be useful both for developing the theory structure of an academic subject and for the practical exercise of a profession (Meleis, 1991).

In terms of theory structure this theory may lead to a more balanced understanding of the old patient. The theoretical bases that have been predominant within nursing are role theories and the activity theory. Role theories, such as the theory of the social breakdown syndrome, explain the withdrawal of the elderly as loss of role in society (Redfern & Ross, 2006). The passivity of the elderly in institutions has also been interpreted with similar theories.

Thus, there are grounds for stating that the theories which have so far been employed in nursing are based on one paradigm and mainly on one explanatory strategy – loss of roles (Fawcett, 2000). When the withdrawal of the elderly is only considered a disadvantage and is explained to be caused by loss of roles, it is logical that activation is chosen as a means to curb a negative development. The theory of gerotranscendence may provide another interpretation and explanation of the withdrawal of the elderly (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002).

For practical nursing a new perspective may have concrete consequences, both for the occupation itself and for the nurse personally. Nurses, like other occupational groups, perform their occupation on the basis of theoretical knowledge, intrinsic values and practical skills. A practicing nurse is many years younger than the old patient and will probably be influenced by those values that Tornstam calls Western and which are predominant in mid-life. Because of all these factors the nurse may easily find that the old person has a passive and pathetic form of life, and consider the right remedy will be to activate the patient (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002).

Nurses have till now been trained to, and been socialized into a role in which everybody thinks that all elderly are to be activated whether they want to or not. Nurses have learnt that activity is healthy and we know that activity may prevent social isolation, physical decline and complications (Redfern and Ross, 2006). Thus, the nurse feels that her knowledge of this phenomenon gives her a right and duty to activate the old patient. The nurse can motivate and defend her choice of action by a theory which states that it is good for people, including the elderly, to be active.

In this perspective one may argue that Tornstam’s theory may be a useful supplement. If his theory is emphasized as much in practical nursing as the above mentioned theories have been, the nurse will be entitled to let the patient choose what many of us would call passivity. The nurse will be able to explain on the basis of a theory why the patient has been given such a choice (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). Secondly, the nurse will have a better conscience while performing her job. Many nurses find they are forcing the elderly to be active. This type of coercion is against ethical principles such as the autonomy principle, and serves to give the nurse a bad conscience. The nurse is in an awkward position, between the benevolence principle based on the paradigm that Tornstam criticizes so heavily and the autonomy principle. The theory of gerotranscendence may help to lessen the conflict between these two principles.

5.0 – Conclusion

Tornstam’s theory of gerotranscendence introduces a completely new method of interpreting old age. What makes this theory special is his new interpretation of the withdrawal and passivity of the elderly as another form of activity. This activity is qualitatively different from the visible activity that we have focused on so far, in the form of social activity and engagement.

Tornstam labels this form of activity transcendence and says that it helps to enhance the experience of a good life. Tornstam contributes to a balanced understanding of living into old age, and is obviously right in his criticism of how we have transplanted mid-life values into old age. His theory may to a large extent provide a new understanding of life in old age, for example old people who refuse to extend their social sphere, or who do not find activities in institutions meaningful.

Tornstam’s theory is interesting and exciting to read and is extremely relevant for nursing. It can offer new ideas to nursing and insights into ageing and into those values and theories that influence the exercise of a practical occupation.

Over the last number of decades, migration into the EU has become a key phenomenon. According to figures from the OECD, towards the end of the 20^th century an estimated figure in the region of 20 million migrants where living in the EU. That accounted for 5.3% of the total population. That figure has grown to 7.3% in 2003. These migrant movements come from various backgrounds. Many factors including political instability, media, and transport services, demographic and economic development have led to greater migration into the EU. The large influx of immigrants to the UK from India and Pakistan in the 1960s resulted in educational and cultural diversity policies to develop. In the 20^th century EU countries have not intentionally “set out to build a multicultural society”. What we mean by a multicultural society is a “society consisting of many cultural or ethnic groups sharing the same space”. There are many economic and political reasons which lead to both a long term and a short term migration into the EU. Countries that saw a huge influx of migrants from neighbouring countries faced “similar challenges with regard to integration”. There was no one system by which these countries set out a list of policies to accommodate these migrants, but each “developed a different approach”.

In this paper I will discuss the difference between two major countries when it comes to dealing with immigrants. These two countries/states are Germany and the United Kingdom. Each country will have its point of view when it comes to: education systems for both, children and adult migrants, employment systems, how they accommodated their religious beliefs. I have decided to not to generalise the EU as a whole, but chose countries that I feel have had different approach to immigrants.

All countries adhere to basic democratic values and human rights; they are also submitted to the same European Courts of Justice. By their very logic these values and rights cannot be restricted to citizens, but must generally be granted to non-citizens. The migrants have the same rights as the autochthonous, except political rights in the narrow sense. They are entitled to the same civil, economic and social rights. This was seen in the 1955 Treaty between Germany and Italy which gave the Italian workers the same conditions of pay, health insurance, unemployment and pension benefits.”” Germany never defined itself as a country of immigration. This ambiguous stance has been reflected in its approach towards the integration of immigrants.” The main migrant groups in Germany are “Guestworkers” who entered Germany between 1950 and 9175. Their immigration was considered temporary and there was “no need for integration”. The second group were “Ethnic Germans from eastern Europe”. These immigrants are of German origin. Immigrants who had “German ancestors.

Education

A study carried out by the Economic Cooperation and Development in Germany on the 15^th of May 2006 show that German schools have failed when it comes to “educating immigrant children”. The study compared the native German students to those what we consider “first-generation immigrants” between 18 countries, one of which is Germany. The results were quite unsettling as the OECD showed that, students born outside of Germany “perform well below the average first-generation immigrants” in the list of countries surveyed. This was not the first time that Germany’s education system was criticised. In 2000, Program for International student Assessment (PISA) carried out a survey in which Germany was placed in the “bottom third of industrialised nations surveyed”. The next day the results were made public. Annette Schavan, the minister of Education requested “for money to be spent on schools”. Annette quoted saying “we also need a new funding concept”. Policies were taken to ensure the development of better education system for first and second generation children in Germany. In July 12^th 2007, Chancellor Angela Merkel revealed the National Integration Plan. “This plan will provide local and state officials with a federal framework for conducting immigrant integration programs”. The NIP highlighted better “educational opportunities” for first and second generation youth. It ensured that more immigrants “enter the upper educational tracks”.

In contrast, the UK has shown surprisingly very different results. Surveys also carried out by the OECD showed that first and second generation immigrant students have “on average higher levels of education” when compared to native students. However, these “educational advantages” have not resulted in successful employment for these immigrants. In fact, the gap in terms of employment for both groups is “quite dramatic” despite the fact that the same system of education is provided for both immigrants and “white natives”. When it comes to education in the UK, they have noticed that minority “children do in fact acquire a good knowledge of the English language from their peers outside school as well as from listening to their teachers”. Despite that the education system was altered slightly, whether it’s taking a decision to hold a child a year back in order to improve his English, so as to be prepared for 2^nd level education or the addition of extra English classes. In Ireland, a similar method was used.

Employment

As mentioned in the introduction, the majority of immigrants in the UK in the 1960s were from India and Pakistan. Study carried out by the LFS which compares “British born ethnic minorities and white natives” showed that the majority of immigrants were able to attain jobs. This was great news but there was one problem which the UK faced and that was: the difference between male and female minorities being employed is quite big. Figures show that more female women are being employed then to that of males. The UK had to take action in order to resolve the issue. The LFS found out that the main reason for this was that most immigrants have “remarkably strong educational backgrounds”. Figures also show that employment “probabilities of Pakistanis” male was as low as 23%. The labour market in the UK was described as a “bleak picture”. The chances of male workers attaining jobs are very low. To resolve the issue, new English language schools was set up by the government to balance these figures. In 2001, the LFS showed that such action was very successful as the ratio of male to female was balanced.

In recent years the labour market in Germany for the integration of immigrants was quite similar to that of the natives. But Germany faced the opposite problem to that of the UK. Female immigrants had very low employment rates. The Turkish female immigrants, “stand out as having particularly low rates of well below 40%. Germany faced “economic stagnation” in the early 1990s. There was large decrease in immigrant employment when compared to nationals. Figures show that in 1990 there was a 10% decline in immigrant employment as opposed to 3% decline in natives being unemployed. Unlike the UK, the increase in unemployment for immigrants was not because of education but because of economic crisis. In order to rebalance the figures, a very different approach was taken. Germany had to take economic and political decisions. There was no action to limit the number of immigrants aloud into Germany but instead policies were more focused on international trade and attracting multinational companies. Between 1998 and 2000, the survey carried out by the LFS showed that there was a 12% increase in foreigners being employed.

Religion

Many people consider Germany as a “diverse country”. Many also anticipate that it will become increasingly so over time. In 2006, there was what was considered a “social cohesion” as such that German politicians “began to perceive hostility toward Muslims”. The PFRPL (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life) ran a survey which showed that there are approximately 4.5 million Muslims living in Germany. This accounted for 5.1% of the population in 2013. The German society is a “homogenous” one. Racism is still pervasive in Germany. The image of Muslims after the September 11 has deteriorated as such Muslim religious believers has “trickled into the German national public dialogue” or in German Diskurs-Raum. There was a study carried by the University of Munster in 2010 found that Germans have a “worse perception of adherents of non-Christian religions” then any European country. Aggressive of violent attack on Muslims were expressed on Mosques and Muslim people. In oder to deal with this, Angela Merkel “initiated an integration summit” which opens the door for Germans to understand and learn about other religions and diversity. Many studies and research provided the natives with fact about Muslims in order to avoid any potential threats.

There are over 1.1 million Muslims in the UK in 2001. This figure has tripled over the last decade to an astonishing 3.5 million within a decade. The Muslims have been very well accepted in the UK to a stage that there are now over “85 Islamic Sharia courts”. The British law accepted the Sharia Principles. There are over 110 mosques in the UK. The Muslim population has multiplied “10 times faster than the rest of the society over the last decade”.

Conclusion

In my opinion both societies have succeeded in converging with migrants. The education systems were altered slightly in both countries to accommodate migrant children as well as adults. Although I think the suggested approach to allow the cultures to “coexist” would truly show that the societies in the UK have accepted the migrant culture.

Regarding the religious beliefs, the UK seem to have a slight advantage it terms of give the Muslims a sense of power. Many mosques in UK are involved in political debates as well as the fact that, some we’ll know politicians are Muslims. In Germany, there were no barriers when it comes to having permission to build mosques. A very high figure of 2,200 religious organisations shows that Germany has accommodated the religious beliefs of migrants.

When it comes to employment, again both countries have provided the migrants with suitable jobs even though they might have had problems due to the lack of the native language.

Overall most European societies have converged with the migrants.

Reference

Migration and Social Integration of Migrants 2003, Luxembourg, accessed 11 February 2014, http://www.oi.acime.gov.pt

Steven vertovec / SuSanne WeSSendorf. 2004. Assessing the backlash against multiculturalism in Europe. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.mmg.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/wp/WP_09-04_Vertovec-Wessendorf_backlash.pdf

May, Stephen, 2001. Multiculturalism and education in Britain: an internally contested debate. International Journal of Educational research, [Online]. 35, 305-317. Available at: http://www.tariqmodood.com/uploads/1/2/3/9/12392325/multiculturalism_education_britain.pdf .

Spiegel. 2006. Integration and Education: Immigrants in Germany Falling Behind. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.spiegel.de/international/integration-and-education-immigrants-in-germany-falling-behind-a-416429.html.

Eric Leise. 2007. Germany Strives to Integrate Immigrants with New Policies. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=610.

Dustmann,C. and Theodoropoulos, N. 2010. ETHNIC MINORITY IMMIGRANTS AND THEIR CHILDREN IN BRITAIN .Oxford Economic Paper, [Online]. 62, 1-24. Available at:http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/SubmissionOEP_June.pdf

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Naika Foroutan. 2013. Identity and (Muslims) Integration in Germany. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/TCM-Germanycasestudy.pdfSoeren Kern. 2011. Britain vs. Muslim Immigration. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/2056/britain-vs-muslim-immigration

Higher Education

Mead graduated from Oberlin College in 1883 and matriculated at Harvard from 1887-1888 where he studying philosophy and sociology and graduated with a Master’s degree.

Although he belonged to a deeply religious family, Mead became a devout naturalist and non-believer after attending college.

After leaving Harvard, he participated in many causes and was an ardent activist of any progressive causes.

He marched in favour of the women’s suffragette and took part in several civic duties in Chicago.

The Chicago Philosopers’ Club

1896

Mead was influenced by Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution which is evident in his theories as a naturalist.

At Harvard, Mead studied with Josiah Royce who was a major influence in his life, and William James, whose children he tutored.

In 1888, Mead left Harvard and travelled to Germany.

There, he studied with psychologist Wilhelm Wundt who was his influence for the concept of “the gesture,” which would soon be an important aspect of his work.

In 1891 he married Helen Kingsbury Castle.

He taught at the University of Michigan and then the University of California.

Mead wrote intensively over a 40-year career, however he didn’t publish any books.

He published over 100 scholarly articles.

Mead died of heart failure on April 26, 1931.

Following his death, his students put together a collection of his notes, unpublished letters and lessons, and finally published a book of his thoughts and teachings.

Epistemology & Ontology

He observed that people acquired knowledge about behavior based on what they observe and acquire from society.

The principle of sociality is the ontological foundation of Mead’s concept. The distinction between mind and matter and that between consciousness and the physiological organism is a distinction which is drawn between contents which may appear on either side of the line.

Mead noted that there is more than what meets in the eye in terms of human interactions. This means, that there are reasons behind certain actions, which can be brought out through micro-investigations of human interaction.

People who influenced Mead

Mead was influenced by his friend John Dewey who led him into educational theory. However Mead’s thinking diverged from that of Dewey and he developed the famous psychological theories of mind, self and society.

This idea was also greatly influenced by Wilhelm Wundt; who Mead met when he went to Germany to study psychology

At Harvard, Mead studied with an American idealist philosopher Josiah Royce who also was an influence.

Mead was influenced by Adam Smith and thus identified the social act of economic exchange.

In Mead’s writing ” ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ ” Mead takes William James’s distinction between the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ and develops it further. William James was a renowned pragmatist philosopher.

The prominent sociologist Charles Cooley (A philosopher) also influenced Mead’s thinking.

People who were influenced by Mead

Herbert Blumer, a sociologist who studied at the University of Chicago was influenced by Mead. He took over Mead’s lecturing responsibilities and went on to chair the Department of Sociology at the University of California Berkeley. He is often referred to as the heir of George Herbert Mead.

During the second half of the twentieth Century, Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism was separated into two distinct branches : The Chicago school under Herbert Blumer and the Iowa school under Manford Kuhn. Both of whom were influenced by Mead.

Norman Denzin and Sheldon Stryker also continued to develop the Symbolic Interactionism theory of Mead.

Ervin Goffman’s so-called “dramaturgical sociology” is also highly influenced by Mead.

Major Publications

Mind, Self, and Society (1934)

The Philosophy of the Act (1938)

The Philosophy of the Present (1932)

Basic Sociological Concepts

Double Centre of Gravity

Taking the role of the other

Self Development

The Self

The self emerges from social experience

Individual selves are the products of social interaction and not the biological or logical preconditions of the mentioned interaction

Hence The self is not part of the body, and it does not exist at birth

Explaining further – in the absence of social interaction (i.e. isolated children) the body may grow but no self will develop.

Social experience involves communication and exchange of symbols

Dog example – A dog responds to what you do, but humans respond to what you have in mind as you do it.

Social interaction involves seeing ourselves as others see us – taking the role of the other (Mead).

Double Centre of Gravity

In Mead’s concept of the self, he expressed Double Centre of Gravity by dividing the self in to the “I” and the “Me”.

The I and the Me

The “I” and the ” Me” are derived from the self.

The Self is the relationship between “I” and “Me”

The “Me” is the internalization of others’ perspective of ourselves – the perspective we get of ourselves from how others treat and interact with us.

The “I” is the part of us that responds to these internalized attitudes.

Explaining further the “Me” is the social self that takes into account the reactions of others, while the “I” is the indistinctive part of the self which has ideas and imagination and is independent to social norms.

Taking the role of the other

Mead suggested that socialization derived primarily from people’s ability to take the role of the other.

Taking the role of the other means putting yourself in another person’s place to think/reflect about yourself.

Taking the role of the other helps to integrate the individual with organized social processes

By taking the role of the other, Mead meant putting oneself in the place of another individual in such a manner that one arouses the same response in both.

Self Development
According to Mead, developing the self is learning to take the role of the other

The first stage is “Prep”

Children imitate and begin to understand symbols such as languages and gestures

The Second Stage is “Play “

Children role-play and pretend to be another person. Play involves assuming roles of significant others, helping kids see the world from others’ points of view.

The Third stage is “Game”

Children, at 7 or 8 begin to understand others roles and responsibilities, making games possible.

The fundamental difference between the game stage and its antecedent play stage lies in the child’s ability to take the roles of multiple people at the same time

Generalized Other

The norms, values, attitudes and expectations of people “in general;” the child’s ability to take the role of generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self.

The individual defines his or her own behavior with reference to the generalized attitude of the social group(s) they occupy.

Significant other

An Individual who significantly influences someone else’s life. i.e. Individuals who are most important in development of the self. (e.g. parent)

MEAD’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY

Mead is one of the most influential and acclaimed sociologist of the 20th Century

Praised by Critics throughout the world as a pioneer and a Stalwart

Has had several books published posthumously about his teachings

“the individual mind can exist only in relation to other minds with shared meanings”

(Mead 1982: 5)

CRITICISM

THE END

Today, the urban development is vulnerable to the growing impact of gentrification. At this point, it is worth mentioning the fact that the process of gentrification emerges under the impact of multiple factors, including economic and social ones and the process of globalization, which stimulate consistent changes in urban development. At the same time, the process of urban development leads to socioeconomic and demographic changes, provoked by the gentrification. However, possible effects of gentrification are still under-researched and the debate on whether gentrification leads to positive or negative effects persists. Nevertheless, changes in the development of cities are significant and force policy makers either to support or to slow down the process of gentrification. However, any attempt of policy makers to regulate the process of gentrification and, therefore, urban development confronts the problem of the interference of state in the process of local economic development. In such a situation, policy makers should understand clearly whether gentrification has positive or negative effects and whether benefits of gentrification outweigh its disadvantages. In fact, the support of gentrification is essential only on the condition of the positive effect on the urban development but, in actuality, the risk of widening gaps between different social classes, namely between the rich and the poor, may widen that may lead to the exclusion of the poor and their marginalization. Therefore, the process of gentrification needs to be studied in details but policy makers should take into consideration the fact that gentrification has a considerable impact on the social, economic and demographic development of modern urban areas.

THE ESSENCE OF GENTRIFICATION
Definition of gentrification

Gentrification is a relatively new trend, although specialists (De Courcy Hinds, 1987) refer the origin of gentrification to the mid-20th century and the post-World War II period, when considerable changes in communities inhabited by representatives of lower- and working class had started. In this regard, it is possible to refer to the experience of Brooklyn, New York:

On November 22, 1966, a small group of city construction workers arrived at the corner of State and Nevins Street in Brooklyn with orders to raze an abandoned brownstone. Having recently gained possession of the dilapidated four-story building through non-payment of taxes, the city had become concerned that the empty townhouse was a gathering place for homeless men and drug users and decided to demolish it (Osman, 2011, 1).

However, it is only by the late 20th century, the trend to gentrification had become strong and today this is one of the most significant trends in the urban development.

At this point, specialists (McKenzie, 2006) define gentrification as the process of shift of the middle class population in low income and working class communities. As a rule, the native population of low-income and working class communities is steadily replaced by representatives of the upper-class and professionals, who settle in the area, whereas the share of the native population decreases substantially. The wealthier population moves to low-income and working class communities, settles their and starts developing local communities. In such a situation, the native population of these communities has to move to other areas and settle there.

Nevertheless, the process of gentrification is still under-researched and needs further studies because this process is quite complicated and relatively new. This is why researchers attempt to explore the process of gentrification in the context of urban development (Sassen, 1995). In such a way, it is possible to understand its effects on urban development. However, before studying effects of gentrification on urban development, it is necessary to dwell upon basic causes of gentrification. Causes of gentrification can help to understand the essence of this process and its effects in a long-run perspective.

Economic causes of gentrification

On analyzing causes of gentrification, specialists (Brandes Gratz, 1989) point out economic concerns as one of the major causes of gentrification. To put it more precisely, the economic development of large cities contributes to the fast progress and growth of the population along with the growth of needs and requirements of the population concerning residential areas, conveniences and environment. In such a situation, the younger generation of professionals and representatives of the middle class often prefers to move to low-income and working class communities, where they can afford purchasing a permanent lodging at a relatively low price and, thus, start living separately from their parents, owning their own lodging. The availability of lodging and its relatively low price attracts representatives of the middle class, who look for independence and affordable lodging.

In addition, many professionals are driven to low-income and working class communities by their professional concerns. For instance, if professionals work in the city, they feel more comfortable, when they live close to their work that allows them to save travel time as well as money. In such a situation, economic concerns become prior to representatives of the middle class and professionals, mainly young people, who move to low-income and working class communities from traditional areas of their living.

Social causes of gentrification

In actuality, social factors also play an important part in the emergence of gentrification in modern cities that affects consistently their development. In this regard, specialists (Ley, 1995) argue that artists, teachers and cultural administrators are in the avant-garde of gentrification because they seek for new place of residence, where they can settle being free of the dependence on automotive transportation and other issues emerging in the suburban areas, where representatives of the middle class normally live. In fact, young graduates, educators, artists and other representatives of the middle class prefer to settle closer to the city center to get access to basic conveniences, services and important city areas, including hospitals, trade centers and other areas. In such a way, they attempt to maintain the lifestyle they have used to while studying and get wider access to basic services they need at the moment. In addition, gentrification increases their independence from parents and automotive transport. In such a way, representatives of the middle class move to low-income and working class communities.

Economic globalization

At the same time, some specialists (Ley, 1986) point out that the process of gentrification is closely intertwined and is provoked by the process of globalization. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the fact that the process of globalization contributes to the free and fast movement of capital along with the migration of the population. The migration of the population and movement of capital being enhanced by the free movement of capital stimulates gentrification. Representatives of the middle class purchase houses in low-income and working class communities and they can repair and improve to match their standards of living. In this regard, immigrants with a relatively high level of income can also move to low-income and working class community, where they can purchase houses at a relatively low price and repair them respectively to their standards.

At the same time, globalization contributes to the emergence of banking and service activities which replace the traditional manufacturing core of the urban economy. In such a situation, professional working in the banking industry and professionals working in different industries providing services prefer to move to low-income and working class communities, where they can settle close to their workplace, whereas many professionals today work just at home that allow them to save time and money on transportation. At the same time, low-income and working class communities attract them due to the relatively low price and location close to the city center and respective conveniences and services being available to representatives of the middle class living in these communities.

THE EFFECTS OF GENTRIFICATION ON URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Economic effects of gentrification

In actuality, the process of gentrification leads to consistent changes in urban development and affects consistently the economic development of communities vulnerable to the impact of gentrification. In this regard, many specialists warn that the obvious problem being that the low income portion of the social fold is being disregardedaa‚¬”literally and figuratively (Whataa‚¬a„?s Up with Gentrification, 2007, 5). What is meant here is the fact that gentrification leads to the replacement of poor, working class population by representatives of the middle class. In such a situation, low-income families and representatives of the working class have to move from their communities to other ones, where the standards of living are even lower than that of their own communities inhabited by representatives of the middle class. Representatives of the middle class, in their turn, inhabit low-income and working class communities start consistent changes in local communities, where they settle. These changes lead to consistent raise in standards of living because they repair their houses and stimulate the development of commerce and different services, which are essential for the maintenance of their high standards of living. In such a way, representatives of the middle class invest substantial funds in the development of local communities to match them to their traditional standards of living, which are naturally consistently higher than standards of living for low-income families and representatives of the working class.

At the same time, the rise of standards of living, significant investments, the development of the local infrastructure, services and facilities increases substantially the price of real estate in the community as well as costs of living in the community. In such a situation, representatives of the middle class settling in low-income and working class community bring considerable investments but these investments lead to the increase of costs of living in communities making the life unaffordable for low-income and working class population.

As a result, the economic development of communities vulnerable to the impact of gentrification changes consistently. Specialists (McKenzie, 2006) argue that representatives of the middle class moving to low-income and working class communities boost their economic development that leads to the increase in housing prices and overall rise of costs of living. As a result, low-income and working class communities turn from poverty stricken communities into successful and rapidly progressing communities, where business activities emerge successfully.

At first glance, economic effects of gentrification are positive. However, specialists (Sassen, 1995) warn that such positive effects of gentrification can have extremely dangerous side-effects, especially in relation to low-income and working class. To put it more precisely, the low-income and working class population has to move from the communities, where people used to live before the arrival of representatives of the middle class. Often they have to move away from the areas located close to the city center and they should look for cheap lodging. However, as the process of gentrification emerges, they have substantial problems with finding cheap lodging, while they cannot afford constructing their own houses, which used to be the prerogative of representatives of the middle class. Representatives of the low-income and working class cannot afford purchasing their own homes as well. In such a situation, they are doomed to live in outskirts of large cities or other areas, where conditions of living deteriorate and become unbearable for the population. In contrast, representatives of the middle class improve conditions of living, stimulate the development of business activities. As a result, the poor are forced to live in communities suffering from economic stagnation, whereas the rich and middle class prosper. The economic disparity between classes deteriorates the economic development of low-income and working class. The disparity in economic development of different parts of cities leads to the backwardness of the parts inhabited by low-income and working class, whereas parts of cities inhabiting by middle class prosper.

The economic prosperity stimulated by gentrification improves the local infrastructure and opens new ways for the development of business activities. As a result, the wealth of the middle and upper-class increases and is accumulated in the hands of representatives of the middle and upper-class. In contrast, the poor grow poorer and cannot afford living within the city that leads to their marginalization.

Social effects of gentrification

At the same time, consistent economic changes affect the development of the social life of communities vulnerable to the impact of gentrification. At this point, it is worth mentioning the fact that the deterioration of the economic situation in urban areas and the deterioration of the position of low-income and working class. Representatives of the middle class are also vulnerable to the impact of gentrification. However, the impact of gentrification is different in relation to low-income and working class and in relation to the middle class. Economic changes affect consistently the position of both classes that naturally contributes to consistent social changes.

In fact, the poor are vulnerable to the negative impact of gentrification. First of all, they have to move from their traditional residential areas to new ones, where they have to start a new life and where conditions of living are worse compared to the communities they used to live in. Representatives of the low-income and working class have to live in new communities and start a new life, which naturally evokes a number of social problems, among which it is necessary to develop basic infrastructure and positive relationships within the community.

Furthermore, as the poor have to move to a new residential area, they often have to change their workplace because they cannot always afford covering transportation costs or the schedule of their work makes their work impossible. As they change the workplace, they may face the problem of unemployment, especially because they have to move to areas with the poor business development and with stagnating economy.

In such a situation, representatives of the low-income and working class can face another problem aa‚¬” the problem of high crime rates in areas, where they settle after they have to move from their communities under the impact of gentrification. In fact, being in a desperate position and having no means for living, the poor are forced to commit crimes to earn for living and to afford living in a new community, where they move to from communities now inhabited by representatives of the middle class mainly. Representatives of the low-income and working class slip to criminal activities that naturally increase the social tension in poverty-stricken neighborhoods, where they live.

Another social problem representatives of the lower class face is the lack of access to education. In fact, as they are removed from traditional residential areas, where they used to live, the poor have to develop their life in new communities and areas, which are often underdeveloped. They cannot afford developing education organizations and education system in their new community on their own. The state and local authorities are not always capable and willing to support the population of local communities. As a result, new communities inhabiting by the poor either have insufficient capacities to provide access to education for students in these communities, or have no education organizations at all. Obviously, the lack of access to education will increase the social tension even more because without education individuals cannot get well-paid jobs and good career opportunities. In addition, children living in low-income communities with the high level of crime rates are vulnerable to the impact of their criminal environment. Therefore, the position of the poor will deteriorate, whereas social problems will increase over and over again.

In addition, it is worth mentioning the fact that health care services are not available to the poor, who have to move to new residential areas after representatives of the upper class have replaced them in their traditional residential areas. In fact, health care services are not available as education services. Today, health care services are very expensive and the poor cannot afford the development of health care organizations in their communities, whereas the state lacks funds for the provision of health care services to all people. In such a situation, the poor are deprived of basic opportunities to have access to basic health care services.

In contrast to the poor, representatives of the middle class can benefit from gentrification economically but they can hardly benefit from gentrification in social terms. What is meant here is the fact that representatives of the middle class exclude representatives of the lower class from the mainstream culture and benefits associated with the fast economic development of their communities. In fact, in social terms, gentrification leads to the growing tension between representatives of different social classes. To put it in simple words, representatives of the middle class improve their conditions of living, whereas the poor become poorer and suffer from a bunch of socio-economic problems. Moreover, the gap between the rich and the poor grows wider and specialists (Sassen, 1995) forecast serious conflicts between the two classes under the impact of gentrification because the problem will aggravate and the gap between the two classes will widen.

Demographic effects of gentrification

Along with numerous economic and social effects of gentrification, specialists (McKenzie, 2006) distinguish demographic effects. In this respect, it is important to place emphasis on the fact that the process of gentrification contributes to consistent demographic changes. In fact, representatives of the middle class purchasing houses in the low-income and working class communities tend to have a few children. At this point, it is worth mentioning the fact that representatives of the middle class, who move to low-income and working class communities, are young people mainly. As a rule, they are not having children, when they move to low-income and working class communities. They need substantial financial resources to start a new life in low-income and working class communities. In such a situation, representatives of the middle class prefer to invest in the repair of their new houses and the development of low-income and working class communities to transform them into prosperous communities. In such a situation, the rise of taxes and costs of living decreases the capabilities of representatives of the middle class living in low-income and working class communities of having children. In a long-run perspective, gentrification leads to the aging of the population living in communities, where representatives of the middle class have moved to. The same trend can be traced in low-income and working class communities because they cannot afford maintaining large families. In such a situation, the risk of the demographic crisis emerges because both representatives of the middle and lower classes have a few children. Specialists (Brandes Gratz, 1989) argue that, in a long-run perspective, the demographic crisis provoked by gentrification can lead to the aging of the population. The latter may provoke the deterioration of the economic situation and provoke social problems.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GENTRIFICATION
Advantages of gentrification

Obviously, gentrification has a number of advantages. First of all, gentrification stimulates the fast economic development of low-income and working class communities because representatives of the middle class invest substantial financial resources in the development of the communities. The investment and the development of local infrastructure increase housing prices in local areas. In such a situation, the housing taxes increase as the wealth of the community increases. Therefore, the economic development of communities under the impact of gentrification is accelerated. The development of communities stimulates the development of cities at large because cities benefit from the increased revenues obtained from taxation and accelerated economic development of would be low-income and working class communities. Representatives of the middle class obtain large opportunities for the further improvement of their standards of living. As a result, they benefit from gentrification.

Disadvantages of gentrification

On the other hand, gentrification brings a number of problems and has substantial disadvantages. First of all, Gentrification deteriorates the position of the poor, who have to move from low-income and working class communities, which are inhabited by representatives of the middle class. Their economic position becomes even worse as they have to move to new communities. In fact, the poverty breeds poverty being expelled from low-income and working class communities by representatives of the middle class.

In addition, representatives of the lower class have to move to new communities, where a bunch of socioeconomic problems emerge. Among the major problems of socioeconomic problems, it is worth mentioning unemployment, the lack of access of the poor to education and basic health care services, and other problems.

However, what is more important about gentrification is widening the gap between the rich and the poor. In fact, the poor become poorer, whereas representatives of the middle class improve their position. In such a situation, gentrification can undermine the foundation of modern cities because it raises unsurpassable barriers between the rich and the poor living in the cities but this antagonism can provoke serious social conflicts, including growing crime rates, which may affect not only poverty stricken communities but also other communities, including communities inhabited by representatives of the middle class and communities emerged in terms of gentrification.

CONCLUSION

Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is important to place emphasis on the fact that gentrification is quite a controversial process. In actuality, it is obvious that gentrification affects consistently the urban development. However, effects of gentrification can be highly controversial. On the one hand, gentrification stimulates the economic development of communities, where representatives of the middle class move to. However, economic benefits may be short-run, whereas, in a long-run perspective, gentrification can lead to the widening gap between the rich and the poor in cities. The latter problem will lead to the deterioration of the social stability within cities. Nevertheless, the full impact of gentrification on urban development should be studied further.

Scientists working on the genetic issues of inbreeding argued that autosomal recessive gene increases homozygosity and produce malformations which are a common cause of “cardiovascular, central nervous system, urogenital, ophthalmic, gastrointestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, and also multiple malformations” (5 page 14). Similarly, Bundey and Alam found postneonatal mortality and childhood morbidity in the offspring of consanguineous Pakistani parents (6). Ahmed, et al (1) identified hemoglobinopathies as a major genetic problem among Pakistani cousin couples. The research- team studied 15 families carrying hemoglobin and eight control families without the history of a hemoglobin disorders. The scientists in this study found that the cousin couples carry -thalassemia and 0.5 to 1 percent carry hemoglobin S or hemoglobin E. The infants of the cousin couples affected ratio is 1.3 per 1000 live births, and according to the study infants present -thalassemia. The ratio of genetic disorders among the children of the control couple was lower than the cousin marriages couple. Bullock and Khalid (4) found increased risk of low intelligence, mental instability, sickle-cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis among the children of the cousin couples. Bittles (2) argued that various types of genetic disorders have been reported to be more common among consanguineous children. For example congenital disorders including neural tube and congenital heart defects were reported. According to Bittles “Autosomal recessive hearing loss disorders and visual defects such as early-onset retinal dystrophies, primary congenital glaucoma and anophthalmos also are present at increased prevalence” (2 page 95) among the children of the consanguineous spouses. These inbreeding studies are conducted among the Pakistani ethnic diaspora communities living in the Western countries. However, there is a dearth of inbreeding studies within the Pakistani society.

However, second perspective (8, 9) argued that the chances of the genetic disorders are low and exaggerated. This perspective claimed that there are lower chances of the genetic disorders and that the media has stigmatized ethnic minority groups which alienated the community from mainstream Western society [1] .

Socio- Genetic Problems
Genetic Problems
Social Problems

Congenital malformations

Learning difficulties,

hearing impairment, infant mortality, morbidity, long term disability, increase birth prevalence, blindness

Cardiovascular disease

Asthma/ eczema

Single-gene disorders (neurological disorders)

Cerebral palsy

Down syndrome

Metabolic disorders

Spontaneous abortion or infertility

Cystic fibrosis

Urogenital

Ophthalmic

Gastrointestinal

Skeletal

Cutaneous

Hemoglobin

Thalassaemia

Fig 1 Genetic and social issues found in relevant literature

Hence, it is claimed (10) that the chances of a 4 % health risk are possible among the non-relative marriages. The chances of unrelated cousins are also high and there is nothing significant on cousin marriage offspring’s (11). Genetic effects appear in later age and are overtly emphasized on the basis of medical justification (9). Thus, it can be seen from the above debate on genetics that the problem exists and the main cause is the consanguineous marriages. This is accelerating debate among medical healers, geneticists and other health professionals within the Western countries about populations carrying genetic disorders and being stigmatized on medical grounds. However, this debate is nor prevalent within the countries where cousin marriages occur on a large scale.

1.2 Cultural traditions of the cousin marriages

Consanguineous marriages constitute from 20 to 60 % of all marriages (9, 12). Worldwide 8.5% of child births are from consanguineous couples (9,12 ). Ten percent of worldwide congenital and genetic disorders are due to these marriages. In the Middle East and parts of Japan, and South Asia the marriages are dominant. Nevertheless, the majority ratio is in the Middle East (30 %) and in Pakistan (40 %) (1). Such marriages are under criticism in Europe and America; get on common in Asia, Africa and Middle East (4, 7).

A number of factors are listed in favour of cousin marriages; for instance property preservation within the similar social group, socio-cultural concerns of the cousins, blood ties maintenance, purification of family and association among the similar group (5). The marriages are a closed network of relatives, and they form socio-political alliances. The marriages are a source of social welfare and strong ties between the cousins that forms a kinship structure (12, 13). This pattern of marriage is customary in the Middle East and pre-dominantly in Muslim societies, especially Pakistan. There is growing argument and debate over the issues, caused by the genetics problems which are originating mainly through cousin marriages. The perceptions of genetic problems are over- emphasized in the developed nations (due to the technology, medical treatment available and awareness of the genetic issues) and with less serious concern in the developing countries which could not afford the technology and cost of medicine. Therefore, there is a need to know, how and where the problem lies and what impact it has on child health care.

1.3 Cosmopolitanism and indigenous knowledge of cousin marriages

Cosmopolitanism is the notion that all human beings share a similar moral and scientific normative system (14, 15). The cosmopolitan knowledge is the common body of knowledge across the discipline and geographical boundaries. In this paper ‘cosmopolitan knowledge’ I used as scientific debate on the cousin marriages. The term ‘indigenous knowledge’ refers to ethnic and cultural perceptions of the people in a particular region which share origins and a common belief system. Cosmopolitan knowledge is a lesser debated issue among the common man in developing countries, like Pakistan, where cousin marriages prevail on a large scale. Does the cosmopolitan knowledge of congenital disorders undermine the indigenous perspectives of the belief system in the community of Kabirwala (Pakistan)? The study is aims to understand the genetic problems due to cousin marriages and the people’s perceptions of cousin marriages (daughter/ sister exchange for spouse selection) and the impact on congenital diseases. This is an effort to know how cosmopolitan knowledge differs with the indigenous perceptions of congenital diseases among the families who are living under a woman exchange system (among cousins) and how the system is affecting child health care and why health services are unable to handle the issue within the cultural context.

2. Research design

I was working on my research project “exchange marriage system” in Kabirwala, a town in Pakistan. During the fieldwork, I found the blind and disabled persons whose parents were married on the basis of the exchange marriage.

Fig 2 Respondents level of the education [2]

I conducted interviews in a village of Kabirwala with the spouses’ who were married with cousins, their children to know the issue of genetic and their perceptions about the issue. The data was analyzed in line with Grounded Theory Method. This method develops the categories from the data (19, 20, 21). I developed the concepts and categories from the interviews. I interpreted and elaborated the data relevant to genetic problems for understanding the issue and categorized the data according to the themes. Relevant reports, articles were used to strengthen the findings of the primary data (16, 17, 18).

3. Results

I categories the results into below categories:

2.1 Destiny and Luck: cousin marriages and congenital diseases

Mehboob [3] 57 year old male is married with his cousin Rubia, 42 years. Rubia has nominal education. The couple have 11 children (3 sons and 8 daughters), and one child (Rakha in Fig 3) died one month after birth. Among the 11 children, two (Tahir and Najma) are blind and one child (Mehwi) has a hearing problem. The couple called it a matter of taqdeer (destiny) and argued that two children are blind due to their sin and one had died because “us kay din poray ho gaye thay” (he has finished his life: means he has only this life given by God).

Fig 3 Family of Mehboob

When I asked, “was this not a genetic problem?”, the respondents replied that it was ‘God’s will’ and this was the reason for his son’s death. It is a matter of luck, destiny and genetics has minor role to play, explained the respondents.

2.2 Religious authority and genetic problems

Aslam, a 57- year old man has different views about the genetic issues and he argues that genetic issues are not real ones, and that the Prophet’s daughter was married with Ali (the cousin of Prophet Muhammad). He explains: “it is not possible that cousin marriage has problems and that the Prophet did not forbid it”. People believe that the religious interpretation is the real one, and it is Allah who gives and solves genetic problems.

The family has authority to arrange the marriages and enjoy in return obedience of the son/daughter. It encourages the elders to be conformist with the local traditions and follow the traditional norms to regulate cousin network. However, a 29-year, Kalsoom a female, argued that parents control the decision-making authority because they want to rule their offspring. She tells that religion has given authority to parents but they should use this authority in a careful manner. She explains that genetics has no link with cousin marriage. The respondent claimed it is God who does whatever HE wants. Nevertheless, Kabir, a 33- year male believes that cousin marriages are as a source of security, stability, strength and unity.

2.3 Consanguineous marriages and formation of social capital

Cousin marriages determined the level of the kinship involvement in the Kabirwala community. Marriage with nearest relative is preferred. The relationship between in-laws extends beyond the couple. If a marriage is successful, it will be followed by others between the two families. Fig 4 indicates the few ratios of alternatives.

Fig 4 Marriage patterns

Cousin links, formed through marriages persist and are reinforced through the generations. The foremost source of the marriage proposal is within the lineage (22). It is found in this study (see Fig 5).

Fig 5 Marriage trends

The cousin marriages form a kind of social capital because the relatives are responsible to provide for a person in need. These cousins help, support and maintain the social security of a person in Pakistan.

2.4 Public health problem: the gaps between knowledge and indigenous belief system

Akram, a 50- year male respondent elaborated his account and said, his children are more beautiful than his brothers because he was married with his cousin and his brother was married with someone other than cousins. He mentioned that it was due to his own genes that his (spouse) gave birth to beautiful children. However, Kalim a 30-year, male disagreed with the above argument and he said it was marriage of his cousins that has given a blind child. Akram is a single case so whose generalization is not possible. Some young and educated respondents have awareness about the cousin marriages and genetics problems. Rabia, 25 years, a single, female respondent mentioned that cousin marriages creates zahanat ki kami (less intellect), kamzori (physical-weakness), zahni bemari (abnormality), and apas main gharello jahgrey (domestic conflicts). Although there is evidence of blind and disabled children from cousin marriages. This appears to be with medical research on the subjects. There is nominal awareness among the people of the genetic issues. The community is not aware about role of the genetic disorders. If anybody in the community has knowledge they negate it due to the belief system.

Cultural opportunities and constraints
Opportunities
Constraints

Purification of the family

Family conflict, less knowledge of congenital disorders, lack of research, lack of awareness, lack of medical treatment & infrastructure availability in the community of Kabirwala, lack of counseling opportunities, paternal authority, superstitions

Strengthen kinship ties

Availability of the spouses within family

Support for woman status

Better relations with in-laws

Old age care

Stable marriages

Property preservation

Preservation of land fragmentation

Less stigma

Loosening ties brings social problems

Political alliances

Fig 6 Comparison of opportunities and constraints

2.5 Policy steps to handle the issue of consanguineous marriages

There is a dearth of the research in the community of Kabirwala with reference to the cousin marriages and the probability of genetic diseases. The scientists working in the field of inbreeding have an opportunity to study the community which has a chain of cross-cousin marriages from generations. The inbreeding scientists may be able to find some significant results about the chain of genetic diseases; the following policy steps are suggested.

1) Genetic problems are considered an important issue among the scientists and less concern among the people as the present study shows. The people in the community of Kabirwala believe that disease is a matter of destiny and luck. They do not know that there is a possibility of positive relationship between the genetic disorders and the marriages. It is possible to provide education to the people. It would be helpful to add the issue to the school syllabus.

2) The local imam (religious preacher) could spread awareness of the issue in their Friday-sermons. The imam is a person who may effectively convince the people, because the majority of the people could not read and write. The people believe the religious teachings. These illiterate people could be influenced through the cultural specific ways and means. This is an easy way for the health professional to convince the local imam about the possible inherited diseases so that he is a catalyst of social change. Short run measures are also possible to sensitize the people through media and stage-drama. However, these measure are likely not sustainable because the media is either restricted or without due credibility to spread such kind of information.

3) Counselling services create awareness if they can be delivered to the remote communities like Kabirwala. However, there is no counselling service available in the community of Kabirwala yet.

4) Legislation is a last step to ban the cousin marriages. But the ban on cousin marriage will be counter productive in this cultural context where breaking the law is considered as ‘fashion’ and ‘symbol of superiority’. Non-conformity indicates a high social status in this community.

3. Discussion and conclusion

Cosmopolitan knowledge has diagnosed two distinctive problems among the Pakistani cousin marriage couples, hemoglobin and thalassaemia. However, the hemoglobin is the main genetic trouble among Pakistani ethnic people (1, 4, 23, 25, 26). Human biological diseases are crucial one and need proper attention from health professionals and policy makers within the cultural and religious setting’. A significant factor of cousin marriage is protection of property, to avoid land fragmentation and to maintain the close family ties and reassurance of the bride (5 page 13). This is similar to work by Shaw (24) which argues that social environment and religious belief has affected the prenatal diagnosis.

Cousin marriages are stable and have a low divorce rate among first cousins (10) and have a strong socio-economic impact on the traditional family system in Pakistan. These traditional marriages are cousin, caste and endogamy marriages. The marriages form a single fabric, and if violated can harm marriage patterns with serious ‘moral-decay’ consequently emerging (5, 25, 26). Thus, the present debate has a strong affect on the exchange marriages, which are overwhelmingly cousin marriages and has a negative affect on the public health. In my data, despite of the fact that respondents have education they have less knowledge about this issue. The community is lacking lively debate on the problem. Genetically disorders, visible from the health conditions, are likely to happen among the community.

Cosmopolitan perspective
Indigenous perspective

Physical incapacity

Exaggerated issue, stigmatized issue, qismat (luck) and taqdeer (destiny), child beauty, children are integrated

Mental incapacity

Harmful

Chronic disorder

Fatwa (an authoritative ruling on a point of Islamic law)

Fig 7 Cosmopolitan and indigenous perspective

Contrary, indigenous belief and attitudes have pointed to a few concerns: less awareness of the genetic issues, knowledge and facilities availability. The people in the community of Kabirwala believe that genetics problems have a negative relationship with the cousin marriages. This is the issue of a Western society and has less validity in Pakistani society. It is matter of destiny and luck and not a medical concern. Kabir explains: does western medicine ever stop a person to dying? This indicates apathy towards the genetic phenomenon where has less validity in the community. Therefore, the study found the evidence that cosmopolitan knowledge has no relevance with the indigenous belief system based on the above data.

Culture centred techniques to cope with these problems reduce chances of cousin marriages. For example, if a local imam/ molvi or the school syllabus stresses these. There are chances to reduce the possibility of the cousin marriages in coming generations. However, this is the turning point to convince the community to tackle and handle the issue with proper strategy. This is an open choice for the public and the health professional able where with proper facilitation and information can attract the public effectively. A failure to tackle the issue in a culturally specific manner could betray the health professional.

The current study found that community knowledge, belief and indigenous practices are the main causes responsible for the prevalence of cousin marriages in Kabirwala. These factors are also the stumbling-blocks in making the indigenous knowledge compatible with the cosmopolitan knowledge. Therefore, there are few concerns among the Kabirwala community about the genetic problems which way occur. They feel protected by their system of beliefs. Notion of luck and destiny is dominant in indigenous knowledge.

Literature Review

2.1.Introduction

This chapter deals with the main theme which is ‘the Generation Gap’ and also analyses the general notion of Generation Gap. It will discover the causes of Generation Gap as well as revealing the analysis of the causes and the effects on the society in general.

2.2The concept of Generation Gap

‘Generation Gap’ is a term generally used to define the differences in culture, thought and behaviour between younger generations and their elders. It can be also described as the changes taking place when older and younger people are unable to comprehend each other because of their different experiences, attitudes, lifestyles and activities. A generation is “a select group born during the same years that experienced momentous events during significant development cycles” (Kupperschmidt, 2000). “Generation gap” was heavily researched in the 1960s and 1970s (Smith, 2000).

With the ongoing process of life, there will always be new generations. As society continues to progress and new technological innovations develop, a generation gap will continuously be predominant. “The old are completely convinced that the ideas they have had throughout their lives are the ultimate and ideal. They disregard certain vital issues that are no longer valid in the case of modernity’’ (Neff, 2011). The changes that occur as society evolves will never allow for complete agreement between generations. The Generation Gap is one of the perhaps most debatable issues of the era (Aliampi, 1969).

A generation is based on the range of birth years of a group of people. Generations may span several centuries from the time when people are individuals. Not all members of a generation demonstrate the same personalities. Generation differences were apparent in societal movements or changes (Brunswick, 1970). Generation gaps are unavoidable occurrences that take place in society. These changes in society arise because people become accustomed to an unstable environment. As our society progresses, people tends to change their likes and dislikes. These changes in society are important for development.

2.3History of the Generation Gap

Even though there has been changes between the generations all the time, until the twentieth century the drastic transformations that the term implies were not greatly in evidence. Previously during that era, society was not considerably mobile. Normally, young people were living in extended families. They were either working on their personal farm or in a relative business. With the introduction of TV and shows, the youngsters were exposed to traditional impacts unfamiliar to their own relatives and values (Adcox, 2015). The 1920s presented the younger generation to jazz melody and disco galleries, consequently constructing a gap between them and their seniors. But the actual reason behind the widening of the generation gap lies in the 1950s (Baby Boomers) when the soldiers had just come back from wars and started having kin. The veteran was actually a little harsh in nature and disliked the young who were greatly influenced by the arrival of the rock way of life. The generation gap of the 1960’s was because the older generation had severe values that the younger generation disagreed and they rebelled. Different diversions of pop culture were created, like Rock and Roll, Discos, and hippies. The following great gap was generated in 1980s that presented the MTV era (Pop, Rock, etc.) come from all parts covering the new generation completely different from their seniors. This gap begun widening enormously in the 1990s and now prolonged in leaps and bounds (The Generation Gap in India).

2.4Types of Generations

2.4.1Generation 1 (1900s – 1920s)

The generation of the 1900s – 1920s had a life expectancy of 47 years. Families were outsized during that time and infant death was high. Around a fifth of women were losing their lives in childbirth. Delivery was done at home itself. They were doing teamwork, accepting the hierarchical chain of command and performing all the task without complaining (Codrington, 2008). Tradition and history guided their attitudes and beliefs. Individuals of this generation were “past oriented and history absorbed” (Zemke et al., 2000, p.39). This generation were loyal and patriotic (Smith, 2011). People of this generation were unlikely to make complaints regarding conditions in which they sense uncomfortable (Zemke et al., 2000).

2.4.2Silent Generation (1920s – 1945s)

The Silent Generation valued family and patriotism. They had a parent remaining at home to look after the offspring, favoured dependability, and remained with one company over time (Allen, 2004). They were brought up in serious intervals when everybody were obliged to work. They were conventional and working hard as they hated getting into debts. They considered that by entire hard work, they could achieve success (Codrington, 2008).

2.4.3Baby Boomers (1946s – 1960s)

Baby boomers have been identified as being good at relationships. They respected others rights and did not find mistakes on others (Rath, 1999 and Zemke et al., 2000). Baby Boomers “may not agree with stands and opinions of every part of the cohort group or exhibit the same behaviour in the same situations, but they do, in their hearts, understand one another” (Zemke et al., 2000, p.72). They are individuals who work to earn their living and willing to sacrifice to attain success (Kerstein, 2014). They like adventure and tend to take risks. They are the primary generation to realise lifetime unemployment no longer exist, so job security means nothing to them, but they consider job satisfaction. They are the first generation to divorce in a large extent and at a younger age than the prior generations (Soroptimist, 2010).

2.4.4Generation X (1960s – 1989s)

The generation X raised up undergoing an era of crises. Generation x is often considered as the “lost or overlooked generation” (Ware et al., 2007, p.59). They were the first offspring in the olden times that mothers could take pills not to have. Throughout the turbulent era of the 1970s, majority of the generation X grew up (Smith, 2011). They work to have a life not live to work, they struggle to have balance in their lives. They are spiritual explorers who have faith in supernatural (Codrington, 2008). They are independent and are determined to be responsible and in control. They focus on their goals and solve problems (Soroptimist, 2010).

2.4.5Generation Y (1989s – 2000s)

Generation Y are spoilt by computers and intense technological advances. One of the foremost features of this generation is their relaxation with technology and being good at it (Kersten, 2002 and Niemiec, 2000). They are the first generation to grow up with internet and they are dependent on technology (Soroptimist, 2010). They are born with a micro-chip in the mouth instead of a golden or silver spoon. This generation considers that because of technology, task can be done everywhere (Smith, 2011). They are self-confident and egotistical as well (Codrington, 2008). A majority of generation Y were familiar with “divorce, drugs, sex, AIDS, gangs and guns” (Zemke et. al., 2000, p.136). This generation committed to work in group for development and this has also been an indicative of their workplace conducts (Zemke et al., 2000).

2.5.The Notion of Generation Gap

Generation gap has been considered as an unavoidable obstacle for the communications between the young and the old ones. These conflicts are normally arise as a result of urbanization, industrial development and family mobility (Bengtson and Achenbaum, 1993). The physical separation of the youngsters and the elders has led to a lack of consistent intergenerational connection and a rise in misperceptions and misunderstanding between the young and old generation (Newman, 1997).

Becker (2000) stated that “distinct generations emerge as a result of the effects of discontinuous macro-social change on individual behaviour during the formative period of the life course. As soon as a new generation has developed, the development of its members before and after the formative period can be studied together with research on institutions related to the new generation” (p. 117). Mead (1970) stressed on the fact that, “Adults today know more about change than any previous generations. So we are set apart both from earlier generations and from the young who have rejected the past and all that their elders are making of the present” (p. 79). Gutman (1985) contended that in the modern society “the present younger generation had been socialized into believing that ‘young is beautiful, old is ugly’ in retaliation to if ‘the young knew and the old could’ (Jefferys 1997, p. 82).

Chow (2001) pointed that youngsters care and give attention to their parents as well as accepting and obeying their preferences in the form of showing respect them. He also suggested that, “children nowadays are not as keen to consult their parents as in the past” in both side on marriage and job seeking. The social circumstance have evolved in such a way that they have often made the guidance of parents irrelevant and in appropriate (Chow, 2001). Children failed in fulfilling parents hopes on obedience when making their lifetime choices. Thus, this is one of the key issues in the reoccurrence of the ‘generation gap’.

2.6.The Causes of Generation Gap

Generation gap has developed in society presently from numerous factors such as technological innovations, fashion, the evolution of the media, gifts, communication, attitudes, and sex. These aspects cause people to change in different ways that changes human opinion of what is right and generally acceptable, or to make a distinction between good and bad. These factors may cause discrepancies between generations, but they overall lead to positive development in society.

2.6.1Technological innovation

At an early age, the younger generation starts making the use of technology and they never overwhelmed by it (Kelty, 2000). As the youth have grown up with technology and developed flexible skill, they are now considered as ‘digital natives’ (Courtois et al., 2009). The younger generation ‘know what to do’ with different updated technologies as they make the use of them more often with the pre-existing technology (Facer et al., 2001). Older generation find it difficult to learn how to use technology unlike the younger generation (Kelty, 2000). They have the feeling of sore when there are advancement in technology. Throughout the previous three eras, the degree and speed of technological advancement has brought new interest in generational differences (Clark. 2009 and Livingstone, 2003).

2.6.2.Television

One of the most important creations that has influenced the younger generation is the Television. Nowadays, television is superb compared to the television that the older generation. The television that the older generation remembers is dissimilar, it contained fewer channels and were available mostly in black and white and it was much smaller (Neff, 2011). Because of these changes, a big generation gap has developed concerning entertainment and the ethics resulted from it. Televisions turned to be more predominant in children’s bedrooms (Jordan et al., 2010). Video game strategies are no more restricted to comforts that assign to televisions as it was long ago, however they are now accessible in the form of handheld devices as cellular phones (Vaterlaus, 2012). The multi-uses of television have widen the gap between the generations. The T.V remote control has become too complex for the old person who used to on/off button. The old may not necessarily be uneducated but they are not a tech-savvy as their children and grand-children. The same goes for the other gadgets such as video games, smart phones, iPad and iPhone.

2.6.3.Internet

The Internet has had the major influence of widening the generation gap. It is the foremost persuasive technological innovation in the world nowadays with its multiple uses (Neff, 2011). The technology used to reach the internet has also advanced. The private desktop computer transformed into the laptops, and tablets. The internet can be currently reached on strategies as small as iPods and cell phones anytime and anywhere. Cell phones that permit internet access are referred to as “Smartphones” (Vaterlaus, 2012). A technology revolution has been produced by the internet in the younger generation.

Internet is used by the younger generation every day and it also permit children to develop a sense of freedom. These changes in ethics have been prominent as main differences between generations (Neff, 2011). Consequently, these technological inventions lead to a rise in the width of the generation gap in the world nowadays. The internet is currently used “to play video games, view movies, watch television shows, and download music” (Jones, 2009). Juveniles who make use of the internet are no more restricted to view media, however they may communicate informally with others across the globe (Courtois, Mechant, De Marez and Verleye, 2009). Email, social-networking, chat rooms, and video chat permit communication to be immediate and even face-to-face (Jones, 2009).

2.6.4.Evolution of the Media

Changes in media is another feature that causes generation gap to develop. Music, due to the increasing in technology is changing fast and new melodies are continuously released. The primary foremost apparent change among the two generations is the introduction of CD and MP3 player. Older generations grew up with records and record players. Music was not something that was freely accessible. Nowadays children have the facility of downloading songs and within minutes can listen to it in the earphones anywhere they want. This definitely ease causes the generation gap to widen. Not only have the types of melodies changed but the forms of genres also. For the older generation, the melodies of nowadays are basically noise for them, there are lack of beat and softer songs of the historical. “People are obsessed on the tune of their early life, the tastes keep on varying and it is inevitable and can’t be stopped”. The two generations will certainly disagree on what is noble music. Because of this, a generation gap is unavoidable. With the on-going changes in art and music, the gap will only continue to widen (Neff, 2011).

2.6.5.Fashion

The way youngsters dress and appear are some of the most apparent, yet main factors in widening the generation gap. Appearances frequently reveal how one feels and their way of behaving. When the older generation was younger, they were more traditional, and it was revealed in their way of dressing. They dressed in a manner that was generally suitable at that time. The advancement of outfit displays a deliberate change from a traditional to liberal attitude. The film star heartened a movement into liberal dressing that certainly helps widening the existing generation gap. This particular change identifies a fashion choice that usually the young embrace and the old deprecate. This was the final step into varying the standards of dress. Women’s evolution into freedom permitted for changes in the societal approval of this revealing show. As these values have transformed, the generation gap has only grown (Neff, 2011).

2.6.6.Attitudes

The two generations adopted different attitudes. Most parents accept a straight forward expression and do not display their emotional state while interacting with their offspring. Moreover, they yell at their children more often or even give them physical punishment. These are due to the traditional practice. On the contrary, children dislike to obey their parents’ instructions as they consider that there are no reasons to support why parents’ opinions are correct. Furthermore, youngsters do not want their parents to treat them as little kids. They believe that they are grown-ups and they want to be free from parent’s control and refuse their guidelines. This helps them to achieve more self-esteem. Overall, both parents and their children do not perceive things from the same perspectives. As a result, misinterpretation is a great cause for the formation of generation gap (Kwok, 2010).

2.6.7.Communication

The generation gap is considered to be one of the greatest communication failure (Aliampi, 1969). There is lack of time for communication. A majority of the parents spend less time to communicate with and listen to their children. Parents are unable to balance their time between work and family due to work overload. On the other hand, children are not sharing their day to day activities with their parents (Kwok. 2010). Social communication is moving with the fast paced nature of technological improvement (Vaterlaus, 2012). Communication channels offered by the internet are developing rapidly. Cell phone features comprise of speaking and texting which have convert into a consistent means of social communication for adolescents (Jones, 2009). Cell phone communication has become a family affair (Vaterlaus, 2012). There are less face to face conversation between parents and children, thus this causes the gap to widen.

2.6.8.Sex

Sex has always been an issue on which the generations vary intensely. There are different conceptions of sex between the two generations. The way they think how to conceive are unlike. For the older generation, sex is a taboo. The young should not talk about sex and they cannot fall in love and have sex before marriage, punishment was very severe long ago. Marriage was being broken in the past because of virginity. On the contrary, for the younger generation sex is a normal activity. Sex before marriage is no more a sin for the young. This is shocking for the older generation. Teenage pregnancy was very rare before and now because of no sexual education, sex is reaching the youngsters. There is a big gap between the two generations. That gap has narrowed, but not all the time because younger generation have become more and more permissive (Smith, 2004).

2.6.9.Gifts

Gifts play a key role in widening the gap between older and younger generation. The older generation were used to the custom of giving monetary gifts to the young (Nguyen, 2008). But today there is a big gap, gifts should be offered according to the demand of the young, they prefer gadgets. Younger generations of nowadays expect IPhone, IPad, mobile phones and laptops (Waterlow, 2012). When older generations are unable to accomplish the desires of the young, they have a sense of unfulfilment because the gift is not according to the social norm. The difference in utility value of a gift is enormous. The older generation’s concept of utility is quite opposed to the young. The older generation views utility of gift in terms of time associated to solidity and absolutism. The young has been brought up to consider gifts as something which are passing fads.

2.7.Summary

This chapter has dealt with the idea of generation gap which is a universal phenomenon existing since time immemorial. Each period of human history has witness the causes of generation gap and tried to explain today we are perhaps most up to bring a clear explanation and have a better understanding about Generation Gap.

Stereotype refers to the cognition aspect of feeling towards a given group of people. It is the picture that most people engulf in their minds about other people. However the picture painted by people with regard to other people is not necessarily a true depiction of the reality. Stereotypes hold the fixed view that people of a certain community or group exhibit specific character traits, which influence their behavior in general. Stereotypes as regards gender, refer to certain traits presumably adhered to males and females in the society, that define and distinguish these genders. According to Mynhardt, the two genders (males and females) portray traits which are both negative and positive. Gender stereotypes have far reaching consequences and cannot be taken only on face value. The issue of gender stereotyping is deeply entrenched in our society, that it has gone to an extent of defining the status of people and the positions people hold depending on gender. For instance, the character traits associated with women are regarded to be unfit for positions of a higher stature. This kind of attitude is not new even in the developed world. For instance at the height of campaigns in the United States, there were numerous debates on and off the media on whether America was ready for a woman president. This certainly illustrates the biased perceptions that more often than not prevent women from reaching the positions at the highest level, simply because of the gender.

There are certain aspects of everyday life that are traditionally attributed to males and females in the society. The manner in which the men and women carry themselves around is fundamental to the definition and distinction of gender in general. There are acts both of omission and commission that are associated with each gender. However as days go by, the society undergoes transformation and so do the traditions and cultures that shape and influence the society as whole. In the family set up for example, the different roles are distributed depending on gender. There are also perceptions relating to the behavior of people that distinguish what are expected and what is not expected from people of a given gender. For example sensitivity, dependence and expression of emotions are considered feminine in nature. The men on the other hand are expected to exhibit traits such are bravery, independence, assertiveness and none of those traits that are associated with the women. However these cultures that build perceptions continue to fade with each passing day. As a result, there are many incidences of deviation from gender roles prescribed by society. The violation of these gender role stereotypes are accompanied by consequences largely due to the perceptions held by the society.

Violation of gender role stereotypes

The reception to those who deviate from the normal traits associated to their respective genders is no bed of Roses. The manner in which the violators are treated is no doubt unfavorable in most aspects. The reception however differs depending on the environmental set up and more so whether the person is male or female. In the event that males and females deviate from the roles prescribed by society as regards their gender, the males are more likely to receive a hostile reception. The women on the other hand, will most likely receive little attention. This all has to do with the issue of status in social aspects. There is the general perception that the masculine traits occupy a higher stature than feminine traits. Looking at the issue of sexual orientation, for woman behaving in a masculine way, it does not raise eyebrows, however if a man were to behave like a woman, this will no doubt be a big deal. The man will most certainly be referred to as a homosexual. In the work place however it is the women on the receiving end in the event of deviation. A woman who is charge of a given organization will most likely receive an unfavorable evaluation compared to a man, if she acts in a manner that violates the perceived traits of women and takes the route of a leader which is authority and commanding results in the work place.

Social perception of males and females who violate gender role stereotypes

There are numerous perceptions as regards the question of gender role violation. However according to Sirin, Selcuk R., McCreary, Donald R., Mahalik, and James R. authors of the journal of menaˆ™s studies, the notable social perceptions revolve around social status, sexual orientation and the dissimilarity of value. The perceptions exhibited are most of the time firmly in the grip of culture and are subsequently fuelled and driven by the traditions of the people in the society. The issue of culture and tradition set aside, expectations also play a significant role. There is a general expectation from both genders on the manner in which the other gender should behave. One thing cut across the divide and this is the fact that women anchor the expectation that men should display masculinity. The same is anticipated by men who are of the view that women should be feminine. Any sort of trait that does not meet the above expectations, it is considered a violation of gender role stereotype, which is accompanied by negative perceptions.

For a long time, gender has maintained a significant influence in the manner in which people conduct themselves in the society. The issue of status as regards the males and the females is what dictates the way in which males and females are regarded in the event that they violate the prescribed code of conduct that is attributed to their respective genders. According to Feinman, in relation to the social status model, he writes that the men have a status that is superior to that of women. Going by the model on social status, then men will more often than not face an unfavorable evaluation, should they violate the prescribed code of conduct for their gender this is because, the violation means that they lose class when they deviate from a status of a higher nature to a status that is low. For women whenever they deviate from perceived traits are assumed to be transforming from a lower status to a higher status. Hence the social perception with regard to the violation of gender role stereotypes is positive to a large extent. This is no doubt something that is rife in the society, as a matter of common societal law, to whom much is given a lot, is expected. For instance woman who dresses and behaves like a man will most likely go unnoticed or may even command respect from people around. This however is not the case in men. A man who dresses and behaves like a woman will most likely be despised. To a large extent this is all attributed to the distinction of the social status between the men and women. According to Feinman the male role is more valuable than that of the female. He further writes that it is acceptable for women to adopt the roles of men rather than men take up the roles of women.

Violation of the gender role stereotype has consequences for both the males and the females. However there is no denying the fact that, the reception received by the males as regards their transgressions is more hostile compared to the women. If anything the women may in some instances be perceived in a positive way. The issue of desire is the other frontier for the perceptions of gender stereotypes. According to Sadalla, Kenrick, and Vershure (1987), men who show traits of not being dominant are deemed to be undesirable. This perception is however not just directly related only to the dominance aspects, but to all traits in general. There is the general perception that, men who exhibit traits that are a deviation from the known male traits are not desirable especially from the womenaˆ™s point of view.

The other perception that is anchored in the minds of the people is the issue of respect in the society. This directly affects men in a negative way and does not have any negative impact on women who violate the gender role stereotype. It is perceived that, men who deviate from the normal societal norms loose respect from their peers and even the society in general. For women on the contrary, the perception is that, they will command respect and admiration from their peers in the event that they deviate from the prescribed societal code for the female gender.

The perceptions on women who violate the gender role stereotype is not at all constant, it keeps changing depending on the environmental set up. For the men however, the perceptions when they deviate from the gender role stereotype are the same and fixed, at no time will the transgression committed by men receive a positive evaluation.

Conclusion

The gender stereotypes and overall stereotyping continues to not only shape but also influence the behavior of all people regardless of the environmental setup. As illustrated above, the burden to conform to societal norms associated with gender is more often than not rested on men to shoulder it. This is not to say that women do shoulder any negative perceptions, the women too have their fair share of tribulations that arise from the gender role stereotype. Even so, regardless of the environmental set up, the perception is that the men will always get a hostile reception when they violate the gender role stereotypes compared to women.

In view of the increasing role of women in public life and the efforts of the government in the direction of universalisation of education, the question of gender sensitization has assumed greater importance. Most Schools have become co-educational these days where boys and girls interact with students and teachers of the opposite sex. The physical proximity of the girls and boys has made interaction free and unrestrained. Reports of gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and other forms of sexually objectionable behaviour are quite common in Indian educational institutions. Numerous reasons can be forwarded behind such behaviour. We have to see the larger picture if we want to address this issue. Gender discrimination cannot be treated in isolation as it has its roots in deeper problems, which plague our society.

The Indian society is still in the process of modernisation where sections of the population continue to have traditional mindsets. The traditional Indian thinking considers males as superior to females and there are plenty of examples to show that young girls are discriminated against at home. Statistical evidence shows that boys in India have three times greater possibility of being taken to the hospital in case of a serious ailment. In many poor Indian houses males are fed first and the left – overs are eaten by the females. The dropout rate in Schools is much higher in case of girls. The scenario is even more grim in rural India where parents prefer to send the boy child to school and keep the girl child at home to assist in household work or to work in any other income-generating activity. This discrimination at home weakens the personality of women in general and they look upon themselves as inferior to men right from childhood. At the same time, boys are made to believe that they are inherently superior to females. Most boys and girls attend schools loaded with this mental baggage. The indoctrination received at home compounded by the already existing social differentiation between males and females give rise to attitudes in the male folk, which are far from egalitarian.

Though our constitution clearly proclaims equality of men and women in all spheres of public and private life yet it is not so in practice. Among the vast sections of the population groveling in illiteracy, concepts like gender equality are unheard of. Even in the so-called modern and affluent Indian houses gender discrimination may be discernible in some form or the other. Unless the economic standard of the country improves, girls may continue to be considered as burden of the family and gender sensitization may remain elusive. However, greater stress on education of females especially in rural India will definitely reduce the gender gap as education equips a person with courage to fight against discrimination.

The general moral debasement of our society is also responsible for disrespect for women. If the morality of the child improves then he will display greater respect for women and cases of sexual abuse or assault in educational institutions will reduce. In the modern times, earning money has become the prime motive of man and the child is imbued with the same zeal. Teachers, guardians and educational institutions are geared at academic advancement as it is considered as a sure way to success in life. Success in life is equated with earning money. When the primary goal of education becomes moneymaking then moral values definitely take a back seat in schools and colleges. Cases of sexual misconduct in schools are a direct result of the failure of guardians and teachers in inculcating moral values in children. Though, students are taught moral values as part of the curriculum yet it is done in a perfunctory manner. Inculcation of moral values in children has to be done in a very systematic manner by narration of stories with moral overtones. Such narration should be done to students at a very young age by a conscientious teacher. This needs to be followed up even in the middle and senior levels in schools. Moral uprightness should be lauded so that the seeds of moral values planted in children at a young age take firm roots. Teachers and guardians have to take a joint responsibility in this regard. They must understand that they can act as catalysts in bringing about a change in children’s mindsets and in society in general. The behaviour of teachers cannot be considered to be above board and they are often found to be behaving immorally. Sadly, enough schools are also not very careful in the recruitment of teachers. Most private schools operate as business houses and the sole concern is to earn money. Thus, the noble motive of imparting man-making education is lost.

Schools have to be more vigilant and careful in providing good-quality education and should provide proper care to the child. Only then can we expect children to grow strong academically, physically and morally. Schools should provide sufficient scope for engaging the child’s mind in various pursuits beyond the pale of academics so that their abundant energies may be diverted in creative activities. This would naturally curb the negative tendencies in children who are likely to develop a more positive attitude towards others. Students should be involved in-group activities involving both the sexes so that the curiosity and inhibitions regarding the opposite sex end. Cases of sexual misconduct within the school should be identified and dealt with strictly. The guilty, have to be counseled or punished depending on the severity of the case. The students including both boys and girls should be enlightened about the essential equality of all human beings irrespective of caste, creed, race or gender. Teachers should treat the students in a humane manner so that the students also behave likewise while dealing with their peers. Right attitudes have to be developed in the students so that they abstain from any kind of objectionable behaviour . Students can also act in groups helping each other to thwart the attempt of any abuser.

Teachers in schools should be ready to act as aids in helping students deal with such situations. Guidance by NGOs engaged in this field can also help to train children in tackling such situations. The schools should act in close collaboration with the guardians as the students receive the first impressions of life at home itself and ideas formed at the formative stages of life continue to linger in the later stages also.

(104)

Gender Sensitization in Schools
By Moushumi Ghoshal
Motilal Nehru School of Sports
Rai, Sonipat

The issue of gender sensitization has taken gargantuan proportions due to a national crisis which shook the nation to its core at the beginning of the year. The incident which was referred to as the ‘Delhi Gang rape’ left the issue of women’s safety split wide open, putting a question-mark over the attitude of the average Indian male in terms of his behavior with the opposite sex. Educational institutions must accept their share of the responsibility since the issue at hand is largely ignored, and often swept under the carpet, by private and govt. schools alike. Govt. policy on this issue too is vague and reactionary, leaving schools with no clear directives as to what is expected of them.

The first major concern of the society should be the formulation of clear cut laws which ensure women of a gender-sensitive environment in their workplace. The primary step taken, it then must ensure that schools are made the chosen vehicle to spread the message so that the society does not only have to take punitive measures, rather the desired aim is inculcated in the youth. Gender sensitization must be made part of the teacher-training programme so that all the aspects are well-ingrained in the teachers to pass on to the students.

More than at the senior or college level, gender related issues must be addressed at the primary level, so that young children growing up together may look upon each other as friends and partners rather than persons with whom no interaction was acceptable. Making children sit in small mixed groups and encouraging pair work/group work/project and activities in which there is a judicious mix of both boys and girls would make the children look on each other as just another student, rather than feeling shy of each other, which may lead to embarrassment, in articulation, a sense inadequacy in dealing with them and a feeling that they are “different”.

Another important step would be to make community service a vital part of the school curriculum. This would become the basis for moving towards a kinder and more compassionate society which reacts to gender issues with sensitivity and understanding. Community service helps to hone the finer qualities of a human being while also highlighting the joys of helping and working together.

One important aspect which must not be ignored is the treatment meted out to those who flout the accepted norms of gender-sensitive behavior. Keeping in view the fact that we are dealing with children at the formative age, it is vital that we do not alienate the offender; rather we try to bring him into the mainstream by counseling and an assurance of continued support in his guest to improve upon his behavior. Censure, public ridicule and a harsh punishment such as expulsion may bring about an entirely opposite result, further alienating the child. It must be assumed that certain children will take a long time to overcome gender issues, given the chauvinistic environment in most Indian homes. The key would be to press on resolutely rather than crack the whip.

(105)

Gender Sensitization in Schools

Kavitha Nair

Senior Secondary Teachers

Muljibhai Mehta International School

Gokul Township, Virar (W)

Gender sensitization refers to mental process of an individual when he or she comes in contact with individual of opposite gender. The thought process of an individual is always different for each gender.”Gender sensitization” the word evoke a mixed reaction in the mind depending where you are from ‘cities’ or ‘villages’ .The city bred youth think that girls are being given more than their due and from the village they are so insensitive to the need of a girl child that it is natural for them to think that a girl is subservient to a boy.

The significance of gender sensitizing, gender equality to the development is widely recognized globally accounting the various efforts by governments, civil society and development agencies in the holistic development. For the past few days all our mainline news channels and news papers have been reporting the growing atrocities against women across India .The ever existing issues of low sex ratio, female infanticide, denial of education to girls, dowry and the likes haunt us everyday .Crime against women are increasing at an alarming rate. It is surprising that ‘educated’ young men commit a lot of these crimes.

Nevertheless wherever you are from the need of being sensitive to the need of a girl is imperative and important. That does not mean that you should be insensitive to the needs of a boy but a girl requires a little more care as after the age of thirteen .She undergoes a lot of change physically as well as emotionally .When the kids are young that is before the age of ten, both boys and girls play with each other with no thought about gender differentiation .But as they start reaching adolescence parents , teachers ,friends and society keeps reminding them about gender differences. This creates the first seed of gender discrimination. A girl start with her menstrual cycle and a boy has certain changes in his body that he ‘starts’ becoming aware a girl as a ‘girl’. Boys and girls both show the traits of rowdiness, jealousy, camaraderie and infatuation in certain cases.

To Educate A Child Holistically (TEACH) is why a teacher is needed. A teacher is the best person to explain to the child various topics to the adolescent like the need of gender sensitization so as to be aware of the needs of each other.

How can a Teacher / school be helpful?

Many governments have achieved significant levels of success in reducing the gender gap in enrollment by increasing the enrolment of girls. Various programmes were included for the improvement of girls access, retention and performance like:-

Building schools close to the homes to provide safety and security for girls.

Flexible time table for subsistent activities.

Establishing community libraries.

Provision for separate toilets for boys and girls including proper bathroom facilities, sanitary ware and privacy related to management of menstruation for girls.

Proper rules against sexual harassment and sexual violence.

These issues can be dealt in the school level by using a very effective tool for gender sensitization like:

School to provide a value based approach in handling one’s sensuality.

For gender sensitization the ideal age group should be 12 to 15 years as in this age the children learn to differentiate a good touch and a bad touch.

Senior teachers, doctors, psychiatrist and child psychologist are ideal teachers because they know how to convey the point.

The delivery of a good gender sensitizing programmes can be more effective if interactive learning methodologies like debates, discussions, games, role play included in the session.

Over the years on the need of gender responsive teaching and learning materials, textbooks have many examples of gender stereotypes. As a matter of fact the teachers who were using these textbooks were not aware that there was anything wrong in the textbook. For curriculum setting teacher’s contribution is essential.

Well researched interesting audio video content on gender sensitization can reach out to the children, either through computer lab or through audio visual rooms.

Proper language should be used by the teachers in the class rooms. A healthy teacher student interaction should be carried.

As we are all social animals it is the responsibility of each and every individual to realize the duties with respect to the problems pertaining to the gender sensitization .Even after 6 decades of independence one frequently read about bride burning and dowry death. Therefore it is the prime responsibility of our education system to teach the child to discuss his thoughts, action and deeds. Education should help him or her to take right decisions in the right direction.

Teacher training must be necessary including training skills for children otherwise attainment of quality education and achievement of MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENTS GOALS and for gender equality for education as a whole will for a long time remain an illusion.

(106)

Gender Sensitization

Mrs Rukhsar Tanveer .Shaikh

Pre Primary section.

D.A.V Public school, Airoli

Till December 16, I had assumed that I am living in a state where sweet river flows, birds chirp, a cool air blows swiftly, nature around me is so beautiful and I am like an independent human being, where I have my self-esteem, dignity, respect and an identity as a woman. In a fraction of second, everything has got shattered, shaken and uprooted as if a tsunami, Katrina or torrential rain swept away. I was in a state of shock; I was not able to express my anger, frustration, sadness, pain. Now my soul is lost and only my body remains. Now I am scared, yes, it’s true because I am woman and above all I am blessed with a beautiful daughter Damini.

I get shivers as this name is given to that brave girl who has fought for her life till her last breath. I can feel a pain. Suddenly I became an educator because I have started educating every child and of course I can’t forget my own daughter. I have observed that adolescents are still not aware what has happened and if we, as a part of society will not take a drastic step to educate them, our soul will be lost for ever.

Every one of us is playing a vital role in our field. But we need to sow a seed by educating not only girl or boy but every citizen of our country. As a parent if I am guiding only my child, is that enough? Will crime stop forever? We should not forget the root. Each and every member of the society must be aware, educated, enlightened and imbibed with the roles, duties and responsibilities.

First of all we have to understand that in our journey we have to go to different stages i.e. infant, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. As a teacher I have an opportunity to interact with kids. I am nurturing the age group of 3.5 to 5.5 years. That doesn’t mean that I can’t inculcate values at this age.

I have taken initiative by making children aware of what good touch is and what bad touch is. And they must not allow any stranger or an unknown person in a society, bus, school, and road or on any occasion or festivals to misbehave. As a teacher we can narrow the bridge by making strong bond of friendships. Children either speak out to their parents or a teacher who is very close to their heart. With kids, also we need to orient parents to keep an eagle eye on their kids when they are playing in the society, mall, or school. Guide them through stories, discussions questioning and dramatization or puppets.

To inculcate values in adolescence is the next step by giving our students responsibility, awareness, alertness, by taking precautions and self defense.

Positive Attitude We all go through some bad phases. Children at this age, when are frustrated at home,. they tend to get isolated and get involved in bad company, bad habits and make hell of their life. If we sow a seed of positive thinking through seminars, workshops, or half an hour talk we can overcome negative feeling and help them lead a positive life. We can make a difference and we can make them a positive human being. A positive human being with a positive mind will never do wrong and will never encourage wrong deeds, because he is aware of the consequences and understands what is right or wrong.

Awareness adolescence goes through many stages. But life has its own turmoil. A child goes through many crises. Some parents are separated, some have financial problem, some have drunken father who beats his/her mother daily. Some do not have even the basic necessities of life. We teachers as moderators must encourage them to read news paper. And not just the headlines. It is our duty to help children read, understand and give their opinion. Through a healthy discussion between a teacher and a student, it is the role of a teacher to identify if there is any negativity and talk to the child. We can also take guidance from school counselor. Make them aware by involving them through street play, through workshop, of their responsibility. While talking there shouldn’t be any gender bias but equal respect and responsibilities. And help them understand to deal with crises.

Alertness we must help them understand that they have to be alert all the time. And for that they should not use mobiles, or listen to music by putting earplugs while they are out of school or while walking. They have to be alert while interacting with strangers at home or in society. And if they feel wrong gestures, they must immediately report to teacher or parents. Children must be updated and made aware of all the numbers i.e. of ambulance, police station, of parents, relatives and neighbours.

Self defense Help them learn the art of self defense. And remember every martial art has a rule to follow and we should use it when in trouble and not to trouble others.

Same conditions are applied for adulthood and old age. A worse situation can be faced by any one of us. But if we are aware, alert, with positive feeling and self defense we can make this world a better place to live in

I believe in ”practice what you preach”. All these are within my reach. I am doing my bit. Have you done yours?

(107)

Gender Sebsitisation in Schools
Shikha Sharma,
Lecturer,
Dept. Of Education,
C.C.S. University Campus,
Meerut
INTRODUCTION –

Around the world gender is the primary division between people. Gender consists of whatever traits a group considers proper for its males and females. Gender stratification means males and females unequal access to power, prestige, property on the basis of sex. No matter what we attain in life we are labelled as male or female. These labels carry images and expectations about how we should act. From birth right till death gender has a hand in shaping human feelings , thoughts and actions. Children quickly learn that society defines males and females as different kinds of people by the age of three. Gender affects how we think of ourselves , also it teaches us to act in a normative way. Gender roles are attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex. You learn your gender as you are socialized into the behavior and attitudes thought appropriate for your sex. The sociological significance of gender is that it is a device by which society controls its members.

Society expects males to be ambitious and competitive ,play sports and assume positions of leaderships. Females are expected to be deferential, emotional, supportive helpers and quick to cry. We expect them to be passive and emotional while males are expected to be independent and active. This perception of parents, communities and even policy makers is the root cause of social discrimination of girls. In most of societies girls and women are considered to be inferior to men. Girls are treated as a liability. Education of girls is a waste of scarce resources. This is because our social norms are built around the belief that girls only have a domestic role in the household economy. She does not provide for the family but only is a consumer. Her use is only as a potential child bearer and rearer . Parents believe that –

-Girls education has no relevance for her future life

-If girls are educated they get ideas of equality.

-When they invest in a girl’s education there are no returns.

Discrimination against women began centuries ago. This discrimination begins at home when a girl is born and in some cases even before she is born resulting in female foeticide. There are dietary insufficiencies both qualitative as well as quantitative. Girls are more often undernourished than boys. Everywhere there is male patriarchy where male dominates females. Throughout the modern world the portrayal of women and the image associated with them is that of a docile, beautiful creation in need of protection and care. This impression has been passed on from generation to generation through social norms. Women are expected to be submissive, obedient and humble individuals who have to play multiple roles of daughter, sister, wife , mother , daughter-in-law etc with perfection. An ideal women is one who does not raise voice or go against the wishes of the male members of the family. From early childhood she is trained to lead a life dependent on others and if she does not do so she is considered bold, immoral and therefore should be punished. This is evident from the rise in violence against women who have dared to challenge male domination.

ROLE OF SOCITEY-

Gender consiousness starts very early in life with the kind of roles one is expected to play. Girls help their mothers in household work and boys help by doing odd jobs outside. Girls are taught that their whole life revolves around their home. This image is further strengthened when an ideal gift for girl’s is dolls and cars and guns for boys. This carries forward the role society expects each one of them to play. Girls should remain at home caring and looking after every need of the family members whereas boys should be more aggressive and outgoing. Major and healthy portion of the food is kept for the male members of the family. In case of scarce resources it is the girl who has to make all the sacrifices. This is the price she has to pay for the security she is assured of by the male members which is the basic spirit behind various festivals like Raksha bandhan.

SCHOOLS-

This gender consiousness unfortunately is further strengthened in schools when we quickly label a boy who is crying as sissy or acting like a girl. Even in subject selection this consiousness is so overpowering that girls usually opt for fine arts, home science or biology. Maths is generally for boys. Girls going in for medical profession usually specialize in Gynecology, Paediatrics or physiotherapy; rarely do we find female cardiologist or oncologists. This biasness is found in every field – in Engineering it is computers and electronics for girls , Civil and mechanical is for boys. In M.B.A. girls usually go in for Marketing and HRD whereas Sales is for boys. Tradition fosters gender aspirations in their students by encouraging females to choose occupations in consonant with future husbands and children. Our society still defines high paying profession and the drive & competitiveness needed to succeed in them as masculine.

Again when we look at the world of sports here also feminine and less aggressive games are for girls like badminton ,tennis, swimming or athletics .Sports like Cricket, football are more popular with boys although female teams for such sports exist but they are not so popular. Girls usually are left for cheerleading to boost and motivate their male counterparts. Although there are exceptions like Alka Tomar, Mary Kom who have made a mark for themselves in such allegedly manly sports like wrestling and boxing. This discrimination in the field of sports is a world wide phenomena. This creates a prejudiced image on the impressionable young minds and which they carry with themselves for the rest of their lives. Whenever they encounter an image which clashes with their established views there is conflict which we are witnessing in the varied forms of violence and atrocities on women these days.

MEASURES –

Thus, gender sensitization is needed in every sphere of our lives be it schools, society, peer groups etc. This stereotyped image needs a complete overhaul especially the one depicted in our movies. But it should begin at the very grass root levels when the young mind begins to take shape i.e. at school. Because school is the second home of the child .It should begin from the very basic. They should be taught that girls or boys are not different .They are just two separate individuals who might be physically different but this physical difference should not guide their behaviour. Children should be taught to respect each others feelings and accept each others capabilities.

Image associated with what types of games one can play should also be broken. Girls should be encouraged to take up subjects for which they have aptitudes and which they want to pursue even if it goes against conventions. Stereotypes must be broken and children should be encouraged to do what their heart desire and not be deterred by the dictates of the society. Choice of a career should be their own decision and it should not be affected by what the society expects them to do.

Gender sensitivity should be made a part of the curriculum. The students should be made aware about the contribution of the females in the development of the society and how the two sexes can co-exist. Merely worshipping her as a goddess is not sufficient; she should be treated with respect and as a thinking individual. The society has to realize the immense potential they are wasting by denying equal status and opportunities to girls.

(108)

Gender Sensitization in Schools

Charul Mahendru

PGT (English)

DPS Rohini

Rohini, Sector 24 Delhi-110085

Wherever women are honored, there the gods are pleased – The Code of Manu (Manuscripts)

We live in an advanced society. Having enslaved even the most dangerous animals, we proudly live in the territories that once belonged to these ‘wild beasts.’ We have invented machines to make our lives easier and work faster. The world has shrunk and we plan to set up colonies on the moon! We have become more advanced as compared to our ‘barbaric ancestors.’ Man surely has come a long way from his hunter gathering stage.

However the position of women in society has changed little. Every day, newspapers are replete with the news of rape, molestation, domestic-violence or any other such crime against women. Girl students have the highest dropout rate in the rural areas, there is discrimination related to the salary earned by women especially in the rural areas. Women are subjected to discrimination at every stage in their life.

Statistics reveal that there are 65.5% literate women in India as compared to 82.1% males. 26.1% of women form the workforce in rural India as compared to 54.7% of men. The average salary of women in rural areas in 2009-10 was Rs.155.87 and that of the men was Rs.249.15. A total of 24,270 cases of crime against women were reported in India in 2011. The recent rape case of Nirbhaya has yet again revealed the sorry state of women in our modern society.

Is it the same India where women are worshipped as goddesses? In our culture the figure of Ardhnarishwara or half man and half woman is revered and worshipped. The Ardhnarishwara, in a way is a symbol of equality of the sexes, of the fact that both sexes are equally significant and none is less than the other. This is our culture that treats both sexes as equals. However, we, who take pride in our rich heritage and in the culture of revering womanhood, are slipping into the morass of depravity. All doesn’t seem well in man’s paradise.

This wasn’t the case in the hunter gathering society. There was no male supremacy over women as there was almost a division of labour between the sexes. Men did most of the hunting and women did most of the gathering. (Chris Harman: A People’s History of the World). Industrialization brought with it new ways of production which created new relations between the sexes. The man strengthened his position as the bread earner and the role of women was reduced to child bearing and rearing of the family. Gradually women were thrust into a position of dependence and subordination to men. This led to the great divide and women were no longer treated as equals.

In order to bring women at par with their male counterparts, the need of the hour is to instill ender Sensitization among the youth. Gender Sensitization can be defined as the modification of behavior and instilling empathy into the views that we hold about our own and the other sex. It helps people in examining their personal attitudes and beliefs and questioning the realities they thought they know. Since home and school influence a child’s development the most, it becomes imperative that such training begins from here to nip the problem in the bud.

There are several ways in which we can instill gender sensitivity among our students. Morning assemblies can be organized to promote gender equality. Skits, debates, street plays and panel discussions can also be conducted to sensitize the students to this issue of national importance. Not only this, the subject of gender equality could be integrated with the subjects. Students can be asked to carry out surveys to assess the prevalence of gender inequality, for eg. students can be asked to find out the names of some famous Indian women physicists/ mathematicians. Apart from this, value education classes can also act as a handy tool to motivate students to respect everyone irrespective of sex. A meeting with parents can be organized by the Principal in order

Children learn from their parents and society the conception of

“feminine” and “masculine.” Much about these conceptions is not biological at

all but cultural. The way we tend to think about men and women and their gender

roles in society constitute the prevailing paradigm that influences out thinking.

Riane Eisler points out that the prevailing paradigm makes it difficult for us

to analyze properly the roles of men and women in prehistory “we have a cultural

bias that we bring to the effort and that colors our decision-making processes.”

Sexism is the result of that bias imposed by our process of acculturation.

Gender roles in Western societies have been changing rapidly in recent

years, with the changes created both by evolutionary changes in society,

including economic shifts which have altered the way people work and indeed

which people work as more and more women enter the workforce, and by perhaps

pressure brought to make changes because of the perception that the traditional

social structure was inequitable. Gender relations are a part of the

socialization process, the initiation given the young by society, teaching them

certain values and creating in them certain behavior patterns acceptable to

their social roles. These roles have been in a state of flux in American

society in recent years, and men and women today can be seen as having expanded

their roles in society, with women entering formerly male dominions and men

finding new ways to relate to and function in the family unit.

When I was growing up a woman was never heard of having a job other than

a school teacher or seamstress. Our(women’s)job was to take care

of the house. We had a big garden out back from which we got most

of our vegetablesaa‚¬¦A garden is a lot of work you knowaa‚¬¦We also had to

make clothes when there were none to be had(hand-me- downs)

Gender can be defined as a social identity consisting of the role a

person is to play because of his or her sex. There is a diversity in male and

female roles, making it impossible to define gender in terms of narrow male and

female roles. Gender is culturally defined, with significant differences from

culture to culture. These differences are studied by anthropologists to

ascertain the range of behaviors that have developed to define gender and on the

forces at work in the creation of these roles. The role of women in American

society was conditioned by religious attitudes and by the conditions of life

that prevailed through much of American history. The culture of Europe and

America was based for centuries on a patriarchal system in which exclusive

ownership of the female by a given male was considered important, with the

result that women were regulated to the role of property with no voice in their

own fate. The girl-child was trained from birth to fit the role awaiting her,

and as long as compensations were adequate, women were relatively content:

“For Example, if in return for being a man’s property a woman receives

economic security, a full emotional life centering around husband and children,

and an opportunity to express her capacities in the management of her home, she

has little cause for discontent.”

While this statement is arguable in the way it assumes that women are

not discontented under such circumstances, it is clear that for most of history

women were expected to be content with this sort of life and were trained for

that purpose. Clearly, circumstances of family life have changed in the modern

era. Industry has been taken out of the home, and large families are no longer

economically possible or socially desired. The home is no longer the center of

the husband’s life, and for the traditional wife there is only a narrowing of

interests and possibilities for development: “Increasingly, the woman finds

herself without an occupation and with an unsatisfactory emotional life.” The

change in sex roles that can be discerned in society is closely tied with

changes in the structure of the family. Changes in both family structure and

sex roles over the last century have produced the ferment we still see today,

and one of the problems with the changing role of women is the degree to which

society perceives this is causing unwanted changes in the family, though it is

just as true that changes in the family have altered the roles of women.

As women entered the early 1990s, they faced a number of problems.

Most of these problems have been around for some time, and women have challenged

them and even alleviated them without solving them completely. They are

encountered in the workplace, in the home, in every facet of life. Women have

made advances toward the equality they seek only to encounter a backlash in the

form of religious fundamentalism, claims of reverse discrimination by males, and

hostility from a public that thinks the women’s movement has won everything it

wanted and should thus now be silent. Both the needs of women today and the

backlash that has developed derive from the changes in social and sexual roles

that have taken place in the period since World War II. These changes involve

the new ability of women to break out of the gender roles created for them by a

patriarchal society.

The desperation women feel has been fed throughout history by the

practice of keeping women in their place by limiting their options. This was

accomplished on one level by preventing women from gaining their the sort of

education offered to men, and while this has changed to a great extent, there

are still inequalities in the opportunities offered to men as opposed to women.

Susan Brownmiller writes:

The sad history of prohibitions on women’s learning is too well known to

be recorded here. . . In much of the world women are barred from advanced

knowledge and technical training

Yet opening the world of business with new opportunities for women does not

dissipate much of this frustration because both men and women continue to be

ruled by their early training, by the acculturation process which decides for

them what sort of existence they will have. This can result in feelings of

guilt when their reality and the image they have been taught from childhood do

not mesh.

It would be a mistake to see changing gender roles in society as

threatening only to males who dominate that society. Such changes also threaten

many women who have accepted more traditional roles and see change as a threat.

“I don’t know how your mother does it all. . . I think time are harder for women

these days. . . so many choices.” This response is not new. When women first

united for the right to vote at the beginning of this century, they were opposed

by women’s groups who wanted things to remain as they were. Many of these women

were ladies of means and social position in society:

The main burden of their argument was that woman suffrage placed an

additional and unbearable burden on women, whose place was in the home. . .

These arguments are heard today from religious fundamentalists who believe that

the women’s movement is a threat to the family. The fact is that the family has

changed and that the traditional family structure of homemaker, husband as

breadwinner, and children bow constitutes only 10 percent of families. The role

for women has expanded with more women in the workplace and with a variety of

family structures with new roles for all members of the family. Business has

been slow to change and to acknowledge the new family, and for all the

complaints about the women’s movement as anti-family, the movement has instead

followed the trend of placing the family in the forefront of addressing family

issues as vital to women.

There is much evidence that boys and girls are treated differently form

birth, and this fact has been noted in every world culture:

It may never be possible to separate out the precise effects of

physiology and cultural conditioning on human beings. Not only do they

individually influence people but they interact with each other and with each

person’s unique essence to affect human behavior. To accord with the reality of

this complex interplay of factors, and to accord with an increasingly complex

external world, feminists ask simply for options in life styles.

Those stuck in sexism, however, cannot grant even the simple request to ask why

women are inferior. The reason sexism exists at all is because of an

acculturation process which subtly creates it, and it is perpetuated in part for

that reason and also because perceived changes in the roles and status of women

create a backlash based on fear of change.

Surveys have shown that identical resumes or scholarly articles are

rated lower if the applicant is though to be a woman rather than a man: “Man’s

success is more likely to be attributed to ability and woman’s to luck.” While

advances have been made over the last decade, the challenge remains for the next,

and “as long as women constitute small minorities in nontraditional employment

contexts, substantial obstacles will remain.” The women in the workplace must

work harder to succeed than their male counterparts, and once they have

succeeded they have to deal with the envy and anxiety this arouses. Women who

do not advance only confirm the stereotype for others:

The perception remains that women can’t make it by conventional

standards, or are less committed to doing so. In either event, they do

not seem to warrant the same investment in training, assistance,

and promotion opportunities as their male counterparts.

Feminist theorists have been calling for some time for a change in the

political climate. They want more than just more women in office and the

political arena; they want a new type of political thinking, one that empowers

people rather than government and that addresses the issues that are of

importance to men and women:

If we can eliminate the false polarities and appreciate the limits and

true potential of women’s power, we will be able to join with men

–follow or leadaa‚¬”in the new human politics that must emerge beyond

reaction. This new human liberation will enable us to take back the

day and the night, and use the precious and limited resources of our

earth and the limitless resources of our human capital to erect new kinds of

homes for all our dreams. . .

The perception the public has had on the role of men and women is

outdated and has been for some time, but public attitudes change slowly even in

the face of overwhelming evidence. More than 40 years ago, anthropologist

Margaret Mead noted the way the West had developed its concept of male and

female:

There has long been a habit in Western civilization of men to have

a picture of womanhood to which women reluctantly conformed,

and for women to make demands on man to which men adjusted

even more reluctantly. This has been a accurate picture of the way in

which we have structured our society, with women as keepers of the

house who insist that the man wipe their feet on the door-mat, and men

as keepers of women in the house who insist that their wives

should stay modestly indoors.

Today, people are far less willing to accept these artificial roles even

reluctantly, and this includes the provision keeping women in the home and out

of the public arena. To have more women in office it is necessary to have more

women run.

As noted, public views change more slowly than the reality of gender

roles. They will continue to change slowly as long as we continue acculturating

children with the same sexual stereotypes that have so long prevailed. It is

necessary that we address this issue from early childhood, with parents

demonstrating a different view of gender and sexual roles just as the school and

church should take a part in eliminating the old stereotypes in favor of a more

reasonable and equitable way to view both men and women.

The discussion of the results is presented in this chapter. More specifically, it presents, the demographic data gathered, the male nurse’s point of view in choosing to be in the nursing profession, their experiences as male nurses, and the stereotyping regarding males experienced in the profession. Most importantly, this chapter of the thesis presents relevant literature that supported and disputed the results found by the research. Also, the strengths and limitations of the study are discussed.

5.2 Demographic data

The thesis results showed, in relation to the demographic data, that the majority, 28 nurses, or 80.7% of the male nurses were between the ages of 20 to 35 years old and that 32.2% worked for less than five years. This data conformed to the data collected from a qualitative study of Lou et. al., (2009), where 83.8% of the participants were under the age of 35 years, and 49.4% had been working for less than five years.

The present results revealed that a greater part of the male nurse population was diploma holders (59%) and 26% baccalaureate graduates. These results are similar to Lou’s et. al., (2009), studies conducted in Taiwan where 47.1% of male nurses were in the possession of an undergraduate degree The thesis results showed that male nurses usually worked in male wards (58%) and mixed wards (42%) and never (0%) in female wards. These mixed or male wards included the emergency department, operating room, pediatric area, psychiatry, medical area, and intensive care unit (LaRocco, 2007).

Similarly, in Norway and other Western countries, male nurses usually worked within the health sector’s limited parts such as the psychiatry and acute medicine ward and administration (Bakken 2001). In terms of “speciality, 24% worked in the operating rooms (Lou, et.al. 2009, p 905)”. In fact, psychiatry is one of the most common fields where 15% of all male nurses transfer to (Abrahamsen, 2004). Furthermore, Dassen et.al. (1990) found that in The Netherlands, men were dominating” technical wards, and critical care units”(p.367). It seems that they wanted to be involved in less feminine aspect of nursing. As Evans argues (1997), to compromise his reputation in patriarchal society, men in nursing develop different strategies as to occupy administrative and elite specialty positions in order to protect themselves from the feminine image of nursing .The latest results from UK reveal that “one third of the almost 100,000 nurses who have a mental health qualification are men” (Torjensen & Waters, 2010, p.21).

In the 1960s, men were not allowed to enter the delivery room and this still remains until today. Even though inequity is diminishing, situations like these in areas such as the obstetrics and gynecology departments continue (Chung, 2006). This may then be attributed as the primary reason why the study results found that 0% of the responses worked in female wards. However, it is worth mentioning that in Malta, up to the 1960’s female nurses were excluded from the male wards (Camilleri, 1964).

5.3 Challenges that male nurses encounter at work

The present findings indicated that approximately half of male nurses were aware of opportunities in the nursing profession. With increased postgraduate qualifications, pursuance of managerial positions is fast paced (O’Lynn & Tranberger, 2006, Marsland, et al, 2003) among the male nurse respondents, and their propensity to earn more is improved (Hader, 2005). Also, studies found that it is easier or quicker for males to acquire top managerial positions than their female counterparts (Kvande 1998, Hoel 1995). Similarly, Abrahamsen (2002), findings showed that 70% of male nurses after twenty years from graduation were in leadership position, and away from somatic wards. Furthermore, Yang (2004) found that the male nurses’ future development has more potential because their careers would not be disrupted by a maternity leave. In addition, an interview done by LaRocco (2007), confirms as one man stated that “being a male in a predominantly female profession sets you up to be recognized” (p.127).

In contrast, most of the respondents in this survey, or 61% disagreed that men in nursing are promoted quickly, which is not in the agreement with the statement of Williams (1992), that men in nursing are privileged minority which enables them to move out of female dominated profession by the “glass escalator” to the most rewarded and respected jobs reserved only for men in this patriarchal society.

In relation to this, LaRocco’s (2007), study showed that one man revealed his income to be “below $50,000, while three indicated that theirs was greater than $100,000 per year (p.123)”. However, the findings of Stoltenberg et.al.,(2008), suggest that” nursing needs to continue to raise the bar pay, because only 46.67% of male nurses rated nursing as financially rewarding.” Hence, these results are in agreement with the thesis results findings where only 32% of male nurses agreed that nursing provides good salary and benefits.

Despite these advantages, some men, however, find inequities in other fields, like obstetrics and gynecology, which put considerable pressure on them (Williams 1995, Tseng 1997). Truly, Hart (2005) found that 56% of male nurses were seen as “muscles”(p.48), and “uncaring” by their female colleagues, just because of their gender. This then puts a strain on how the male and female nurses communicate with their colleagues (Hart, 2005).

Furthermore, some studies found that males perceive that being in a predominantly female profession brings about a low status upon the male nurses (MacDougall, 1997; Williams, 1989). In History of Nursing in Malta, during 19th Century, it was written that “the social class from which nurses were recruited was illiterate and without any education”, and that the same conditions existed in other European countries (Camilleri,1964). Also, labeling nursing as an extension of women’s domestic role devaluated profession in relation to male occupation. Although this image is changing, many negative images still persist. Further still, in relation to the slight increase of men in the nursing profession, uneven numbers of male nurses are leaving compared to female nurses due to deficient respect from their colleagues, job dissatisfaction and problems arising in a predominantly female profession (Sochalski, 2002).

However, results in this research revealed that majority, or 88%of respondents disagreed that men in nursing feel insecure because it is a female dominated profession. Findings in this thesis suggest that male nurses in Malta do not feel as they are ‘crossing segregated work boundaries’, and ‘infiltrate’ in female domain (Bagilhole &Cross 2006, p.35). In addition to, 71% of men in nursing in this survey expressed that they are satisfied with the work they do. As one respondent wrote ” nursing is a male’s profession as the other profession or jobs are”. Hence, this result tally with findings of Rochlen et. al., (2009) where men employed as nurses were satisfied with their work in non-traditional career. According to Avery (2007), despite the feminine image in nursing, “nursing is profession for everyone”, due to the fact that men were present in nursing since 250 B.C when “males-only nursing schools opened in India”(p.1). They continued playing an important role in nursing (Meadus, 2000), until Florence Nightingale stated that “Every woman is a nurse”, establishing nursing as only one gender profession.(Fitzerald, 2007), and portraying the presence of the men nurse in this profession as an “anomaly”(Meadus, 2000, p.6).

5.4 Respondent’s motivation for choosing a traditionally female profession

The present findings indicated that 48% or fifteen male nurses choose the nursing profession to help others. As one male nurse replied there is “nothing better than being able to help people”, and ” bringing smile to others”. However, 16% or 5 respondents stated that the “money kept them in the profession”. These results coincide well with previous studies of Bartlett et.al.,(1999) where altruism and job satisfaction, rather than extrinsic rewards, have been found to be the main motivating factor for male nurses. Furthermore, Larocco’s (2007) study showed that eight men specifically stated that connecting with patients and aiding people are important factors when nursing is considered. One participant also added that “I just thought of nursing as caring for patients” (LaRocco, 2007, p.126).

Moreover, according to Boughn (1994), Brown and Srones (1971), Bush (1976), Garvin (1976), Mannino (1963) and Perkins et al. (1993), interaction with patients and helping people are important reasons in choosing nursing. Even Taylor et al. (1983), Skevington & Dawkes, (1988), Galbraith, (1991), Cyr, (1992), Kelly, et al (1996), MacDougall, (1997) suggested that caring for others and having the desire to be of help is a main factor for men in choosing a career in nursing.

Family and friends also served as the motivation for the resulting 26% or 8 of the male nurses who took part in this thesis survey. Positive family influence, like a nurse relative, a mother who is a nurse, became a good motivation for men. Moreover, in La Rocco’s (2007) study, five of the interviewees had a mother nurse. This response was found to be similar to the results of this thesis where three males had a mother nurse, and surprisingly one respondent had both parents working as nurses. Also, these findings conformed to the data collected from a qualitative research of Whittock et. al., (2003), where positive influence, for most participants, on choosing nursing as a career comes from the parents, specifically mothers who worked in nursing sector or other healthcare profession. Also, friends who gave positive reactions helped with their career choice of being a nurse (LaRocco, 2007). Eleven men in LaRocco’s (2007) study, claimed that their family was very pleased with their career choice.

In contrast, some men were discouraged by both family and friends, to enter the field of nursing and other medical fields (LaRocco, 2007). As found in a study done in the UK, only 12% of the male nurses said that their parents were happy about their career choice (Skevington & Dawkes, 1988). Abrahamsen (2004), also stated that most men who decide to qualify as a nurse find themselves problematic because the decision to become a nurse causes family and friend’s disbelief and surprise. In a society where nursing is seen as a female profession, very often family and friends ask, ‘You want to be a nurse? Why not a doctor?’ I guess they feel that traditionally males are doctors and females are nurses.”( Chung, 2006, p.1).

Other than that, ten percent of the male nurses who served as the respondents for this study stated that their motivation was good pay and security. It seems that nursing in Malta, according to the data collected from the survey, is being” one of the last secure job posts”, as one respondent replied. Furthermore, Yang (2004), interviewed a man who stated “One day I noticed a statement in the newspaper which said, ‘Male nurses earn as much as NT$ 50,000 per month’, so I put ‘nursing department’ down on my form as my choice” (Yang, 2004, p.645). In addition, LaRocco (2007), also had a dialogue with a male nurse who stated “I knew I would always have a job, [and] I did it for a steady job that I could handle” (LaRocco, 2007, p.125 ). Most importantly, Boughn (1994) found that money and job security were two major motivations for choosing nursing. On the other hand, Simpson (2005), found several reasons that motivate men to “seek” a non-traditional career, and one of them was” that most were not seeking entry”(p.365). They entered female-dominated occupations almost by”default” in that they were not actively seeking such entry, but simply ‘fell into it’.(Williams & Villemez’s s, 1993 p. 66.)These results are in agreement with the results in this study where, three or 10% of respondents couldn’t give the reason for choosing nursing as a career, which suggests, as found previously, that “they were not actively seeking such job but simply fell into it, either through availability or convenience”(Simpson , 2005, p.365).

Finally, the least percentage of participant stated that they considered nursing as a last resort and one even said: “I didn’t get accepted by any school except for that nursing one, so it was my only choice, and I studied there” (Yang 2004, p.645). The findings in this thesis revealed that two nurses or 6% didn’t have other career opportunity, which supports the previous research results of Yang (2004). The findings also showed that these nurses were age over 40 and with working experience of more than 20 years. These two respondents stated that “fear to change”, and “lack of a good opportunity” where the reasons for remaining in nursing profession.

5.5 Perceived stereotypes of men in nursing

In addition to the problem that nursing is a female profession, male nurses also have to face the problem of overcoming the stereotype that they are gay or effeminate (Williams, 1995). Some of the stereotypes that these male nurse have to contend with were presented in the thesis results that 52% of male nurses were not embarrassed of their choice of profession. These results are similar to the findings of Hart (2005), where 40% of respondents sometimes feel “awkward or defensive when asked about their profession”(p.47). According to the thesis results, most of the respondents or 64% strongly disagreed that men in nursing are being questioned if they are a ‘real men’. Furthermore, 77% disagreed that men in nursing are too gay or feminine. These findings revealed that they are not in agreement with the results of several studies that have found supporting data regarding these stereotypes. For example, because of inequities, male nurses’ sexuality is usually questioned and they are labelled as homosexuals (Kelly, et al, 1996). Moreover, Wingfield also reported that men in nursing consider themselves as sufferers of homophobic abuse, with a respondent even claiming that “I’ve been called awful things-you faggot this, you faggot that” (2009, p.23). Furthermore, Harding (2007), explored “discourses which stereotyped or labeled male nurses as gay and conflate homosexuals and sexual predators”(p.639). Also Harding (2007) reported that majority of men in nursing are heterosexual but public perception is still that most male nurses are gay. This stereotype persists only in general nursing, men working as psychiatric nurses are perceived as masculine due to need of physical strength. Although society is becoming more comfortable with men as nurses, nearly half or 48% of the respondents experienced the stereotype that men choose nursing because they failed to enter a medical course.

Because of the situations and stereotypes, a more serious stereotypical belief was formed that male nurses are not appropriate caregivers (Evans, 2002). Truly, different societal norms have created concepts of caring as something that is not included in masculine images of males, and that caring falls under a female conception (Evans, 2002). Evans (2002) found out that for men nurses” touching patients is potentially dangerous”, and that men are “vulnerable caregivers”(p. 7). Similar results were found by Abrahamsen (2004), where male nurses were minority in somatic wards due to the fact that they were pressurized by their friends and family to apply for more ‘masculine jobs or seek a leadership positions’, because it is not natural for men to undertake intimate nursing tasks (p.12).

Gender stereotyping creates a compound and conflicting situation of rejection, acceptance and doubt for male nurses’ ability as caregivers and nurturers (Evans, 2002). Thus, as a sad effect of this, and to avoid tight situations, some male nurses alter their caring principles and nursing roles (Egeland & Brown, 1989; Kauppinen-Toropainen & Lammi, 1993). Even though, studies of Ekstrom (1999) resulted that male nurses exhibit lower caring behaviours, they in general, do not effect the care given to the patients. As Mac Doughall (1997) stated, man do have ability to care, but they need to be shown how. (p.813). Lately, society is becoming more comfortable with men as nurses. As Cyr (1992), stated, “the art and science of nursing has not always been a predominantly female profession”(p.54).

5.6 Conclusion

In all, this chapter has presented a discussion of the findings of the study. The various demographic profiles of the respondents, the reasons for choosing nursing, the experiences, and the stereotypes among male nurses in Malta were presented, with subsequent presentations of other relevant studies. At the end of the analysis and discussion, it was found that various related literatures, both old and new, confirmed the results of the study, while there were a few others that disputed it. Overall, the findings suggested that men employed in nursing, are just as committed to the profession as women.

5.7 Strengths and Limitations of the study

It should be noted that this study has several limitations and strengths. Firstly, the chosen sample does not represent male nurses as a whole. The male nurses that work in Gozo, and other different hospitals in Malta were not included in this research. Moreover, a satisfactory response rate (88.6%) helped strengthen the outcome of the study.

However, the purpose of the study was not intended to allow generalisation among the male nurses working in different hospitals in Malta and Gozo.

Secondly, a self- administered questionnaire was used to collect data, and thus all data that were used in this study were self-reported. Although the questions for the survey were carefully chosen and modified by the researcher reading an extensive literature especially Smith (2008), it seems that some of the respondents did not understand that their sexual orientation was not questioned, but only concept of gender stereotype. To avoid similar misunderstandings, in future studies, a focus group design method could contribute to explain the motivation for choosing nursing as a profession, and career development of male nurses in a female dominated profession.

The rather high response rate of 88.5% indicated that male nurses were interested in subject, and this helped strengthen the outcome of the study. Although in this study, the research tool was a questionnaire, some qualitative data were also obtained.

Despite being time limited prior to specific deadlines, this study has educated and motivated the researcher to understand more nursing as a science.

Although this study was purely quantitative, some findings provided valuable information about male nurses in a female dominated profession. Further qualitative research could give clearer picture about the real perceptions of men in nursing, and establish the extent to which the findings from this research can be applied in more general context. The next chapter shall conclude this dissertation with recommendation for further research, and implications in nursing.