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How Effective is the Child Protection System in the United Kingdom with Specific Reference to Black African Children in Tackling Child Abuse?Introduction

Literature highlights some of the challenges for social workers assessing and making decisions about African children and families whose cultures differ from the majority of the white population in United Kingdom. The critical evaluation of knowledge and research in child protection and prevention of child abuse in black African children is important to the forming of social work policy, services and appropriate intervention. This is because there is need to provide appropriate intervention services which are culturally sensitive but at the same time preventing child abuse. It is important that black African children perspectives form part of policies and legislation. Several authors have critically analysed the evidence on service provision for black families in general. A pathologising approach to black families may lead to unnecessary coercive intervention and on the other hand a cultural relativist approach may lead to a non-intervention when services are required (Dominelli 1997, Chand 2000).

The purpose of the review is to explore if the child protection system is effective in preventing child abuse in black African children and their families. By child protection, the review will be referring to all the agencies and services involved in protecting and preventing child abuse. By relating to theory and research, there is hope to uncover gaps, themes and debates and also, raise questions which can be useful for future research. The literature review starts by setting the parameters that is, defining the terms that will be used, such as, child protection and child abuse. The literature review goes to set the historical and theoretical context because it is important to know how long literature and research has existed on the topic and what has been happening including research on culture differences, poverty, power issues and child protection. The review goes on to address the theoretical perspectives on the topic to analyse the theories that form the knowledge base in research. The review goes on to look at the major findings in research and literature by exploring the key themes such as factors that impact African children that can result them in being involved in the child protection system for example, child rearing practices, poverty and limited knowledge in cultural practices by social work professionals. Finally the review will look at the anti-discriminatory practice and user-involvement to show how professionals can work sensitively and provide culture appropriate services.

The literature search

Child protection system aims to prevent situations that can result in a child or young person aged sixteen and under experience abuse that puts them in danger of not developing appropriately or losing their life (Save the Children UK, 2008). The abuse can fall under the category of child abuse which could be in form of neglect, emotional, physicals and sexual, (Woolfson et al 2009). The search involved these terms. After establishing the specific area to be reviewed; the focus was on black African children and the child protection system. The area of child protection and black African children is a controversial area that has been neglected in literature and research and there is need to analyse themes and identify gaps in literature. The sources selected were journals, books, government records and articles. Electronic search engines were used because they provided a readily available wide range of literature and research articles which have been accepted for publishing. These sources were used as evidence and source of information because they had been accepted for publishing hence they would not provide with false information.

Review of the literature
Historical Context

In setting the historical context, the most important development in child protection is the formulation of the Children Act 1989 which was influenced by the public inquiries of the 1970s and 1980s child deaths, for example, the Maria Cowell. The Act stressed that the Local Authority’s duty is to safeguard and promote the welfare of children. However, research into how the Children Act was being put into action found that the child protection system was still focusing on single incidents of child abuse rather than planning to meet the wider requirements of children in need (DoH, 1995a). The studies also noted that many children and families received little or no support, the assessment of risk was low (Stevenson, 1998) and ignored the influences of poverty, unemployment and poor housing. This meant that a new way in thinking was needed about working with families. The result was publication of the Framework for Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH et al, 2000) and Working Together to Safeguard Children (DoH et al, 1999).

A Common Assessment framework was also developed to promote more effective earlier identification of children’s additional needs and improve inter-agency working. A review into previous deaths of children indicates failures to listen to children, sharing of information, follow procedures and recognising indicators of abuse. The main response to the deaths of children due to local authorities’ failures has been to seek bureaucratic solutions such as introducing new guidelines, laws and procedures (Ferguson, 2005). However, the Laming 2003 enquiry into the tragic death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 is particularly significant because it pointed out the inter-agency approach established after Maria Cowell’s death in 1973 was not followed and it considered implications for the whole of the child protection system (Batty, 2003). Laming (2003) highlights the misjudgements made on the Climbie’s case based on cultural assumptions that led to a tragedy. However, Garret (2006) argues that the Laming report (2003) appears to detach a child’s race from core assessments and this was echoed in the Every Child Matters which appears to mention very little about the needs of children from other races. After the Victoria Climbie enquiry there has been recent death of children known to social services such as, baby P (2007) and Khyra Ishaq (2008). This begs the question, where is the child protection system going wrong? There are debates on how to provide social work interventions and family support that are culturally sensitive and competent to African children and their families who are at risk of significant harm (Stobart, 2006; Holland 2004, Robinson 2007; Mama 2004). This was highlighted in the Laming Progress Report (2009) which set out challenges faced in safeguarding children such as: “… there is still need to improve knowledge and skills to understand children and their family circumstances. Also the laming report noted that despite the progress in inter-agency working there are still problems of day to day reality of working across organisational boundaries and culture… ”, Laming Progress Report (2009). When reviewing literature it is important to note that there is a sparse of research on black African children and the child protection system in the Britain hence it is difficult to set out the historical and theoretical context. Where research and literature exists, the data is still not plausible because it is mixed with other research data from minority ethnic populations and their experience differs widely.

Theoretical and research perspectives that shape knowledge

Different theories and perspectives inform knowledge base in literatures surrounding African children and the child protection system. When researching this area there is need to look at experiences of African people and their involvement with child protection hence researchers can use the black perspective which is based on the notion of common experiences that black people share. The black perspective criticises repressive research and theories that are likely to oppress black people, (Robinson 2007). African families will always refer to their culture as frame of reference to their parenting capacities (Bernard and Gupta, 2008) and understanding and acknowledgement of the black frame of reference will enable social workers to come up with accurate and comprehensive assessments of African black children involved with the child protection system, (Robinson 2007). Other literature is based on the ecological perspective and highlights the importance to analyse the impacts of social exclusion, poverty and immigration on black African children and their families, (Gibbs and Huang 2003). However, Robinson 1998 argues that there is a danger of over-generalising and stereotyping because individual members from the same culture can behave differently from the pattern that is typical of that culture. However, other researchers argue that postmodern theories have gained popularity in social work, (Pease and Fook 1999; Leonard 1997). Researchers have argued against postmodern theories who want a better understanding of identity, combining personal with structural elements of living (Dominelli 2002; Graham 2002), drawing on the idea of what holds people together, (Badiou 2001). The lack of appropriate preventative support services which are culture sensitive often result in social work operating against the interests of black children involved in child protection, (Barn 1993, Graham 2002). Social work has operated within a problem oriented framework which is characterised by deficit and dysfunctional theories of black families (Robinson 2008).

Major finding in literature and research

Research agrees that black African children and their families are disproportionately represented in child protection (Graham, 2006; Barn et al 1997; Bernard and Gupta 2008). When looking at experiences of black African children and their families and how best to offer them appropriate intervention it is important to acknowledge background in terms of religion, culture, language and beliefs (Bernard and Gupta 2008; Gibbs and Huang 2003; Robinson 2007). Research shows that black African families may experience oppression and discrimination within the child protection system (Chand, 2008). A lot of literature appears to draw attention to the parenting in African families and how their culture is neglected in a lot researches and there is little empirical evidence especially about African parenting in Britain (Bernard, 2002; Graham 2006). Parenting by African families is entwined into an already debate of what constitutes child abuse (Francis, 1993; Chand 2000). Barn, 2002 argues that child abuse is a socially constructed phenomenon and most of literature surrounding child abuse is based on western society’s views and middle-class. This can lead to discrimination and stereotypes towards African families’ rearing practices and lead to unwanted intervention and social care involvement. There is well documented literature focused on how culture influence parenting of African families involved with child protection system, (Brophy et al 2003, Bernard, 2002; Graham 2006). However, the empirical research is limited but the little data that exists poses the notion that cultural practices appear to play some part in African children being involved in the child protection system, (Mama, 2004). Literature suggests that African families practice harsh punishment for children, however, Barn et al 2006; Thoburn et al 2005; Nobes and Smith 1997, challenge such stereotypes and in their study, they found no significant differences between ethnic groups with regard to physical punishment. However, these studies cannot be generalised to African families easily because the majority of the participants where white parents.

There is gap in research on the parenting by black African families and a recurrent theme in literature is the need to acknowledge cultural and social contexts of parenting and experience of African black families to make sense of child abuse and provide appropriate intervention for children and families involved in the child protection system, (Holland 2004, Robinson 2007, Stobart 2006). A focus on ethnicity or identity, preclude issues of power and oppression operating in the everyday experiences of children’s lives to be appreciated, (Graham, 2007). Research found that most black African families live in poverty and social exclusion and how this impacts on parenting, (Bernard and Gupta 2008; Gibbs and Huang 2003; Robinson 2007; Platt, 2007). A study of more than 7,000 children looked after by 13 Local Authorities found that children who were not of the white origin where more likely to be put into care due to poverty (Sinclair et al, 2007). Sinclair et al’s study is very important because it is a comprehensive qualitative study which focuses on the needs of children in care systems involving their perspectives and investigates the outcomes for children. The study also suggests how the care system should function and managed which is important to social work professionals and policy makers. However, data produced cannot be easily generalised to the entire population of African children because their experiences varies.

There has been research critically examining the treatment of asylum seeking children and the child protection system and there is argument between the Children Act 1989 and immigration legislation and policy and Jones (2001) argues that ‘social work profession singularly failed to provide critical scrutiny on the status and relationship of immigration and child care law and the erosion of children’s rights’. Other researchers agree with Jones, that vulnerability of asylum seeking children has emotional and legal aspects, (Woodcock, 2003; Chase, 2009). Kohli 2006, argues that legislation obstruct the provision of preventative services to vulnerable children and their families. Research has highlighted the fragility of African children who claim asylum such as having suffering trauma due to their circumstances that led them to claim asylum such as war and torture, (Hodes, 2000, 2002; Ehntholt and Yule, 2006; Dyregrov and Yule, 2006). Research shows that there is a gap in research on asylum seeking children and social work to inform practice, (Kohli and Mather 2003; Okitikpi andAymer 2003). Rustin 2005, states that there is a complicated interaction between social workers’ knowledge in asylum seeking children and the existing stereotypes regarding these groups of service-users, (Bernard and Gupta 2008; Robinson 2007; Barn 1993; Owen and Statham 2009).

Bernard and Gupta (2008) go on to cite other factors that affect African children such as asylum seeking, AIDS, loss and separation and this is important because when providing intervention to African children there is need to comprehend their background to offer appropriate services which do not discriminate them any further. Young (1990) states that black children often experience multiple-oppression for example, they suffer from stereotypes from society and also they are invisible to the child protection system. Graham (1999) goes on to argue that intervention with African families is at the centre of wider debates and conflict; and evidence from research continues to show over-representation of African children and their families in child protection. The debates seem to focus on power imbalances and how to involve African families to gain control over their lives, (Graham, 1999; Young, 1990). Other researchers highlight the issues of language in child protection and the provision of appropriate intervention services, (Chand 2000, Ahmed et al, 1982). The use of children as translators in sensitive child protection issues is unethical and inappropriate, and also the use of an interpreter can distort the assessment process, (Chand, 2000). Bernard and Gupta (2008) go further to look at other factors that affect black African children that other literature seems to neglect such as how gender norms place women in an inferior position within African cultures and this can limit mothers to protect their children in the environment of domestic violence, however Owen and Statham (2009) argues that the is limited evidence to maintain or challenge this notion. Nevertheless, in Masson et al (2008) study, domestic violence was evidenced as a cause of concern in the court files of half the children of Black African mothers implicated in their study of care proceedings.

Research and evidence from Climbie enquiry propose that social work professionals involved with black and minority ethnic families might not act in child abuse cases because of fear of being regarded as a racist (Scorer, 2005; Bernard and Gupta, 2006). Nevertheless, literature and research fail to provide a large amount of evidence to support this notion for example, Gordon and Gibbons (1998) in their study found no differences between ethnicity in terms of children being placed on the child protection register and factors such as parents’ mental health problems, criminal activities or the child not fitting in a reconstituted family were the reasons for involvement than ethnicity (Williams and Soydan, 2005). However, Selwyn et al 2008 found that social work professionals were more uncertain and occasionally puzzled regarding how best to promote the needs of ethnic children and they felt further self-doubting in their assessment. Recurring themes in literature is the significance of social work professionals to build up on culturally sensitive work with black and ethnic families (Gray et al., 2008; Sue, 2006; Laird, 2008; Stirling et al., 2009; Hodge, 2001).

Anti-discriminatory perspectives and the incorporation of knowledge from service users

Thompson, (2008) states that anti-discriminatory practice has been used in Britain to account for good practice in social work to counter structural disadvantages however, Graham 1999, argues that anti-discriminatory practice fails to provide a knowledge base for social work that is ‘engaged in the collective development of the black community’. Professionals can indirectly oppress African children and their families through practice for example, by imposing their personal values or power, (Dominelli 2007). Research and literature talks about the child protection providing cultural sensitive services and training social work professionals have the knowledge and skills in working with different cultures. However this can actually create further oppression and social divisions. The majority of the workers will have dominant Eurocentric views which encourage further social divisions for example, excepting the view that African families live in poverty and not fight and challenge this view by providing services that help families to counter these structural inequalities in society. Dominelli (2007) argues that there is need to address the systems that reaffirm racist dynamics rather than challenging them. Dominelli (1992) argues that black children and families are over-represented in the controlling aspects of social work and under-represented in the welfare aspects of social work.

Problems with communication and working in partnership have been highlighted in literature. Chase’s (2009) study found that young people described complex relationships with social workers and other social care professionals and were also more mistrustful of the interplay between social care and immigration services. There is limited research that incorporates service user involvement (Buchanan 2007; Bernard 2002) taking in their lived experiences however, an important study by Chase 2009 found that young people often described complex relationships with social workers and other social care professionals and were also more mistrustful of the interplay between social care and immigration services. Recent policy has tried to enforce advocacy as a way of promoting social justice and incorporate disadvantaged groups’ views on the services that are appropriate for them. In Bowes and Sims (2006) empirical study, they found that black and minority ethnic communities gave support to advocacy services, however, they were still marginalised by the services they were already using. There appears to be a need of qualitative research and literature that includes an extensive study of black African children’s perspectives and experiences, (Graham 2007) which forms a value base to inform practice in social work.

Relevance to policy and practice

Using the ecological approach the Framework For Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH, 2000), places a requirement on social work professionals to take account of cultural background and socio-economic positions of families paying attention to power imbalances in relationships, (Dalrymple and Burke, 1995). Dalrymple and Burke (1995) argue that an understanding is needed of the association between personal experience and structural realism of inequality. Therefore service users perspectives should form part of policies and legislation respecting and literature highlights that children’s rights may still lack from policy and legislation, therefore, these notions challenge professionals to take children’s views seriously and appreciate their contribution to research, (Aubrey and Dahl 2006). Lots of research appears to focus on empowerment through cultural knowledge inviting new thinking about the challenges faced by black communities, (Aubrey and Dahl 2006). The complex social circumstances experienced by many African families pose challenges for social work professionals working to safeguard and promote children’s welfare.

In order to safeguard and promote welfare of African children acknowledgement of sources of discrimination and oppression, a commitment to human rights and social justice must be met.

Several authors have critically analysed the evidence on service provision for black families in general. A pathologising approach to black families may lead to unnecessary coercive intervention and on the other hand a cultural relativist approach may lead to a non-intervention when services are required (Dominelli 1997, Chand 2000). Either way appropriate intervention is not provided for black and ethnic minority children. The quality of services in black communities is a focus for debate and raises important issues about the lack of policy initiatives based upon needs and aspirations of local communities (Graham, 2002). By drawing on strengths perspective professionals can illuminate how parents draw on cultures as a resource to parents in circumstance of adversity whilst not excusing behaviour that is harmful to children.

Conclusions

There is gaps in research on child protection and black African families and a recurrent theme in literature is the need to acknowledge cultural and social contexts of parenting and experience of African black families to make sense of child abuse and provide appropriate intervention for children and families involved in the child protection system, (Holland 2004, Robinson 2007, Stobart 2006). Research shows that there is a gap in research on asylum seeking children and social work to inform practice, (Kohli and Mather 2003; Okitikpi andAymer 2003). There is need for research centred on black African children and there is also need to involve them in forming of policies, challenging the notion that only ethnicity causes the experiences faced by African children. This is because by having cultural sensitive intervention, there can be reinforcement of stereotypical services and discrimination ignoring other things such as gender, age and class.

Care has been taken to ensure the provisioning of adequate information to the mother of the child to be placed under observation. I have informed the mother of my reasons for conducting the exercise. I have reassured her on the protection of confidentiality of all my observations and have informed her that I will use a pseudonym for referring to her daughter in all my written work. I have accordingly asked her to chose a pseudonym for her daughter and have accepted her suggestion for calling the child Kirsty.

Kirsty’s mother, Jane, has been informed that the child will not be influenced or pressurised in any way. She will be free to answer or not to answer questions and even to withdraw from the exercise at any time she so desires. I have obtained her consent to the conducting of the observation exercise in writing. The signed consent statement is available in Appendix 1. Whilst Kirsty’s father was not at home at the time of the study, Jane informed me that he was aware of the exercise and had agreed to the same.

1.3. Observation Process

The exercise was conducted at the garden of Kirsty’s house. Kirsty lives with her parents in a small cottage near the beach. The house has a small fenced garden. It was quiet and sunny when the observation was conducted in the presence of Jane, and her neighbour, Priya, a young woman in her mid-twenties. Whilst it is recommended that the observation was conducted in the presence of the child’s mother, care should be taken to ensure that she does not actively participate in the observation process.

I carried the Sheridan Scale for 5 year olds for the exercise and noted my observations in the appropriate boxes during the observation process. The observation began at 11 am and continued for a couple of hours, wherein I observed Kirsty’s behaviour in the course of some small games that she played, first with her dolls and then with her set of building blocks.

1.4 Views of Family

Jane informed me about Kirsty’s mild asthma, which had first surfaced when she was three and continued to trouble her even today. She was under medical treatment and her GP had advised her that most children outgrew childhood asthma by the time they were 15 or 16 years old. Jane informed me happily about the child’s excessive attachment to her father, who had a travelling job and was out of the home for more than two weeks each month.

Whilst both parents loved their daughter, the father absolutely doted on her and showered her with gifts when he was home. The child had of late begun to act wilfully and was apt to become very upset and show signs of aggressive behaviour if her wishes were not met immediately. Her school teacher had also spoken to Jane about Kirsty’s wilful behaviour athatupset once in a while.

1.5. Summarisation of use of Sheridan Scale and Assessment Framework Triangle

Asthma, even if it is mild, is known to adversely affect the development of children. Jane’s information on the whole reinforced my findings from the application of the Sheridan scale for 5 year olds. I had carefully applied the Sheridan test for various parameters, including posture and large movements, vision and fine movements, hearing and speech, and, to some extent, social behaviour and play. Whilst the child responded positively to the various facets of the test, and was particularly proficient in dancing with me to tapping of feet, skipping, sketching and painting, she appeared to have trouble in skipping and in participating in more strenuous forms of physical activity. Her mother also became apprehensive if the child engaged in dancing and running.

I also found her to be more wilful and apt to become upset if she did not find what she was looking for, or if her smaller wishes, like asking for a glass of water were not immediately fulfilled. She appeared to miss her father, who had to constantly go on business trips.

The Common Assessment Framework triangle helped me in understanding the developmental needs of the child from three perspectives a) the developmental needs of the child b) family and environment factors and c) parenting capacity. Use of the CAF triangle helped me in realising that whilst the parents were taking good care of her various physical, health and educational needs, their overprotective nature was resulting in slowing down of her self care skills as well as her emotional and behavioural development.

2. Psychological Theories and Life Span Development

Cognitive development is a process whereby a child’s conception of the world alters with respect to age and experience. Cognitive psychology, primarily known as the developmental stage theory, seeks to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual abilities that occur during a child’s developmental years. The work of Piaget is important in understanding human development. Piaget suggests that the idea of cognitive development is intrinsic to the human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development.

Piaget proposed that reality is essentially a dynamic structure of continuous change, one that involves transformations and states. Whilst transformations refer to the various changes that a person/thing undergoes, states refer to periods in between transformations. A child’s cognitive development is primarily dependent on his/her ability to adapt to various situations. Therefore, if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must be able to “represent both the transformational and static aspects of reality”. He suggested that whilst operative intelligence directs dynamic or transformational aspects of reality, figurative intelligence represents static periods in between.

In understanding cognitive development, Piaget essentially focuses on accommodation and assimilation. Whilst the former focuses on absorbing one’s environment by altering pre – existing schemas in order to fit the new information, the latter concentrates on assimilating new information by fitting it into pre existing cognitive schemas.

Whilst placing Kirsty’s development within the context of Piaget’s stages of development – in it recognises that children adopt particular types of behaviour and actions during each stage I feel that she was adequately well developed, both operatively and figuratively. Moreover, she was able to assimilate and accommodate to the environment with equal ease. Her enthusiasm to play

Introduction

Community care essentially aims to provide individuals in need with social, medical and health support in their own homes, as far as possible, rather than in residential establishments or in long-stay institutions. The enactment of the NHS and Community Care Act in 1990 marked a watershed in the evolution of community care practice in the UK (Means, et al, 2002, p 71). Implemented after years of discussion on the social and financial viability of maintaining people in institutions and homes, the NHS and Community Care Act, initiated by Margaret Thatcher, showcased her desire to radically change the practice and delivery of social and health care in the UK (Means, et al, 2002, p 71).

The years following the passing of the Act have witnessed significant developments in the practice and delivery of social work in the country. This short essay attempts to investigate the basic reasons for the enactment of the NHS and the Community Care Act, its basic ideology and thrust, and its impact on the social work sector of the country. The essay also studies the developments in social care that have occurred in the years following the act, with particular focus on direct payments for people with learning disabilities, social care provisions for carers and the contemporary emphasis on personalisation.

NHS and Community Care Act 1990

Whilst the initiation of the policy of community care in the UK is by and large attributed to Margaret Thatcher’s conservative government, the concept of community care, even at that time, was not exactly new (Borzaga & Defourny, 2001, p 43). The need for community care existed from the beginning of the 1950s. It aimed to provide a better and more cost effective way to help individuals with mental health concerns and physical disabilities by removing them from impersonal, old, and often harsh institutional environments, and taking care of them in their home environments (Borzaga & Defourny, 2001, p 43). Although various governments, since the 1950s, supported the need to introduce community care and tried to bring in appropriate changes, lack of concrete action on the issue resulted in constant increase of the number of people in residential establishments and large institutions during the 1960s, 70s and 80s (Borzaga & Defourny, 2001, p 43).

With numerous negative stories coming out in the media on the difficult conditions in such establishments, Sir Roy Griffiths was invited by Margaret Thatcher to investigate the issue of community care for the residents of such establishments and make appropriate recommendations (Harris, 2002, p 11). The Griffiths, (1988), Report named “Community Care: Agenda for Action”, followed by the publication of a White Paper “Caring for People: Community Care in the Next Decade and Beyond” in 1989 led to the enactment of the NHS and Community Care Act 1990 (Cass, 2007, p 241).

Apart from being a strong attempt to improve the lives of people in long term institutions and residential establishments, the law was also an outcome of the conservative government’s desire to bring market reforms into the public sector and stimulate the private sector to enter the social services, as well as its conviction that competitive markets would be better able to provide more economic services than a bureaucratised public sector (Harris, 2009, p 3). With social services being among the highest revenue spending departments at the local authority level and domiciliary and residential services for older people consuming the bulk of social service funds, community care for older people presented an obvious area for introduction and implementation of market principles (Harris, 2009, p 3).

The act split the role of local and health authorities by altering their internal structures, so that local authority departments were required to ascertain the needs of individuals and thereafter purchase required services from providers (Lewis, et al, 1994, p 28). Health organisations, in order to become providers of such services, became NHS trusts that competed with each other. The act also required local social service and health authorities to jointly agree to community care plans for the local implementation of individual care plans for long term and vulnerable psychiatric patients (Lewis, et al, 1994, p 28).

The act has however come in for varying degrees of criticism from service users, observers and experts, with some observers claiming the altered care conditions to be unresponsive, inefficient and offering little choice or equity (Malin, et al, 2002, p 17). Other experts, who were not so pessimistic, stated that whilst the system was based upon an excellent idea, it was little better in practice than the previous systems of bureaucratic resource allocation and received little commitment from social services; the lead community care agency (Malin, et al, 2002, p 17). The commitment of local authorities was diluted by the service legacies of the past and vested professional interest, even as social services and health services workers were unable to work well together (Malin, et al, 2002, p 17). Little collaboration took place between social and health services and the impact of the reforms was undermined by chronic government underfunding. The voluntary sector became the main beneficiary of this thrust for the development of a mixed economy of care (Malin, et al, 2002, p 17).

Developments after the Enactment of the NHS and Community Care Act

The assumption of government by the labour party in 1997 resulted in the progressive adoption of numerous forward looking policies in various areas of social care. The publication of a white paper in 1998 reinforced the government’s commitment to promotion of community based care and people’s independence (Means, et al, 2002, p 79). The paper focused on assisting people to achieve and maintain independence through prevention and rehabilitation strategies, with specific grants being introduced to facilitate their implementation. The Health Act of 1999 removed obstacles to the joint working of health and social services departments through provisions for pooling of budgets and merging of services (Means, et al, 2002, p 79). The formulation of the NHS plan aimed to improve partnership between health and social care, the development of intermediate care and the construction of capacity for care through “cash for change” grants for development of capacity across social and health care systems (Means, et al, 2002, p 79).

Direct Payments for Individuals with Learning Disabilities

The Community Care (Direct Payments) Act 1996, which came into operation in April 1997, marked a radical change in the provision of community care for people with disabilities, including those with learning difficulties (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 210). It was illegal, prior to the implementation of the act, for local authorities to support people with disabilities by making cash payments in lieu of providing community care services. Policymakers however realised that many local authorities were successfully supporting independent living schemes, centres for independent living and personal assistance schemes (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 210). Such schemes handled community care payments for disabled people and provided them with help to organise assistance or support. The Community Care (Direct Payments) Act built on this situation, allowing direct payments to be made to replace care services, which otherwise would be given by social service departments (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 210).

Direct payments provide flexibility in the way services are provided to eligible people. The giving of money, in lieu of social care services, helps people to achieve greater control and choice over their lives and enables them to decide on the time and mode of delivery of services (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 210). Direct payments can not only be used for services to satisfy the needs of children or their families but also enables carers to purchase the services they need to sustain them in their roles. Research conducted in 1997 in the utilisation of direct payments by people with learning difficulties revealed that whilst utilisation of direct payments by people with learning disabilities was increasing, such utilisation was low among women and individuals from minority or black ethnic groups (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 210). Research also revealed the presence of wide differences in the interpretation of the capacity of persons for consenting to direct payments by local authorities. Whilst some local authorities felt that direct payments could be sanctioned to all persons with learning difficulties who were able, with assistance, to successfully control and use direct payments, other authorities did not heed the fact that such people could indeed be assisted to communicate decisions and consequently assumed their inability to consent to direct payments. Such interpretations, it was felt, could debar many people in need from obtaining the facility for direct payments (Tucker, et al, 2008, p 211).

Assistance for Carers

Recent years have seen a number of social care initiatives for easing the condition of carers. Carers are people who provide assistance and support, without payment, to family members or friends, who are unable to manage without such assistance, on account of illness, frailty or disability (Government Equalities Office, 2010, p 1). Carers can include adults who care for other adults, parents who care for disabled or ill children, or young people who care for other family members. The government’s social care policies for carers include supporting people with caring responsibilities for (a) identifying themselves at early stages, (b) recognising the worth of their contribution, and (c) involving them from the beginning in designing and planning individual care (Government Equalities Office, 2010, p 1).

Such policies aim to enable carers to (a) satisfy their educational needs and employment potential, and (b) provide personalised support, both for carers and the people they support, to enjoy family and community life and remain physically and mentally well. Whilst the NHS and community care Act 1990 looked at carers as valued resources because of their ability to provide support, it did not refer to their rights; relying instead on rhetoric to deliver the message of their value to society (Government Equalities Office, 2010, p 2). Succeeding years have however witnessed greater focus on the needs of carers and to progressive introduction of suitable laws and appropriate policies. The passing of the Carers (Recognition and Services) Act 1995 drew attention to the needs of carers. This was followed by the passing of the Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000 and the Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act 2004 (Government Equalities Office, 2010, p 2). These acts entitle carers for (a) assessment of their needs, (b) services in their own right and support in accessing education training, employment and leisure opportunities. The proposed equality bill introduces four new opportunities for carers. It (a) requires public authorities to give due consideration to socio-economic disadvantages, whilst exercising strategic planning functions, (b) takes account of associative discrimination with regard to disabled people, (c) provides for prevention of indirect discrimination, and (d) calls upon public bodies to ensure that their policies are designed to eliminate harassment and discrimination and further equality of opportunity (Government Equalities Office, 2010, p 2).

Personalisation

The concept of personalisation in social care, whilst discussed for some years, was formally inducted into social care practice in the UK with the publication of Putting People First in 2007.

The concordat outlined the concept of a personalised adult social care system, where individuals will have extensive control and choice over the services received by them. The government committed that social services would progressively be tailored to meet the preferences of citizens, with person centred planning along with self directed support becoming mainstream activities, assisted by personal budgets for maximising control and choice (Aldred, 2008, p 31). Whilst personal budgets and direct payments form an important aspect of personalisation, the idea concerns fitting services to the needs of people, focusing on outcomes, and recognising the worth of the opinions of service users assessing their own needs, planning their service, and producing their outcomes (Aldred, 2008, p 31).

Conclusions and the Way Forward

This essay investigates the reasons behind the enactment of the NHS and the Community Care Act and studies the developments in social care that have occurred in the years following the act, especially in areas of direct payments for people with learning disabilities, social care for carers and personalisation. It is obvious from the results of the study that social care in the UK has experienced significant change and metamorphosis since the enactment of the 1990 act.

Whilst significant progress has been made a consensus s growing that the British social care system is facing a crisis because of drivers like increasing demographic pressures, alterations in family and social structures, rising public expectations, increasing desire for greater choice and control, and eligibility for services (Glasby, et al, 2010, p 11). The need to move people out of local accommodation because of rising rents exemplifies the challenges faced by the social care system.

With the financial system becoming more challenging, the social care system will have to find ways of improving efficiencies without diluting the quality of care (Glasby, et al, 2010, p 11). The next round of social reforms, whilst attempting to achieve better delivery efficiencies will have to renew its commitment to satisfying social expectations and basic human rights, reducing costs, preventing future needs, helping people to regain independence, freeing individuals to contribute, and supporting carers to care and contribute to society (Glasby, et al, 2010, p 11).

Are the objectives of the “Every Child Matters policy” set by the government being met in actual use and practice?
Contents (Jump to)

Abstract

Chapter 1 – Introduction

Chapter 2 – Method

Chapter 3 – Results

3.1 Every Child Matters Green Paper

3.2 Children’s Act 2004

3.3 Children’s Trusts

3.4 Every Child Matters: Change for Children

Chapter 4 – Discussion

Chapter 5 – Conclusion

Tables – Diagrams

Bibliography

Abstract

In September of 2003 the policy initiative “Every Child Matters” was presented to Parliament, sparked by the death in 2000 of eight-year-old Victoria Climbie, who was a victim of child abuse, and murder by her aunt Marie-Therese Kouao, and bus driver Carl Manning (BBC New, 2005). The striking as well as earth shaking factor in this tragic instance is the very strong possibility exists that Victoria’s suffering, and death could very well have been prevented. While it is impossible to predict what might have happened, the official inquiry into this case as headed by Lord Laming, investigated every facet, including the child protection system (BBC News, 2003). The preceding uncovered that there were at least twelve incidences whereby the system failed Victoria Climbie in terms of her welfare. Most noteworthy, in terms of the system becoming alerted to the potential of child abuse and or problems, were the child’s two visits for injuries to the hospital, the second, which entailed a two-week stay (BBC News, 2003).

The horrific summary just provided does not do justice to the details contained within this case that outraged the public as well as authorities. The Laming Report uncovered that information sharing between agencies failed to take the necessary and required steps to intercede (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). The Inquiry resulted in the recommendation of a structure that would eliminate the potential for ambiguity in the decision making process for children and families (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). This examination of child care policies shall analyze if the resulting Every Child Matters policies are meeting the purpose for which they were developed and devised.

Chapter 1 – Introduction

The death of Victoria Climbie resulted in an Inquiry conducted by Lord Laming to investigate the childcare system and make recommendations based upon the findings. In keeping with the aforementioned, the Inquiry Report recommended the following changes as well as inputs to the system (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003):

Elimination of what the Inquiry termed as “buck passing”, through guidance procedures,
Implementation of a coherent set of practices, policies, protocols and strategies for service delivery,
Placement of the preceding into statues that define a clear process for monitoring as well as decision making of performance and follow up,
Reduction of what the Inquiry called the ‘gap’ between the intention of the agencies, and the achievement as demonstrated by actual performance, eliminating the unpredictable facets of service delivery though the improvement of efficiency as well as effectiveness,
Addressing the preventive aspects with families and increasing the support invention process that has deteriorated through proper funding and staffing,
Understanding that the protection as well as support of children calls for a broader scope than just the statutory agencies. The process needs to include close association with community-based groups to broaden the scope of involvement, information, alerts and resources.
A change in the manner that the agencies approach, see and work, as represented by the utilisation of their resources. The preceding calls for all agencies to carry out their part of the process, with a clear delineation to staffing of their primary responsibilities to children and families. The recommendations in these areas consisted of the following:
Services must be child as well as family oriented,
Be responsive to needs and opportunities,
Services must have adequate resources,
Be capable to delivering measurable national outcomes with regard to children,
Be clear in terms of accountability throughout the agencies and organisation,
Be transparent in its work processes and open to detailed scrutiny,
Services, procedures, guidelines, protocols and policies must be clear as well as straightforward in terms of being understood,
Services need to be placed on a statutory foundation, given the powers to ensure delivery of the outcomes desired.

To achieve the aforementioned ends, the Inquiry set forth structure changes that recommended major changes within the structures that deliver services to children and families (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). It also identified that a key weakness in the system were the circumstances under which case reviews were conducted, adding that the that structure needs to be replaced by one that is more comprehensive as well as active (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Another critical aspect in the problems uncovered by the Inquiry was the referral and response levels of the agencies. The Inquiry made specific reference to sections 17 and 47 of the Children Act 1989 whereby (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003):

Section 17

The segment of the Children Act 1989 places the responsibility as well as duty on the local authority for the safeguarding and promotion of welfare for children that are in need in their area.

Section 47

The section of the Children Act 1989 calls for the local authority to make inquiries in instances where it is believed and or thought necessary whereby a child is suspected of being exposed to harm.

The problem with the preceding, especially Section 47, is that the Inquiry found that considerable confusion existed as to what inquiries should be made, with permission from the child’s carer required before other invention measures could be introduced if the preceding was refused (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Under Section 17, the social services could respond only when exceptional circumstances dictated, after permission as outline above had been obtained (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Furthermore, it was found that once the Section 17 designation assigned a label to a case, it was downgraded in terms of status and frequently poor follow up ensued (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003).

The aforementioned aspects were brought forth in order to have a basis for understanding the reasons and dynamics of the recommendations of the Victoria Climbie Inquiry (2003), the resulting policies, and performance since enactment. This examination shall investigate how the objectives of the Every Child Matters policy is being met through the use of council and agency support. This document is structured to present the methodology utilised, followed by the results of the research process, which is then discussed to determine the significance of the findings, and the implications. A conclusion has been utilised to summarise the examination, drawing upon the information and research uncovered to formulate what the preceding uncovered.

Chapter 2 – Methods

The methodology utilised in this examination entails a combination of evidence based research techniques and quantitative research. The term research in this examination represents a systematic inquiry “characterized by sets of principles, guidelines for procedures and which is subject to evaluation in terms of criteria such as validity, reliability and representativeness” (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995, p. 5). In the context of this paper, social research represents “the collection and analysis of information on the social world, in order to understand and explain that world better” (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995, p. 5). Key to the preceding process is the collection of evidence to support the research process, which requires much fuller information to fulfill its directive (Evans, 2006). The foregoing calls for a strong design in the research process to generate the evidence base (Potter, 2007). The foregoing was accomplished by reviewing the legislation as well as historical development of the Every Child Matters initiative, starting with the reasons that prompted its development.

Quantitative research represented conducting the gathering of information systematically, looking for relationships in the examination in the context of the study. Newman and Benz (1998, p. 2) tell us that “Most quantitative research approaches, regardless of their theoretical differences, tend to emphasize that there is a common reality on which people can agree.” With that underpinning, this examination strived to look for a clear delineation of facts that would closely approximate the preceding statement. To this end, surveys and studies were used as a basis for correlating facts, combined with the key purposes behind varied legislation. This look into the programmes that have led up to and are part of the “Every Child Matters” initiative shall utilise evidence based practice to uncover the facts, assess what has been gathered, and critically appraise the process and strategies in their present state.

Chapter 3 – Results
3.1 Every Child Matters Green Paper

The ”Every Child Matters” Green Paper (literacytrust.org.uk , 2003), contains four main proposal areas that were devised in response to the recommendations as made under Lord Laming’s Inquiry Report concerning the death of Victoria Climbie. These four key areas are (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003):

support of parents and carers,
early intervention, along with effective protection,
accountability and integration,
reform of the workforce

To aid in achieving the preceding, the Green Paper recommended a ‘Parenting Fund’ of ?25 million to be added for a three-year period to underwrite the changes (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003). The critical aspect as identified under the Victoria Climbie Inquiry (2003) was early intervention, which the Green Paper advised represented improving the information sharing between agencies and authorities, the utilisation of a singular and unique identification number so that all information would fall under the same file, and the development of a common data network that is coordinated among all authorities and agencies to ensure that all information resides in one file database (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003). Governmental changes as identified under the Green Paper called for the creation of a Director of Children’s Services to deliver education to local authorities and children’s social services as well as the position of the Minister for Children, Young People and Families in the Department of Education and Skills that would have the responsibility for coordination of policies across all agencies and authorities (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003).

3.2 Children Act 2004

The Children Act 2004 put into place the legislative foundation to enable the policy changes as put forth under the Every Child Matters Green Paper (literacytrust.org.uk, 2004). The objective was the maximisation of opportunities, along with minimising risk for children and young people via the leadership of the Director of Children’s Services within the local authorities (Brachnell Forest Borough Council, 2007). The Children Act 2004 advises that the total number of children in the program has remained fairly consistent over the past ten years, with only minor upward and downward fluctuations (Department for Education and Skills, 2004).

The Children Act 2004 was enacted on 15 November 2004 and established (Department for Education and Skills, 2004):

A Children’s Commissioner whose responsibility is to champion the interests and views regarding children as well as young people.
Makes it the duty of Local Authorities to co-operate with other Local Authorities as well as agencies and bodies to improve the well being of children through information sharing and other forms of cooperation.
Made it the duty of Local Authorities to implement local Safeguarding Children Boards that include key partners to participate.
The provision for databases that contain information that enables better sharing capabilities between all authorities, agencies and other bodies.
The development of an integrated inspection framework, along with Joint Area reviews to provide an assessment on progress

The important facets of the preceding changes and modifications to the Children Act 1989 is that it set forth the following (Department for Education and Skills, 2004):

Duty to Cooperate

The Children Act 2004 under section 10 sets forth the duty for local authorities and agencies to cooperate with the guidance under the Act, thus representing the authority as well as framework for children’s trusts.

Guidance on the Children and Young People’s Plan

Under section 17, it contains the key facet regarding the implementation of children’s trusts via a strategic plan for local authorities and allied services, partners and agencies.

Guidance with respect to the roles as well as responsibilities of the Director of Children’s Services with regard to the Lead Member of Children’s Services.
Guidance on Working Together with the objective to Safeguard Children.
Guidance under section 11, on the Duty to Safeguard and Promote the Welfare of Children

The preceding aspects were actualised under the Children Act 2004 through a national framework for change that specifies areas, working inwards to achieve targeted timetables as shown below:

3.3 Children’s Trusts

Children’s Trusts represents the framework whereby all services for children and young people are brought together in an area, supported by the Children Act 2004 (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). The central foundation of the Children’s Trusts is that they represent the active core of support for those who work daily with children, young people as well as families, with the objective being the delivery of improved outcomes via more integrated as well as responsive services (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). The integrated strategy utilises the following methodology for effective results and working processes (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a):

the use of a joint needs assessment,
sharing decisions on priorities,
the identification of the resources available, and
the devising of a set of joint plans to deploy the preceding.

The critical aspect of the foregoing is the joint commissioning that pools resources to deploy the best outcome by directing action to those resources and the people best qualified to complete the services (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). In March of 2007 a national evaluation of the Children’s Trust Pathfinders was conducted that took in all 35 units and included a number of evaluative reports conducted on various segments of the program (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007b). The evaluation resulted in a number of recommendations that identified shortcomings and limitations in the delivery of services (national children’s bureau, 2006):

The evaluation stated that a clarification is needed regarding exactly what the term participation means as there were different interpretations uncovered in the analysis.
The approach procedures concerning participation were determined to be less than effective in terms of being systematic.
To move participation beyond listening to active engagement that involves users.
The development of support systems to enables the end users, children – young people – families, to fully participate as well as engaging them in a strategic manner.
To see that participation utilises a broad range of differing and diverse methodologies to solicit as well as gain the views of children, young people and families.
Recognition that the community as well as voluntary sectors have important roles and have users that have difficulty interacting with official bodies.
Take the time, along with the commitment to construct as well as improve the infrastructure needed for effective participation by end users.

The study of user participation that entailed case studies in eight children’s trusts, along with three additional sites involved 107 professionals from management as well as differing levels in education, health, social care as well as local authorities (national children’s bureau, 2006). The perception of professionals was positive in terms of the increased engagement with users, children, young people and families, commenting that it helped to raise their self esteem as a result of being part of the process (national children’s bureau, 2006). User perceptions among those surveyed indicated a lack of participation, and or limited experience, also commenting that there was a lack of information regarding this aspect (national children’s bureau, 2006). The users cited that they would be interested in participatory engagement, as long as it was meaningful, as opposed to being tokenistic, and if such participation actually resulted in change (national children’s bureau, 2006). In addition to the preceding, the surveyed users indicated that feedback in terms of important issues as to where they were, and the actions being taken, and or the outcomes would be useful in transparency (national children’s bureau, 2006). The survey participants also indicated that they felt more involvement would improve relationships.

Those surveyed added that they felt that listening was not a culture trait in the country, thus participation was not, in their opinion, a positive process unless they could see results based upon a broad feedback from issues they participated in, as well as those of other users (national children’s bureau, 2006). The users surveyed also added that they felt that participation was not really representative, voicing the opinion that the same people were asked about their views and opinions repeatedly, as opposed to the process seeking out more individuals to participate (national children’s bureau, 2006). The methodology, in terms of gathering opinions was also questioned, in that the field of reach could be widened through the utilisation of questionnaires as well as discussion groups (national children’s bureau, 2006). It was suggested that such measures should be advertised broadly, and utilise a wide variety of measures in order to make the process participatory as opposed to being selection based (national children’s bureau, 2006).

The manner in which the overall process operates, is designed and performs was also raised. Users, community and volunteer groups indicated that this represented a key area as the process is supposed to represent one of inclusion, thus, their inputs in these areas should be consulted (national children’s bureau, 2006). One specific example was the drafting of questionnaires. Users felt that they should be included in the process to design the questions that would appear on questionnaires as well as assist in the discussion panel formulations to make the process truly participatory (national children’s bureau, 2006). The preceding represent limitations that users felt did not involve them in the overall process that was designed to aid and benefit them.

The foregoing factors represent clear indications that users want to as well as should be a more active part of the process. Their views indicated that they desired to be included in the developmental phases as opposed to being interview subjects, and felt that they should have a deeper, and more meaning participation level as members of the public, especially as members of the public for whom the services are targeted. Strategic involvement represents an important issue in that it engages users and provides inputs that the overall process can utilise in modifying and improving service delivery as well as the notification process on the part of the public as to potential abuse issues. The foregoing view is brought forth by Petr (2004, p. 79) who points to the importance of the inclusion of parents and users in the process as a means to heighten participation. The foregoing approach is also espoused by Northridge et al (2005), who state research partnerships should be an inclusive process that involves participants and community agencies in the process. Boyden and Ennew (1997) also advocate the importance of users in the participation process in terms of taking part and being involved, as well as the benefits of gaining insights from their inputs.

The study concluded that users want greater participation in the process, and that a variety of methods and approaches need to be utilised to obtain the views, ideas, input and concerns (national children’s bureau, 2006). It also recommended that a broad variety of methods should be utilised and exploited in order to obtain the views of users as well as their recommendations and suggestions, providing more transparency in the processing and outcome of the aforementioned to make the system more effective and user, community based (national children’s bureau, 2006).

3.4 Every Child Matters: Change for Children

“Every Child Matters: Change for Children” (HM Government, 2004) represented the national framework to improve outcomes for children as well as young people (Brachnell Forest Borough Council, 2007). The policy indicates that it is committed to seeing that five key outcomes are achieved that are important to a child’s well being, these represent “… being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution, and achieving economic well being … (HM Government, 2004). The initiative sets forth key objectives and targets with regard to the underpinning of the entire framework of children’s services. The foregoing are represented by the following (HM Government, 2004). :

The improvement as well as the integration of all services, covering a child’s early years, in the schooling environment, along with health services.
To provide more specialised help to prevent problems, promote opportunities, and most importantly to act early as well as effectively in the event that problems arise.
To reconfigure services so that they revolve around the child and family under children’s centres, extended schools, and through professionals engaged in multi disciplinary teams.
To develop and have engaging as well as dedicated leadership throughout all levels of the system.
The development of an atmosphere of shared responsibility throughout the system and across system lines that focuses upon the safeguarding of children, as well as protection from harm.
To heighten the listen atmosphere, centring on children, young people and families in the assessment processes, along with planning facets, and especially in face-to-face encounters.

The preceding bear strong similarity to the recommendations and findings as set forth under the study conduced by the National Children’s Bureau (2006), which pointed out that these lofty objectives have not fully been met. The five outcomes as represented by “… being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution, and achieving economic well being …” (HM Government, 2004), upon deeper examination entail the following:

Be Healthy
physical health
emotional and mental health
sexual health
lifestyles that are healthy
the election not to partake of illegal drugs
and that carers as well as families actively promote healthy choices
Stay Safe
safety from maltreatment, violence, neglect and exploitation sexually
safety from accidental injury as well as death
safety from bullying and discrimination
safety from criminal activities, crime and anti social behaviour
that security and stability are seen to
Enjoy and achieve
that children and young people are ready for school
that children and young people attend school
that they achieve social as well as personal development and have recreational activities they enjoy
Make a positive contribution
that children, young people and families are engaged in decision making as well as support their communities
that children, and young people engage in behaviour that I law abiding, both in an out of school
that they develop self-confidence
that they develop behaviour that is enterprising
Achieve economic well-being
that young people engage in higher education, training and or employment
that young people are prepared and ready to be employed
that children and young people live in homes that are decent in sustainable communities
that they have access to transport
and that they live in households free of low income

All of the preceding have been set as objectives to foster the development of children and young people through adulthood as well as address the tragic situation as brought forth by the Victoria Climbe situation. In order to attain the foregoing, local children’s services under the Children Act 2004 are held accountable for the deliverance of improved outcomes via inspection (HM Government, 2004). The preceding is to be accomplished by (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c):

Robust and active inter-agency accountability and governance
The “local authority director of children’s services” establishment of cooperative arrangements with like service units and local authorities (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c).
The partners in this arrangement include entities from the “public, private, voluntary and community” sectors (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c).
Area child protection committees are replaced by local safeguarding children boards

Under the foregoing “Every Child Matters: Change for Children” (HM Government, 2004), the integrated strategy represents the following elements (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c):

The joint assessment of the local needs that involve users.
The utilisation of a singular plan that is shared between all children’s service units.
The pooling of budgets.
The use of joint area reviews for the inspection of children’s services on the local level.
Integrated frontline service delivery to improve user outcomes at the strategic level.

In terms of integrated processes, “Every Child Matters: Change for Children” (HM Government, 2004) calls for (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007d):

The use of “new common initial assessment” frameworks to “reduce duplication and improve referrals” (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007d).
Improved information sharing.
The re-engineering of “local processes and procedures … to support integration around the needs of children.

The integrated frontline delivery represents the manner via which the foregoing is accomplished within the overall framework (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e):

“Integrated, accessible and personalised services “ represent the manner via which the preceding will be approached, building the processes “around the needs of children and young people” as opposed to service, and or professional boundaries (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e).
The shift of focus to prevention as well as safeguarding.
Services to be co-located in locations such as children’s centres as well as extended schools.
The reform of workforces to result in staffs that are well trained, with the credo that children are the focal point, understanding that their needs are uppermost.
The “development of multi-disciplinary teams” along with professionals.

The strategy representing the improvement of outcomes is founded upon “changing the behaviour of those working with the users via more integrated as well as responsive service delivery (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). The foregoing calls for the use of specialist support that is embedded throughout the system, and which can be accessed by all service units (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). The key to the process is in workforce reform in terms of attitudes, trained staff, the internal development of common skill sets and knowledge base, utilising the element of trust as well as information sharing (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e).

Chapter 4 – Discussion

In equating the results achieved under the programmes established for Every Child Matters the Department for Children, Schools and Families published a report equating evidence in support of the plan (2007). The Report assessed the achievements as well as shortcomings and limitations of progress thus far as achieved:

Table 1 – Results Findings – Every Child Matter Be Healthy

(Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007)

Be Healthy

Proceeding Well

More Work Required

Most children are happy, however

room for improvement

Infant mortality rates are

relatively high

Suicide rates are low

High rates of low birth weights

Breast feeding rates increased

Increase in obesity rates

Rates regarding physical activity

Have improved

School lunch rate usage is down

Rates for teenage pregnancy are

high, but falling

Sexual activity disease rates

are increasing

Smoking rates have decreased

Alcohol consumption has increased

Trends concerning drug use

are down among the 11

through 15 age group

Cannabis usage remains high overall

Table 2 – Results Findings – Every Child Matter/Stay Safe

(Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007)

Stay Safe

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This is paper details the effects of social, economic and environmental conditions on the development of children. This paper analyzes a hypothetical family at 13 Cherry Blossom Street. The paper focuses on Jane Robertson, and her family of four children. The Children are, Susan, Jermaine, Mark and Cary. Susan is 8 years old; Mark is 14 years, Jermaine 3 years, while Cary is 18 months.

The four children undergo a lot of social problems, Mark is rude and depicts some anti-social behavior, while is less concerned about her health, emotional and ashamed of her family. Jermaine is malnourished, depicting some unwarranted behaviors while Cary never goes out of the house.

This paper outlines how the overall health and development of these children is affected, and it highlights the measures that health practitioners should take for purposes of rectifying their problems, and working in partnership with the family to find an acceptable solution.

It will describe the development milestones for these children, and compare different theoretical approaches to child development. This study gives a description of the impact facing children who are neglected and abused, and explain the principles of partnership between families and social workers in regard rectifying social problems affecting these children. It has an assessment, and a plan in which the family ought to take in rectifying the problems affecting their children, and a conclusion.

Child development is a process that children undergo from the periods of their infancy, to adolescence (Kenner, 2004). The process involves changes in their biological make up, emotional and psychological characteristics, to the time they are independent and autonomous. Genetic make-up of the child may influence his/her emotional and psychological situation (Altmann, 2006). Basing on this analysis, genetics and pre-natal development make part of the study of child development.

Developmental changes occur because of a process controlled by the genetic make-up of the child, and as a result of human interactions and the ability of learning from the environment. Child development involves the ability of a child to learn from the environment; therefore children will struggle to find culture and identity during this process of development.

In relation to age, the following are stages of child development. Children under the ages 0 to 4 weeks are newborn babies, while those between 4 weeks to 1 year are toddlers. Social workers refer to children under the age of 1 to 3 years as preschoolers, while those under the age of 6 to 13 years as age schooled children.

The adolescents are children between the ages of 13 to 20 years. In the case study above, Mark is an adolescent, while Cary and Jermaine are preschoolers. Susan is an aged school child, and it is important to study their developmental stage because of how it affects their social, emotional and educative development.

Mark is a 14 year old child, and there are certain developmental milestones associated with children of his age. One of the development milestones for adolescents is rapid growth in weight and height. During this period, male children normally gain an average of 3 to 4 inches in height, and a gain in weight usually results from the growth of their development muscles.

From the case study, we do not know the weight and height of Mark, but we are told that is weight does not reflect those of his age. In other word, he is underweight. This is probably because he doesn’t eat properly. Another development milestone for this age is a growth in their brain capacity.

This results to changes in their emotional, physical and psychological capabilities. For example, Mark is always concerned about his mother’s alcoholic condition. This reflects an emotive element in the sense that he is worried that the mother might abuse alcohol, and results to illness or possibly death.

He is also unable to control his temper in regard to his father, since he fights against him on most occasions. He shows love to his brother, but he is never kind to Susan because of her mental superiority, compared to hers. Mark sleeps less because of the problems affecting him, and this is not a development milestone among teenagers, since they require longer time of sleep to cope with changes in their body mechanism.

Susan on the other hand portrays characteristics of development milestones that affect 8 year old children. At this stage, children develop friendships outside their family arena. This is portrayed in Susan when she leaves for school. She is picked by a neighbor friend and her two daughters. This is because a child of her age develops friendship with their teachers, other parents or children of the same age as themselves.

Another development milestone affecting children at the age of Susan is that they view themselves in relation to their appearance, items under their possession, and the activities they are most proficient in (Altmann,2006) . For instance, Susan is so much concerned about her dressing, and she takes good care of herself in regard to the food she eats. She also covers her inability to read the school board, protecting her dignity.

At this stage, children develop an attitude of self-consciousness, and they take note of every little detail surrounding their environment. For instance, Susan fears taking her friends to her house fearing that they may find her mother drunk. Cary and Jermaine on the other hand are preschoolers.

At the age of 18 months, most children learn how to walk without getting help. However, Cary is unable to portray this characteristic. Another main development milestone at this age is the ability of a child to play with items such as pens, dolls, blocks and any other thing he/ he lays a hand on. However, Cary is unable to do this; instead she is seen always sitting on his chair, with sleepy eyes. She has a runny nose, and a dirty nappy, a general characteristic of children falling in this age group (Kock, 2006).

Jermaine on the other hand is a 3 year old preschooler. At this age, children are able to hop, stand, use items such as scissors, and they gain an ability to draw sketches. At this age, children have an interest in gaining new experiences, and they liaise with their peers (Kenner et al, 2004). According to the case study, the only characteristic Jermaine shows of the children under his age, is the ability his ability to speak a few words.

There are various theoretical approaches to child development studies. One of the theories that explain the development of a child is the ecological systems theory. This theory denotes that, the ecological development of a human being greatly influences his growth and development (Kock, 2006).

This theory observes the development of a child in relation to his social, economic and political environment, and denotes that they are part and parcel of the child’s development, and they shape the characteristic of the child. Another theory that explains the process of child development is the behavioral theory (Knefelkamp et al, 1978).

John Watson is the main proponent of this theory, and it denotes that a child develops his trait by learning from the environment. John Watson is of the opinion that a child will make an extra effort on whatever he does to gain recognition.

A better example is reflected when a school going child works hard in class for purposes of getting approval from the teacher concerned. Another theoretical framework explaining the development of a child is the cognitive development theory. This theory believes that a child contributes to his or her own development by use of his intellect.

It denotes that in circumstance when a child faces conflict, he/she will arrange his intellect and devise ways and means of coping with the situation. This is mostly applied in mathematical situations, where a child learns numbers, and will develop mechanisms of ensuring that he or she remembers every detail correctly.

In our case study, there are numerous consequences of abusing and neglecting these four children. The consequences of this action fall under the following categories, behavioral, psychological, cognitive and physical consequences.

Abusing these children will lower their self-esteem, leading to insecurity and lack of attachment to their primary providers. They may develop physical illnesses, such as brain damage or even speech difficulties. These children will develop depression and other psychological incapability’s.

This is because of stress and the stigma they face. They will become underachievers in school and develop anti-social behaviors such as prostitution, drug abuse, engaging in crime like activities, etc (Masling et al, 1996).

PART B: PARTNERSHIP PRINCIPLES

The main idea of partnering with parents is to protect the interests and the welfare of the children. Parents look for social workers who have an interest in them, and when they work in partnership with them, contributing some specific skills and knowledge, it will assist in ensuring that their children are safe. One of the principles in partnering with a family organization is adopting a strength based approach.

Parents know the character traits of their children, and while working with them, social workers should avoid judging them (Salkind, 2002). They should initiate measures of building upon the various strengths of the parents in question, sharing their experience in relation to child development and knowledge.

Another principle is respect and accountability (Sundberg, 2008). Social workers should respect the views of the parents they work with, and avail social services to them without prejudice and discrimination. They should respect their cultural, religious and gender views as this will ensure effective cooperation between them and the parents in question. This would develop trust, and therefore a better working relationship.

Social workers must possess skills that will effectively enable them interact with parents for the purposes of finding a solution for proper development of their children. They should observe proper ethics procedures, in relation to parenting, and parent-practioner relationship, depicting decency and honesty while dealing with these people.

This will develop trust, and a good working relationship, enabling a practitioner to diagnose the problem affecting the specific family set up (Masling et al, 1996). Another principle is to develop a listening ear to the views of the parents in question. This will enable them to reveal their desires, creating a sense of openness, therefore finding a solution for the problems affecting their children.

It is the duty of the social worker to initiate and maintain the partnership, because partnership is a process (Gurian, 1999). This principle acknowledges that partnering with parents requires attention and patient, since some parents are reluctant to cooperate with third parties in relation to parenting their children.

In this case study, the importance of inter-agency communication is important because these three children require different help, that one agency cannot provide. For instance Mark involves himself in criminal and anti-social behavior. There is the need of the police to stop these behaviors, and a psychologist to counsel Mark.

Communication between the psychologist and the police will help them gather information for the purposes of helping Mark overcome his social problems (LeComer, 2006). Cooperating with each other, will enable these social organizations to gather information relevant for their cases and use for purposes of protecting the needs of this children and enhancing their welfare.

PART C: AN ASSESSMENT AND A BASIC PLAN OF ACTION:

This is an assessment framework for the family of Jane, and it includes appropriate services these children and their mother needs. In assessing the child’s welfare and needs, this paper takes a three tier approach, and it looks at their environmental and family set up, the parenting capacity of Jane, and the development needs of the four children.

Assessing the Development Needs of the Four Children in the Case Study:
Health Needs

Jermaine is a three year old child with health problems. She is malnourished, with hollow eyes, a sign of starvation. She also wets the bed, a bad development for children under the age of 3 years. In assessing her health condition, it is poor, and she needs medical attention.

Mark is a 14 year old child, and he has sores and cold, meaning he is on immunization. Mark rarely sleeps and worry’s a lot about the alcoholic condition of his mother. Children under his age increase in height and weight, while Mark is under weight for his age.

Mark needs medical attention to treat the cold and the sores he has, and a psychological help for enable him overcome worries, emanating from his mother’s alcoholic problems.

Susan does not have a serious health problem, while Cary cannot walk, and has a running nose. This is a serious problem at her age, since children of her age learn to walk, and therefore she needs medical attention to care for the running nose, and diagnose why she is unable to walk.

Emotional Development

Mark is concerned on the welfare of the mother, and has affection for his brother Jermaine. This child needs a psychological help to overcome the problems the worries he has concerning the mother.

Susan on the other hand is ashamed of her mother’s alcoholic behavior, and she can’t invite friends over, because she fears they may encounter her. She covers up for her inability to read the schools board. Susan needs a counselor to highlight this problem, so that she can obtain help.

Jermaine is clingy to Jane, while Cary is unable to portray any emotional development because of his age. Jermaine needs an extra social care, that’s full of love and warmth, as opposed to shouting’s that come from Jane.

Educational Development

Mark performs poorly in class, and is unable to attend all his session; therefore a doubt arises whether he will finish his GCSE exams. Mark needs proper tutorship and counseling in regard to his educational problems. The school needs to report his situation to concerned authorities, and measures put in place to ensure that the child develops a proper attitude towards schooling and education.

Susan performs well in class, and she is bright, and the only problem she has, is her inability to read the schools board. The needs to put an extra effort on learning how to read the board, as this will enhance her self-esteem.

Jermaine attends a nursery, and because of his nutritional status, teachers concentrate on giving him food. Jermaine needs attention in regard to his nutritional status, and this will enhance his academic person. Cary is still young to attend school, and therefore she doesn’t need any educational attention.

Family and Social Relationships.

Susan is popular in school, and she has friends on the neighborhood. This is a sign of a healthy development milestone to Susan, and since children of her age experience the desire to make friends and associations. Her relationship with the brother is not stable, because they argue a lot.

This is because she wants to take the role of a parent towards the brother. Jane needs to get concerned on the conflict between Susan and Mark. She has to create boundaries for their interaction based on respect and understanding. Mark on the other hand is greatly attracted to his brother Jermaine, taking the role of a nurse when his mother is away.

Mark has problems in his relation with the father. He fights with the father, and this is a social problem. There is a need to create a mechanism of advising Mark on the importance of respecting his father, despite his weaknesses. Mark forms an association with Thomas, who speaks to him concerning his situation.

Jermaine on the other hand is clingy to his mother, while Cary, is anti-social and unable to play. These children need a diagnosis from a psychologist on better ways to help them in their family relations.

Self-Care Skills

Susan cares for herself, and is concerned with her diet, and Mark is also clean and well dressed, with an interest of learning how to use the washing machine. This is a characteristic of the development milestone they face.

Jermaine on the other hand needs proper care and maintenance, since the nursery washes his clothes, and they give him new ones. This is a responsibility of his mother, and it portrays neglect and abuse. This situation also affects Cary, since she has a continually running nose, and wears dirty napkins. Children at this age cannot care for themselves.

Assessing the Development Needs of the Children in terms of Parental Capacity.

The children lack emotional support from their mother. Jane is always drank and shouts at the children. Jermaine suffers the most in regard to this situation. Mark always fights with the father, and Susan is ashamed of the mother due to her alcoholic conditions.

They lack basic care, such as clothing, and this is evidenced when Jermaine discreetly receives clothes from the nursery he attends. Cary is always dirty, with a continuous running nose, symbolizing neglect and lack of basic care.

Mark on numerous occasions fights with his father, and it is a sign that there is no social and physical security in terms of parenthood within Jane’s family. The mother has racist tendencies, and on most occasions, he abuses Mark because he is black. This shows lack of parental love and care towards Mark, from the mother.

Assessing the Development Needs of the Children in Terms of Family and Environmental Factors.

Mark faces social problem because of the set up his upbringing. He comes from a poor neighborhood, and he believes that his father is a petty drug dealer. There is an easy access of alcohol from the neighborhood of the family.

For example, the mother of Mark is alcoholic, while her father of Jermaine, Susan and Cary died of alcoholic related diseases. Marks father lives in the neighborhood, and he is a petty drug dealer. These environmental conditions play a role in the development of Marks anti-social behaviors.

Jane is unemployed, and she lives in a social institutions house. This status plays a role in bringing up her children. For instance Mark has a cold, and sores, and because of her unemployment status, Jane lacks money to take the child to the hospital.

Plan of Action:

The first stage is to convene a meeting of social workers responsible for providing care to vulnerable and abused children. This meeting is for purposes of looking at the information at hand, and makes recommendations and coordinated efforts for helping these children.

The next process is to establish a core group that will follow up the case, and initiate measures and mechanisms of helping the children out of their current state.

Finally, the social workers should identify the areas of needs, and irrespective of their skill, they should make a coordinated effort at helping Mark, Jermaine, Cary and Susan develop favorable developmental milestones.

Critically evaluate, the evidence and application of the knowledge and practice skills required in helping children during the enquiry, investigation and assessment phases of childcare and protection work.

The objective of this article is to explore the evidence and knowledge, values and skills that social workers use in child protection investigation and assessment. In the course of this commentary and self-evaluation, we will highlight the responsibilities of professionals in social work and:

a) articulate the professional role and tasks of social workers and demonstrate an appreciation of the role and tasks of other significant professionals in childcare and protection investigation and assessment

b) articulate what social workers understand by interdisciplinary work and their part in this

c) articulate the values which inform the practice of social work during inquiry, investigation and assessment, paying particular attention to practice when conflicts arise

e) demonstrate an example of anti-discriminatory practice during inquiry, investigation and assessment in relation to at least one of the following: race, gender, disability, poverty, sexuality and religion

f) demonstrate effective practice in assessing, planning and evaluating interventions (Moore, 1985)

g) convey a knowledge and understanding of models of investigation, assessment and risk analysis in practice

h) make effective links between the commentary on the practice of social work and the theoretical bases in relevant literature

For our purposes, we would investigate all these aspects of social work blending theory and practice, assessment and investigation and analyze the roles and responsibilities of social workers and their approach towards interdisciplinary collaborative practice. We would also critically evaluate the following case study to show the application and efficacy of knowledge and skills of social workers in childcare and protection work.

Case Study:

14-year-old boy from Ireland, arrived in Scotland after being abducted by a man from Dublin. Past history of the boy is given as follows- he had been sexually abused by a neighbour for many years. The case of abuse went to court, the accused man was found not guilty due to lack of evidence. The boy ended up in children’s home and then on the streets in Dublin. He was persuaded by an older man to come to Scotland for better life. The man passed the boy off as his son (as he had no passport) and brought the boy to the UK. Once in the UK the boy was sexually abused by the man, ran off and went to police station. The social worker became involved as responsible and testified in police interview that the boy had learning difficulties.

Application of Knowledge and Skills in Social work for Childcare and Protection:

Social workers have the objective of improving people’s lives and help people to function in the best possible way within their social environment, helping them to deal with their relationships and solve their personal and family problems. Social workers also deal with issues of domestic and sexual abuse and often provide requisite care in a health related setting. Short-term intervention, community based care and ambulatory services are provided by the social workers and governed by care organizations (Howe, 2005). Child, family and school social workers provide social services and assistance to improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families and try to maximize academic achievements of the children and improve family relationships. Social workers help to find foster homes and care services for neglected, abused and abandoned children and address problems of misbehavior, truancy, delinquency and sexual deviation in children and adolescents. Child, family, and school social workers typically work in schools, care settings, individual and family services agencies, or State and local governmental agencies providing social support (Munro, 2002). These social workers that work for children are also known as child welfare social workers, child protective services social workers. Social workers who work with entire families are family services social workers, occupational social workers, or if they work for betterment of aged people they are gerontology social workers.

Child protection services are aimed at preventing and protecting children from being harmed through neglect or abuse at home, at school, in the community or in society at large. The Social work department of the UK government contributes to a multi-agency collaborative approach to care and protection of children who are vulnerable and easily exploited and abused. The collaborative efforts of the Police, Health, Education and Housing departments ensure a coordinated response towards the care and protection of children. This is coordinated and supervised by the Child Protection Committee, which follows the legislation noted in the Children’s Scotland Act, 1995 (Francis, 2000).

The Department of social work has a specific responsibility for the promotion of child protection and welfare. For protection of children from abuse and neglect, the Social Work Services have the following responsibilities:

Supporting families to maintain children within their own home and community where appropriate.
Investigating allegations of child abuse.
Where necessary, providing appropriate care placements for children.
Referring those children who are believed to require compulsory measures of care to adequately protect them to the Reporter to the Children’s Hearing system.
Organizing and chairing multi-agency child protection meetings.
Coordinating multi-agency child protection plans for those children on the child protection register.

One of the most important phases in child protection and care is assessment. In the assessment stage, the needs of children and their families and views of the carers are taken into consideration by the social workers, health professionals, and psychologists who perform the assessment and determine the individual and varied needs and assess how they can be met (Walker, 2003). The social workers, health professionals, housing officers, teachers, the police as well as carers and the children or young people themselves, contribute to a multi-agency assessment of needs. The legislative framework followed for childcare in social work is the Children Scotland Act, 1995 (Francis, 2000), some features of which are discussed later in the context of the case study.

Considering the case study of the 14-year-old boy discussed above we evaluate the knowledge and skills of social workers in the investigative, inquiry and assessment phases of child protection work.

According to the Children’s Scotland Act, 1995, the following legislative framework was provided if a person is not a natural parent or do not have parental responsibilities.

Care or control of child by person without parental responsibilities or parental rights.

5.—(1)Subject to subsection (2) below, it shall be the responsibility of a person who has attained the age of sixteen years and who has care or control of a child under that age, but in relation to him either has no parental responsibilities or parental rights or does not have the parental responsibility mentioned in section 1(1)(a) of this Act, to do what is reasonable in all the circumstances to safeguard the child’s health, development and welfare; and in fulfilling his responsibility under this section the person may in particular, even though he does not have the parental right mentioned in section 2(1)(d) of this Act, give consent to any surgical, medical or dental treatment or procedure where—

(a)the child is not able to give such consent on his own behalf; and

(b)it is not within the knowledge of the person that a parent of the child would refuse to give the consent in question.

(2)Nothing in this section shall apply to a person in so far as he has care or control of a child in a school (“school” having the meaning given by section 135(1) of the [1980 c.44.] Education (Scotland) Act 1980).

Views of children.

6.—(1)A person shall, in reaching any major decision which involves—

(a)his fulfilling a parental responsibility or the responsibility mentioned in section 5(1) of this Act; or

(b)his exercising a parental right or giving consent by virtue of that section,

have regard so far as practicable to the views (if he wishes to express them) of the child concerned, taking account of the child’s age and maturity, and to those of any other person who has parental responsibilities or parental rights in relation to the child (and wishes to express those views); and without prejudice to the generality of this subsection a child twelve years of age or more shall be presumed to be of sufficient age and maturity to form a view. (2)A transaction entered into in good faith by a third party and a person acting as legal representative of a child shall not be challengeable on the ground only that the child, or a person with parental responsibilities or parental rights in relation to the child, was not consulted or that due regard was not given to his views before the transaction was entered into.

Section 6 especially highlights the views of the children in parental rights and responsibilities, so our case study here in which the 14-year-old boy was deliberately brought to Scotland and was forced to live with a man who abused him repeatedly is definitely illegal. Section 6(2) specifically mentions that a person can claim parental responsibility only when there is complete consent by the child. This has again not been the case here.

The legislative care procedures for children at risk of harm is as follows:

Short-term refuges for children at risk of harm.

38.—(1)Where a child appears—

(a)to a local authority to be at risk of harm, they may at the child’s request—

(i)provide him with refuge in a residential establishment both controlled or managed by them and designated by them for the purposes of this paragraph; or

(ii)arrange for a person whose household is approved by virtue of section 5(3)(b) of the [1968 c.49.] Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968 (provision for securing that persons are not placed in any household unless the household has prescribed approval) and is designated by them for the purposes of this paragraph, to provide him with refuge in that household,

for a period which does not exceed the relevant period;

(b)to a person who carries on a residential establishment in respect of which the person is for the time being registered (as mentioned in section 61(2) of that Act), or to any person for the time being employed in the management of that establishment, to be at risk of harm, the person to whom the child so appears may at the child’s request provide him with refuge, for a period which does not exceed the relevant period, in the establishment but shall do so only if and to the extent that the local authority within whose area the establishment is situated have given their approval to the use of the establishment (or a part of the establishment) for the purposes of this paragraph.

Usually when a child, as understood by a young person below the age of 16 is in any risk of harm as in this case study, it is legally required to provide him with shelter and protection at a residential establishment managed by local governmental authorities and social care services. In cases of neglect, abuse or torture this protection is mandatory. Thus the knowledge and skills of social workers to protect any child under 16 is also related to her understanding of legal implications and framework. The initial stage is assessment of the child’s needs followed by inquiry and investigation through background checks and psychological tests in which problems of the child and his background and social environment are analyzed. In this case study, the 14 year old boy is assessed with the help of past history, police records, psychological and medical tests and it was revealed from these procedures that we was not only tortured and abused by the person who took him away from Dublin, but was also suffering from learning disabilities. Thus along with the conditions of neglect and abuse, the child can also be considered disabled and separate legislative procedures have to be considered in this case.

For Children with disabilities, the legal implications are as follows:

Children affected by disability.

23.—(1)Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1) of section 22 of this Act, services provided by a local authority under that subsection shall be designed—

(a)to minimise the effect on any—

(i)disabled child who is within the authority’s area, of his disability; and

(ii)child who is within that area and is affected adversely by the disability of any other person in his family, of that other person’s disability; and

(b)to give those children the opportunity to lead lives which are as normal as possible.

(2)For the purposes of this Chapter of this Part a person is disabled if he is chronically sick or disabled or suffers from mental disorder (within the meaning of the [1984 c.36.] Mental Health (Scotland) Act 1984). (3)Where requested to do so by a child’s parent or guardian a local authority shall, for the purpose of facilitating the discharge of such duties as the authority may have under section 22(1) of this Act (whether or not by virtue of subsection (1) above) as respects the child, carry out an assessment of the child, or of any other person in the child’s family, to determine the needs of the child in so far as attributable to his disability or to that of the other person.

Assessment of ability of carers to provide care for disabled children.

24.—(1)Subject to subsection (2) below, in any case where—

(a)a local authority carry out under section 23(3) of this Act an assessment to determine the needs of a disabled child, and

(b)a person (in this section referred to as the “carer” ) provides or intends to provide a substantial amount of care on a regular basis for that child,

the carer may request the local authority, before they make a decision as to the discharge of any duty they may have under section 2(1) of the [1970 c.44.] Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970 or under section 22(1) of this Act as respects the child, to carry out an assessment of the carer’s ability to continue to provide, or as the case may be to provide, care for that child; and if the carer makes such a request, the local authority shall carry out such an assessment and shall have regard to the results of it in making any such decision.

A child is considered to have a disability if he is chronically sick or suffers from some form of mental disorder that stops him from actively participating in normal daily activities. As we have already indicated the three stages of inquiry, investigation and assessment are important in child protection and childcare. In the inquiry and investigation phases, the police and the social workers obtain the history and background of the child. In the assessment phase, health workers, doctors, social workers, carers, and psychologists work together to assess the problem of the child, instances of abuse and the legal implications of the child’s conditions. Assessment of disability, if any, the child’s mental, physical and social problems and the general abilities and health of the child is important (Walker, 2003). Knowledge of legal implications and skills of social work practice and theories on mental health and disabilities are not only useful but also necessary in childcare and protection work. The ethical consideration and values are also considered here by the social worker as anti-discriminatory measures for disability, poverty, race or gender are also taken into consideration (Banks, 2001). A disabled person is entitled to his human rights to be treated equally and any discrimination would come under oppressive or discriminatory practice. It is the responsibility of the social workers to see to it that this is avoided. As we have already indicated a recognition of models and theories of practice, values and ethics of social services and an ability and appreciation of working in a collaborative effort with other professionals in varied fields are the most important characteristics in social work and child protection.

Conclusion:

In this case study, a 14-year-old boy abused and abducted was brought to UK where he sought the help of police, who according to legal requirements provided him with residential care. The boy was looked after by carers and social workers in the residential care arrangement where his condition was investigated further by the police and his mental and physical conditions were also assessed by social and health workers. In this article we discussed the importance of knowledge and practice skills of social workers relating the values, dilemmas and ethical considerations of childcare and highlighted the importance of legal implications using the relevant clauses in the Children’s Scotland Act, 1995.

Bibliography

Banks, Sarah. 2001. Ethics and values in social work /Sarah Banks. 2nd ed. Basingstoke :Palgrave.

Francis, Joe. 2000. Child protection and social work practice :exploring the impact of the Children (Scotland) Act 1995. University of Edinburgh, Department of Social Work.

Howe, David, 2005. Child abuse and neglect :attachment, development and intervention /David Howe. Basingstoke :Palgrave Macmillan.

Moore, Jean G. 1985. The ABC of child abuse work /Jean G. Moore. Aldershot :Gower.

Munro, Eileen. 2002. Effective child protection /Eileen Munro. London :SAGE.

Scourfield, Jonathan. 2002. Gender and child protection /Jonathan Scourfield ; consultant editor, Jo Campling. New York :Palgrave

Walker, Steven. 2003. Social work assessment and intervention /by Steven Walker and Chris Beckett. Lyme Regis :Russell House Publishing.

Scottish Local Government Information Unit. Children (Scotland) Act 1995:a guide. Scottish Local Government Information Unit,1995.

Also see

Children Scotland Act, 1995

http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/

Child Protection – Social work services

http://www.inverclyde.gov.uk/Social_Work/

Professional child care in the field of social work, have come under intense scrutiny recently. Much of this scrutiny, concerns the way in which partnership and interagency work contributes to best practice in the assessment of children, young people and families. This paper seeks to explore the principles of collaborative work and highlight why it is necessary that inter-agency work is successful and efficient in the field of social work. In doing so, will provide examples and discuss current guidelines for partnership work and strategies of new assessment practices to ensure its effectiveness. The essay will also address common problems of interagency and partnership work and identify policies to guard against these potential issues.

The Department of Health (1998) in encouraging the use of partnership, stressed that “joined up services” should be the hallmark of good service delivery. The Audit Commission (1998) declares that for services to be efficient and effective, there must be “mandatory partnership working”. At a basic level, inter-agency and partnership are formal institutional terms attributed to the practice of and need for different agencies and sectors to “work together”. According to Whittington (2003), “partnership is a state of relationship at organizational, group, professional or inter-personal level, to be achieved, maintained and reviewed”, while “collaboration is an active process of partnership in action.” It is within the umbrella term of partnership, that terms such as ‘inter-agency’ and ‘multi-agency’ arise to pin down the policies and concretise the practice of ‘joined-up’ work between agencies.

The principles of collaborative working stipulate that there should be seamless interaction between agencies to facilitate best practice and ultimately improving care services. In a research of 30 multiagency organizations in health and education and over 140 staff, Atkinson et al (2002) found the following necessary principles for inter-agency work:

Common aims and objectives
Organizational commitment to the aims and objectives
Thorough understanding of the various roles and responsibilities of other involved professionals and agencies
Solid leadership
Ensuring task delegation and referrals are to the correct personnel
Access to resources

In addition, Whittington and Bell (2001) established that the ability to work together effectively require many skills which are essential for social workers, such as: the ability to challenge discrimination by other agencies and professions, the ability to conduct multi-disciplinary meetings, the ability to respect and manage issues of confidentiality, and being able to handle conflicts and manage systems and human resource that will need to adapt to change.

There are many policy directives which mandate partnership work within services relating to child care and assessment, and one of these is the 2003 government green paper, Every Child Matters policy document which stipulates the development of Children’s Trusts, to ensure that agencies work effectively together to safeguard and promote the welfare of children. Children’s Trusts emerged after the death of eight year-old Victoria Climbie who even after repeated visits to hospitals and visits by social workers, her abuse was not identified and she subsequently died. The Laming Report of 2003, an inquiry into Victoria’s death concluded that the young girl’s death could have been avoided if individual social workers, police officers, doctors and nurses who came into contact with the girl, had effectively responded to Victoria’s needs. He emphatically declared that Victoria’s death represented a “gross failure of the system”, wherein, not one of the agencies or individuals “had the presence of mind to follow what are relatively straightforward procedures on how to respond to a child about whom there is concern of deliberate harm”.

The Children’s Act of 2004 in Section 10, mandated the “duty to co-operate” on agencies involved in child care protection and assessment. On November 18, 2008, the Children’s Trust outlined in a release which identified the partners with a duty to co-operate as: district councils, the police, the probation board, the youth offending team, the Strategic Health Authority and Primary Care Trusts, Connexions partnerships, and the Learning and Skills Council. Moreover, in 2004, the government rolled out the National Service Framework for Children and Young People (NSF), a ten year strategy document which aims to improve the support and services that young people, children, parents and carers receive. It stipulates ten different standards which will largely depend on efficient partnership and inter-agency work to be successful.

To assist in the efficient assessment of children and young people across services, the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) ensures that frontline delivery of integrated services to children and young people are streamlined for maximum efficiency. It is a standardised assessment methodology across service sectors, which aims to ensure that any inadequacies in service delivery to children are picked up quickly. The CAF looks into the child’s social and health environment to assess the role of the parents or carers, as well as the child’s own strengths and weaknesses, in order to make a reasoned and informed judgment about the child’s present and future well-being. This CAF method of assessment provides much more room and space for preventative action.

The Working Together to Safeguard Children (2006) is another policy guideline for frontline managers and social workers to improve inter-agency work in order to safeguard the welfare of children. It asserts that all persons with responsibility for children must display full commitment and that there should be clear lines of accountability. The job of safeguarding children and young people, falls under the authority of the Local Authority (LA) whose main objective is to ensure that young people are protected from harm, They ensure this by vigourously pursuing exacting partnership standards “with other public organisations, the voluntary sector, children and young people, parents and carers, and the wider community” (Working Together to Safeguard Children: 2006). A tripartite system which incorporating the police, the Local Authority and other agencies help to improve the quality of service and ensure the seamless interaction between agencies in safeguarding children. Social Workers who are directly involved in the assessment of children and young people, must be knowledgeable to these inter-agency links and all up to date protocols of inter-agency work to ensure best practice.

Behan (2005) at the National Conference for Integrated Children’s Framework, stated that “services must improve outcomes for children, and organise themselves round the child rather than expect the child to move from one service to another. To be successful services have to work in partnership.” As was demonstrated in the Victoria Climbie case, and more recently the case of “Baby P”, who died after being tortured by his mothers and two others and whose suffering was missed by the many individuals and agencies who came into contact with him, inter-agency does not always work, despite many policy guidelines and duty of care responsibilities. This essay will now examine some of the challenges to effective collaborative working.

One of the most prominent challenges to effective and efficient inter-agency and partnership work to safeguard children from harm, is the existence of power struggles between various agencies. As stated earlier, Atkinson et al (2002) asserted that a commitment to the ideal and practice of partnership must be bought into by all agencies to avoid power struggles. There are many instances, whereby social workers sometimes outline that their child care reports are not heeded by health care professionals who come into contact with children deemed at risk. Leiba and Weinstein (2003) argues that while many social workers have to work closely with nurses and doctors in the UK to safeguard children, there were significant ideological and cultural differences with how they approached their work. Mathers and Gask (1995) suggests that GP’s become frustrated with the long assessment process that social workers require for best practice.

Leiba and Weinstein (2003) lament that such differences can cause power struggles between health professionals who may thin that “medical-know-how” should trump seemingly long-winded assessment models. They further state that power struggles can be exacerbated by the nature of professional education which normalise professionals into different, values, jargon and culture and the “fear of dilution and associated professional protectionism” ( Leiba and Weinstein: 2003). The language of health has been said to be very alienating and does not usually give space to social work theories and assessments (Peck and Norman: 1999). Leiba (2003) maintains that even though the Health Act of 1983 and the National Service Framework stipulates greater co-operation between health and social care services, in practice this has been very hard to achieve. He cites the example of requirements for a single assessment strategy across services, but highlights how each agency continues to compile its own data. because accommodate the Douek (2003) further argues that parents and carers can become very frustrated when the collaboration process is not a seamless one and a lack of co-operation from a parent or carer can be extremely detrimental to the child assessment process.

Conclusively, it can be stated that the cases of Victoria Climbie and more recently “Baby P”, demonstrate that in order to safeguard and protect children and young people from harm, it is absolutely essential that inter-agency and partnership guidelines are executed. The many policy directives such as the NSF, the CAF, and the 2006 Working to Safeguard Children document should be zealously advocated across agencies and total organizational commitment to the principles around partnership should be elucidated from top to bottom in institutional structures, in order to eliminate power struggles. Social workers, with responsibility for child assessment, should vehemently pursue best practice by following Whittington’s (2003) earlier advice, and report negligence and discriminatory practices which could lead to the harm of children. Such practices ultimately benefit the children and young people and their families, when total commitment to partnership is shown and inter-agency policies do work.

References

Atkinson, M., Wilkin, A., Stott, A., Doherty, P. and Kinder, K. (2002) Multi-Agency Working: A Detailed Study. LGA Research Report 26. Slough, Berkshire: National Foundation for Educational Research.

Behan, D. (2005) Inspecting Children’s Services in Partnership. Paper presented at the National Conference for Integrated Framework. Accessed on December 7, 2008 at: http://www.csci.org.uk/Docs/inspecting_in_partnership.doc.

Children’s Workforce Development Council. (2006) Common Assessment Framework. http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/resources-and-practice/IG00063/

Department of Health. (1999) The Challenge of Partnership in Child Protection: Practice Guide.

Department of Health. (Spetember 2004) National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services. The Stationery Office. Accessed on December 7, 2008 at: www.dh.gov.uk/PolicyAndGuidance/HealthAndSocialCareTopics/ ChildrenServices/ChildrenServicesInformation/fs/en

Department for Education and Skills (2006) Working Together to Safeguard Children. Accessed on December 7, 2008 at: http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/_files/AE53C8F9D7AEB1B23E403514A6C1B17D.pdf.

Douek, S. (2003) Collaboration or Confusion: The Carers’ Perspective. In, Jenny Weinstein, Colin Whittington, Tony Leiba, Collaboration in Social Work Practice. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Laming WH. (2003) The Victoria Climbie Report. London: Stationery Office. Accessed on December 7, 2008 at: www.victoria-climbie-inquiry.org.uk/finreport/finreport.htm.

Leiba, T. and Weinstein, J. (2003) Who are the Participants in the Collaborative Process and What Makes Collaboration Succeed or Fail? In, Jenny Weinstein, Colin Whittington, Tony Leiba, Collaboration in Social Work Practice. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Mathers, N.J. and Gask, L. (1995) Surviving the “Heartsink” Experience. Journal of Family Practice, Vol. 2 (17), pp. 6-183.

Peck, E. and Norman, L.J. (1999) Working Together in Adult Community Mental Health Services: Exploring Inter-professional Role Relations. Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 8 (3), pp. 231-242.

Whittington, C. (2003) Collaboration and Partnership in Context. In, Jenny Weinstein, Colin Whittington, Tony Leiba, Collaboration in Social Work Practice. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Whittington, C. and Bell, L. (2001) Learning for Interprofessional and Inter-agency Practice in the New Social Work Curriculum: Evidence from an Earlier Research Study. Journal of Interprofessional Care, Vol 15 (2), pp. 153-169.

There has been ongoing research to decide which is “better” or more beneficial, parental care or day care, in terms of child rearing. Day care is care for a child, or children, that is provided by trained or untrained caregivers in a specific day care center setting. Parental care is more informal and takes place in the home by the mother or father of the child. In regards to socio-emotional development of the child, there are both positive and negative effects of mother care and day care during childhood, but which is better? Socio-emotional development during early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence depends on the quality of care, the type of care, and the amount of time spent in care.

Socio-emotional development includes relationships, social skills, work habits, and behavioral problems, but it also includes peer pressure, emotions, and personality. Development is “the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan” (Santrock, 2008, p.5). This is important to consider when raising children. Education is key to making informed decisions about what type of care the child should be introduced to. With the amount of parents, both mothers and fathers, working full-time jobs, the amount of children in day care is rising. Parents need to know just what to expect when sending their children to day care, such as behavioral problems and a low work ethic, but also the emphasis on social skills and relationships. They need to understand the importance of the quality of care their children are being provided with, as well as the importance of education in day care. People who do not have kids, for whatever reason, will still be affected as it is the first step in education for the up and coming generation. They might be future co-workers, or even the person taking care of them in a nursing home one day.

Early childhood is a time period from the end of infancy to about five or six years of age in which “children learn to become more self-sufficient and care for themselves, develop school readiness skills (following instructions, identifying letters, etc), and spend hours in play with peers” (Santrock, 2008, p.17). A more concrete example would be the typical preschool child. Middle childhood is a period of age from about six to eleven years old. In this age period, children learn “fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, they are exposed to a larger world and its culture, and achievement becomes a central theme while self-control increases” (Santrock, 2008, p.17). This would typically be seen in elementary school children. Adolescence is broad and ranges from ten to twelve through eighteen to twenty-one which is the transition from being a child to an early adult. Within this range, there are “rapid physical changes, a pursuit of independence and identity prominence, logical, abstract, and idealistic thought, and more time spent away from the family” (Santrock, 2008, p.17). Quality, type, and amount of time spent in care all play a role in the benefits of child care. Behavior, social skills, relationships, and work habits are affected by the quality, type, and amount of time in child care.

In terms of research there are many mixed opinions on how child care affects behavior. For the most part, the consensus is that the more time spent in day care facilities during early childhood, the more aggressive and disobedient the child was to become. This can lead to future problems related to schoolwork, or even legal issues down the road. If the child learns these acts now, they might continue them in the future and get themselves in major trouble. Some studies showed that the effects of daycare, such as disruptiveness and aggression, had vanished by kindergarten (McMartney, 2004) (Carey, 2007) or third grade (Jacobsen, 2005), and others found the problems lasting until fifth or sixth grade (MSNBC, 2007). Even though some studies did show problematic behavior, all the studies concluded that its effects did not last further than the sixth grade. Lalli (2010) argued that the quality of care made the decision to whether or not the students behaved badly, but one study in particular showed that “Even high quality care did not reduce the number of behavior problems among those in childcare” (Marano, 2007). Overall, the more time children spend in non-parental care arrangements up until early childhood, the more problematic behavior and conflict with adults they had around the age of kindergarten (McMartney, 2004). There is also the opposition that states “aggression, impulsivity, and egocentrism may reflect the American values that are often prompted or approved of by teachers and day care providers” (Lalli, 2010). This could be for any such reason, such as lack of training or time to address the behavior. “Environmental factors such as cultural expectations, adult and peer pressure, and social agents that award aggression have been proposed to account for aggression that is mainly physical in boys and mainly verbal in girls” (Santrock, 2008, p.365). Overall, there is more research to defend that child care in a day care setting contributes to more behavioral problems than does parental care. “Every year spent in [child care] centers for at least ten hours per week was associated with a one percent higher score on a standardized assessment of problem behaviors” (Carey, 2007). Most of these results are studied and observed in early and middle childhood, but it can leave lasting effects on the child and can lead to behavioral problems in the future such as delinquency. This may be truer for those who are awarded for aggression and might be trying to prove themselves in their community or uphold a naughty reputation such as in a gang.

Relationships and attachment are also affected from the type, quality, and amount of child care. Again, the consensus was that the more time spent in day care, the more reports of conflicts between child and parents or teachers in all ages, especially adolescence. Regarding attachments, some, like Lalli (2010), say that there is a fear that separating the child from the mother can cause emotional harm and disrupt the bond, but it largely depends on the child and the attachment already formed between the mother and child. Attachment can be measured on a scale and tested by “Strange Situation.” This is when the mother and child go through a series of separations and reunions and the behavior of the child is studied to decide which type of attachment the child has with the mother. This is often researched in infants, but the types of attachments can serve as a prediction for future relationships. One study proved that “children who were considered to have secure attachments to their mothers experienced negative effects from day care, while insecurely attached children appeared to benefit from the out of home care” (Lalli, 2010). This could be due to a variety of reasons and can largely depend on the home situation. The mother child relationship is an important one as it serves as a boundary for future relationships. If the mother is neglectful towards the child, the child might seek someone who actually does care for him or her, which can, in turn, make the child to be extremely dependant. This will also make relationships with peers difficult. The child can become so attached and dependent on friends that the child could fall prey to their every wish and command, or the child can have the complete opposite effect and will not trust anyone and find it hard to form any type of relationship at all. If the attachment is secure, the child can form healthy relationships with peers during early and middle childhood, and healthy relationships during dating in the adolescent time range. It’s not just the quantity of time parents spend with their children that is important in forming relationships and child development, but the quality of parenting is important as well (McMartney, 2004). The relationships and attachments formed in infancy are important in adolescent relationships with parents. “Attached adolescents were less likely than those who were insecurely attached to engage in problem behaviors, such as juvenile delinquency and drug abuse” (Santrock, 2008, 430). During adolescence there is expected conflict between the child and the parents, but is there a correlation to child care?

Social skills are the ability of the child to actively communicate with peers and adults, which thus includes forming relationships. Social skills can also stem from how actively involved the child is in a hobby or extracurricular activity. Ultimately, it is making the child open up to new experiences and “get outside the box.” There is evidence noting that “time spent in high quality day care was positively related to the number of peers the child had in grade school and the number of extracurricular activities they were involved in” (Lalli, 2010). In childhood, the focus of peer relations is to be liked by classmates and ultimately to be included. Friends are important in shaping the development of children and adolescents. Being overlooked or rejected can have damaging effects on the child. “Adolescents say they depend more on friends than parents to satisfy the need for companionship, reassurance of worth, and intimacy” (Santrock, 2008, 434). Not having friends may or may not be linked to suicide attempts in adolescence. Regarding social skills in the classroom environment, one study in particular believed “children who experience high-quality [day] care show better social skills and fewer behavioral problems” (McMartney, 2004), but others claim that day care centers merely encourage social interaction, between peers and adults, which builds their social skills, but the behavior problems still exist.

There was not much research on the child’s work habits, but for the most part, according to Marano (2007), independence is taught more in a home, parental care setting than in day care. In day care, they encourage group work and peer relations and that is why “the more time spent in [day] care, the more the child did not work independently, did not use their time wisely, and didn’t complete their work promptly in grade school” (Marano, 2007). This also has to do with the quality of the care. If the day care is one with complete organization and high educational value, of course the child will perfect these simple tasks. That covers early childhood, but in terms of middle childhood and adolescence, this could be related not only to procrastination, work ethic, and motivation later on in life, but also the drop-out rate in adolescence and what types of education and jobs they receive.

There is no definitive answer to which is more beneficial. Day care has a positive effect on both relationships and social skills, but a negative effect on behavior and work habits. Even though this might be true, day care still gives the child an idea of what he or she is going to experience in the future, such as relationships and education. Although day care does not benefit behavior and work habits, those are both things that a parent could work on as well. Unless neglected, there are many opportunities for a parent and child to interact and build a strong work ethic and work on obedience. Since some day care centers are not of high-quality with no organization and educational value, they may be more detrimental to child development as they could expose the child to behaviors and such that are not disciplined or cared for by the caregiver. In quality centers, caregivers are sensitive and responsive to the needs of the children and most offer an enriching and educational environment that promotes development and encourages children to be pro-social. It is understandable that every situation is different and that everyone has their own opinions and views that they are welcome to. “Attention from the parent is far more important than the type, quality, or amount of care the child receives” (MSNBC, 2007). The effects of childcare are complex. “Family factors (maternal sensitivity, quality of environment, income) are more consistent predictors of children’s socio-emotional outcomes than any aspects of early nonmaternal care experiences, but the quality of the child care can be significant for children who do not receive care at home” (Child Day Care Center, 2009). Overall it seems that certain types of children benefit more than others from day care, such as those with secure attachments, and those coming from disadvantaged homes where they would otherwise experience impoverished and unstimulating environments. Day care promotes socio-emotional development more so than parental care in regards to behavior, social skills, relationships, and work habits.

According to the multiple studies reviewed, relationships, social skills, education, and group work are prompted in quality care settings and problematic behavior is promoted generally in day care. Both in-home care and day care have positive effects on socio-emotional development of children that carry on positively throughout the years, but day care seems to have a better and more educational value for the child, especially if the day care is of high quality and/or the child is from a neglectful home. It largely seems to depend on each child as an individual to determine the “best.”

High profile investigations since 2000 highlight failures in child protection (Laming, 2003 and Laming, 2009), causing nationwide concern, media comment and public debate and putting social work under the microscope.

Working Together to Safeguard Children: A Guide to Inter-agency Working to Safeguard and Promote the Welfare of Children (H M Government, 2010) sets out how organisations and individuals should work together to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in accordance with the Children Act, 1989 and the Children Act, 2004. The document sets out statutory guidance from primary legislation and responsibilities for professionals and agencies.

The Children Act, 1989 is designed to help keep children safe and well and, if necessary, help a child to live with their family by providing services appropriate to the child’s needs. It places a general duty of every local authority to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in their area who are in need. Section 17 defines a ‘child in need’ as a child who is “unlikely to achieve or maintain, or to have the opportunity of achieving or maintaining, a reasonable standard of health or development without the provision for him/her of services by a local authority” or “his/her health or development is likely to be significantly impaired, or further impaired without the provision for him/her of such services” or “he/she is disabled” (H M Government, 1989, section 17)

The local authority has a duty to ascertain whether Sean and Laura are in need of an initial assessment addressing whether there are concerns about impairment to the children’s health and development (HM Government, 2010). Learner and Rosen (2002) describe that the duty of the referral and assessment team is to ascertain the degree of need of the child and the degree of risk to the child.

The social worker may initiate an initial assessment using the multi agency Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH, 1999b) which must be completed within a maximum 10 days from the referral. If there was evidence that the children were suffering or likely to suffer significant harm, the social worker would then investigate this and conduct a core assessment under Section 47 (HM Government, 2010). Broadhurst et al (2010) describe that the level of safeguarding response remains a challenge in social work as decisions are often made in difficult circumstances with limited information. Munro (1996) describe how decisions made by social workers during this initial contact which determine how cases are responded to.

Social workers need good observation and analytical skills to understand the nature of the relationships, the signs of noncompliance, to work alongside families, and to come to safe and evidence based judgements about the best actions (Laming, 2009). Intervention is direct social work input that is based on understanding of the situation or problem presented and can involve providing services or trying to effect change in the social environment in order to improve outcomes (Kadushin 1993). It requires that social workers have clarity in why they are intervening and justification to do so (Doel and Shardlow, 1994). Intervention can be distressing for families so it is paramount that social workers employ a variety of skills, theories and knowledge when making decisions in the process.

The common core of skills and knowledge for the children (DfES, 2005) sets out skills to be used when working with children, aiming to promote equality, respect diversity and challenge stereotypes, helping to improve the life chances of all children and to provide more effective and integrated services. The document acknowledges the rights of children.

Sean and Laura are of dual heritage, their culture and context should be considered. Phillips (2002) suggests that a colour-blind approach, common practice in the 1980s, was actually the process of judging families according to a white and middle class view of normality. This led to an imbalance of power for many service users. The paper Protecting Children (DoH, 1988) challenged this view, recognising that cultural patterns within families will influence parenting styles and the ways children are reared. Practice was required to change as legislation laid definite responsibilities for local authorities to recognise religion, race, culture and language (DoH, 1988).

The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH, 1999b) provides guidelines for white staff who undertake assessments with black children, but all staff should be willing to reflect on their own practice. Race, culture, religion and language are central to children’s identity. Assessments should address identity holistically considering these elements (DoH, 1999a)

Sean and Laura lost their mother 3 years ago. Rando (1988) states children who are bereaved at that age may experience reawakened feelings of childishness, may repress feelings, putting them at risk for grief reactions consistent with Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development of inferiority versus industry (Erikson, 1970). Longress (2000) and Anderson et al (1999) describe that there would push for a child to become industrious and confident during this stage of development and admitting helpless feelings at this time may be difficult. Worden (2002) states when a death of a parent occurs in childhood , the child may not mourn effectively and this may create problems with depression and inabilities to maintain close relationships with others. The role of the position of the lost parent within the family system would give meaning to systemic loss. According to Bolwby’s attachment theory, the loss of a parent means a loss of stability, security, nurturing, and affection (Despelder and Strickland, 2005, Davies, 2004). The child’s understanding of the death of a parent can be a shock. Piaget stated that the child can make sense of this process by the formal operating stage of development (Longress, 2000, Berger, 2001). In working with the family, the social worker must understand that the loss of a parent will affect the roles and expectations of those left behind. Gaining better understandings of child an adult reactions to loss and examining it through cultural perspectives will be important.

Trevithick (2005) discusses the importance of non verbal communication, acceptance, empathy, warmth, listening skills, the use of silence and observation in working with children along with asserting that the relationship that is built between practitioner and service user is central to achieving change.

It is noted that parents who voluntarily engage with services make more progress while a more coercive approach can deteriorate into an adversarial relationship which blocks progress. Becoming more intrusive carries both gains and losses and so creates a complex decision (Munro, 2011).

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Egan’s SOLER model (Egan, 2002) employs a counselling skills approach to communication and would be of benefit. Engaging in meaningful and reciprocal dialogue allows for collaborative meaning-making and joint-knowledge construction where the social worker is no longer the expert but rather a partner and an equal contributor (White, 2007).

A social worker may utilise systems theory, considering how the family, community, economic and political factors affect the children (Hoffman and Salle, 1994). It allows the social worker to consider possibilities for change in the whole system, i.e. James having sleeping problems has an effect for the family. Systems theory acknowledges strengths i.e. the children have good family links, are involved in the community and a church group and they have had bereavement counselling. System’s theory acknowledges that a change of one part of the system can change another part. The limitations of systems theory is that it is descriptive, not explanatory, can disempower individuals as it does not allow for individual responsibility (Kemp et al, 1997).

A strengths perspective, which focuses on a belief that however bad things seem, people can discover strengths within themselves, may also be used (Mullaly, 1993). The perspective is seen through a role of enhancing personal strengths and resources, helping service users solve both interpersonal and environmental problems, and helping clients mobilise for change (Saleebey, 2003).

Consideration of oppression and discrimination of children would be appropriate. MacDonald and Winkley (2000) discuss the vulnerability of young people and state that each child has the right to “expect that professionals intervening in their lives will do so on the basis of the best available knowledge” (MacDonald and Winkley, 2000, page 1). The social worker would need to remain sensitive to power differences and the difficulties that some young people experience in relating to adults. In terms of the specific interventions chosen, initially these focused on building up trust, as well as attempting to identify risk factors.

Social workers have an obligation to conduct themselves ethically, engaging in ethical decisionaˆ?making, including partnership with service users. The Code of Ethics for Social Work (BASW, 2011), provides a moral code and a regulator of behaviour and moves uneasily between the two. There are moral imperatives that could place social workers in conflict with their employers or government policies i.e. social workers need to “challenge ways in which the policies or activities of government, organisations or society create or contribute to structural disadvantage ” (BASW, 2011, p. 3). In practice, social workers may meet pressures from managers to keep children within the family unit, sometimes resources may mean it is not possibly to challenge service provision, and service provision is met with barriers in eligibility (Dalrymple and Burke, 2006).

If social workers are to practice anti-oppressively, they must first understand their roles as oppressors in order to create a space for deeper empathy and understanding. Bishop (2002) argues that ignorance to oppression simply compounds the issue.

Section 53 of the Children Act, 2004 gives due consideration to the wishes and feelings of the child as far as is reasonable before determining what services to provide or action to take (H M Government, 2004) Article 3 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989) places children as a top priority for services, being child focused.

James has been suffering from insomnia and suffering from grief from the loss of his wife. A referral for a mental health assessment may be appropriate for support such as counselling

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ADULT CARE CASE STUDY

The NHS and Community Care Act 1990, imposes a duty on local authorities to carry out an assessment of need for community care services with people who appear to them to need such services and then decide whether those needs call for the provision of services (H M Government, 1990). This makes the task of assessment a key activity as it establishes a person’s needs but also if a person meets the criteria or threshold for support (Crisp et al, 2003). Fair Access to Care Services provides councils with an eligibility framework for adult social care to identify whether or not the duty to provide services under the following legislation is triggered (DoH, 2003)

Preparation for assessment involves reading all relevant information. A lack of knowledge of older people’s social history may lead to presenting behaviours being misinterpreted and emotional needs ignored (Feil 1992).

Tact, sensitivity and empathy must be employed in communicating with Mr and Mrs Smyth as the situation may be very distressing for them. Employing Egan’s model of SOLER (Egan, 2002) would be useful. The National Framework Service for Older People (DoH, 2001) requires that we recognise and respect the individuality of older people, that we listen to them and encourage their choice about care options. Effective communication is essential to fulfil these requirements (Milne and O’Byrne, 2002).. Parker and Bradley (2007) state that feelings of powerlessness and humiliation can be provocative for vulnerable people. Social workers should attempt to empower people by communicating openly and by providing as much information as possible (Parker and Bradley, 2007)

All people have a desire to be understood, to be accepted and for our lives to have meaning (Howe, 1995). Service users want to be listened to and respected as individuals and have choice and control of their support. Crawford and Walker (2008) state older people share traditional social work values, such as a concern for relationships, and appreciate social work skills, for example, in carrying out comprehensive assessments and regular reviews. Bauld et al (2000) state that people place importance on relationships with professionals and that these relationships impact on their wellbeing. Effective social work with older people draws on distinctive aspects of the social work role, sensitive communication, moving at the individual’s pace, starting where the service user is, supporting through crisis, challenging poor practice, engaging with the individual’s biography and promoting strengths and resilience (Crawford and Walker, 2008).

The person centred approach explores fundamental skills for effective communication, building on listening skills, congruence, empathy and unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1957). However, social work involves the use of authority and this opposes unconditional positive regard. It is not always possible for social workers, who have a responsibility to protect not only the service user but also other people, to be non-directive, empathetic, unconditionally accepting and congruent (Dalrymple and Burke, 2006)

Mrs Smyth has cried when talking to the community nurse. It may be that Mrs Smyth is experiencing depression. The white paper, Our Health, Our Care, Our Say (DoH, 2006) acknowledges older people with depression and states that many other supports (i.e. transport, social contacts) must be considered alongside health and social care if practitioners are to make a reality of independence, well-being and choice all of which are often seen as potentially helping to addressing depression and its prevention. Mrs Smyth has new physical problems with which depression also tends to be associated (Copeland et al, 1999) Factors that contribute to depression include loss (e.g. of a relative or of mobility) and social circumstances, such as isolation (O’Neill, 1999).

The Mental Health Foundation (1999) suggests about 15% of older people experience depression. Literature also suggests that older people are less likely than younger people to take up mental health services (Ashton and Keady, 1999). There is a tendency for professionals and older people treat late life depression as an inevitable consequence of aging (O’Neill, 1999). However, there is evidence of the effectiveness of a range of interventions, including environmental changes, psychotherapies and cognitive behavioural therapies, and anti depressant medication (Snowdon, 1998).

Maintaining good social relationships is a key to quality of life for older people (Percival, 2010, Bowers, 2009). Yet isolation and loneliness are problems shared by many older people with support needs (Manthorpe and Moriarty, 2010, Cattan and Giuntoli, 2010). Those with mobility, cognitive or sensory impairments are at particular risk of being excluded from social life (Callaghan et al, 2009). Mr Smyth has experienced confusion and Mrs Smyth’s mobility has decreased.

Thompson (2001) describes anti ageism as a dimension of social justice which increases active and independent lives for older people and that assessment should consider the impact of ageism on people’s lives, including low self esteem and feelings of being a nuisance. Dominelli (2004) states that portraying older people as dependent and in need of care is an ageist construction. Care must be taken to ensure that ageist assumptions are not influencing assessment. As with racism and sexism, if we are not actively “swimming against the tide of cultural and institutional ageism we shall be carried along with it, such is the strength of ageist ideology” (Thompson, 2001, page 12).

Mr and Mrs Smyth are experiencing loss of health. Phillipson (2002) suggests that social work with older people is inseparable from managing loss.

The life course involves transitions, including the developmental stages associated with the work of Erikson (1977). Thompson (2002) suggests that an understanding of each transition should be understood, seeing older people in the context of life history stressing the importance of individual life stories and include activities such as reminiscence and storytelling. This approach also takes account of people’s environment and the impact of wider social issues including gender, class and race (Crawford and Walker 2004).

Danny is concerned about violence from his father to his mother. The risk of abuse of older people is not a new phenomenon but it has only recently been addressed (Penhale, 2003). Pritchard’s (2001) study of older abused women highlight the importance they attach to being able to talk to somebody about their experiences. It is important that social workers are trained not only to identify abuse but also to understand and be equipped to work with survivors to address longer term as well as short term practical needs. Danny states that there have been “many years” of violence. Research conducted to determine older women’s understandings of elder abuse has emphasised the importance of looking at the quality of care giving relationships, rather than simply analysing action or behaviour when assessing risk and vulnerability (Morbey, 2002).

Social work is complex in these potential risk situations, raising difficult questions about how to balance empowerment with protection. Preston-Shoot (2001) argues that the value of self determination is highly influential in social work practice but should not absolve practitioners from finding ways to protect vulnerable users. The literature on elder abuse emphasises the importance of social workers: using communication skills e.g. building trust and support assessing, especially the vulnerability of the service user and circumstances of the abuse, providing information about services and consideration of different options protection planning, monitoring and review understanding the law relating to welfare provision, incapacity, common law and criminal justice (Preston-Shoot, 2001). The Social Care Institute of Excellence stated that “Improving dignity, respect and human rights should be a priority in all policy development for older people. But to implement these principles social care needs to identify good practice and produce guidance for everyone who works in the sector ” (SCIE, 2006).

Danny and Mr Smyth are providing care to Mrs Smyth. Under the Carers Recognition Act, 1995, they may be entitled to an assessment of their ability to provide care (H M Government, 1995) . We also know that there is a significant group of older people providing care (typically for partners) who may themselves fit the definition of having ‘high support needs’ (Blood, 2010). Service users and carers are not easily distinguished.

The dog needs to be considered. Cusack (1988) states that older people can be deeply affected by the loss of a pet who can be important attachment figures in people’s lives, bringing their owners physical, psychological and social benefits. Garrity et al (1989) discuss how strong pet attachments are linked with decreased depression rates. Danny currently walks the dig every day but Mrs Smyth may be struggling with looking after it. Sensitivity will be needed in addressing this.

Direct payments were extended to older people in 2000 and are empowering for service users as they have more control over their care provision.

They live in a rural community.

Viewed from a social model of disability, Mr and Mrs Smyth could have low support needs as they live in accessible housing with enabling technology, within a supportive community

1471

Introduction

The profession of child and youth care requires a great amount of effort, determination and skill. Within the field, child and youth care workers are expected to acquire and uphold a trusting bond with the youth involved (Quinn, 2004: 18). Although the main aim of the child and youth care worker is to care for, love, and protect the child, this may prove difficult in many circumstances. Therefore, the youth care worker needs to have acquired skills in order to overcome these challenges while still succeeding in building a strong relationship with the child involved. This essay will discuss the elements of child and youth care work as well as the expectations of child and youth care workers. In particular, it will focus on the skills needed within the profession and the difficulties faced when trying to care for children and youth.

Elements of Child and Youth Care

Maier (1987) describes the core elements of child and youth care work as providing children with physical comfort, knowing the different temperaments of each child, rhythmic interactions with children, predictability, dependability and also behavioural training.

When practicing within the field of child and youth care, the worker is required to have an understanding of these elements in order to do their work to the best of their ability. More specifically, the elements of child and youth care includes fulfilling the physical and privacy needs of the children and also knowing the differences in their temperaments, in other words, knowing the differences in their personalities and attitudes. Also, the child care worker needs to make time for rhythmic interactions with the patient so that they can both have an experience of closeness .e.g. singing or dancing (Maier, 1987).

Children have a strong need for predictability, and rhythmic interactions also play a role in this. “Rhythmic activities seem to confirm the experience of repetition and continuity of repetition” which, as a result, provides the child with a feeling of lasting commitment and predictability. Children and youth need to know that they have a reliable adult to depend on. Lastly, child and youth care workers need to add in a personal element to the behavioural training of their patients. Children generally learn quicker from those who have meaning to them and therefore will learn more readily from their care-giver once care has been established (Maier, 1987).

Expectations and Skills Required

The main role of a child and youth care worker is to work with children and youth in ways that are educative, participative and empowering. The worker is expected to encourage equality of opportunity and social inclusion amongst the children that they are working with (Pittman, 2004: 90).

Communication plays an important role within the profession of child and youth care. Workers are required to create and maintain relationships of trust with the children and youth involved and should deliver information so that it is received in the manner intended. Child and youth care workers need to communicate well and convey and explain information assertively and “in language of the community” (Quinn, 2004: 18).

Child and youth care workers are also expected to implement programmes which aid the children and youth in their growth, learning and development. In order to do this, workers are required to have knowledge on group work and should know how to assist groups in times of need. Child and youth care workers should continuously be planning and implementing new activities for children to participate in. While doing this, the patients should be motivated and encouraged to engage in these activities (Quinn, 2004: 18).

In order to show respect for the family of the child and the community in which they reside, it is vital that the worker gains an understanding of the family culture and structures (Quinn, 2004: 19). This will allow workers to deal with conflicts easier as they will then be more sensitive when holding discussions on certain topics and will thus be-able to create relevant strategies in order to satisfy the child’s needs.

Child and youth care workers should show a high level of understanding of children and should be able to “recognise need for intervention” so that they can help with the child’s problem with immediacy.

Difficulties in the Field

Providing good child care means “providing children with authoritative control and giving them responsive nurturance” (Cancian, 2002:65). However, it may be difficult to carry out good child care effectively at times.

Difficulties in the field may include communication problems like not being sensitive or authoritative enough. Being in the profession involves a lot of stress as it is a challenge to care for children and youth and to achieve a professional image amongst society for the child and youth care profession. It is also challenging in the fact that it requires us to be flexible in changes that may occur. Child and youth care workers need to be willing to grow and learn from good and bad experiences in the profession and thus prevent certain bad aspects from occurring in the future, which may prove difficult for people who do not like change and who don’t take bad experience and criticism lightly.

Conclusion

It is concluded that the child and youth care profession involves providing children with basic and essential needs such as love, care and protection. Child care workers need to communicate effectively with the children in order to efficiently help with their problems and establish a trusting relationship with their patients so that proper care can be given. However, the profession does provide a few challenges but none which cannot be overcome with time and more experience in the field of child and youth care.

References
Cancian, F.M. (ed). 2002. ‘Defining “Good” Child Care: Hegemonic and Democratic Standards’, Child Care and Inequality: Rethinking carework for children and youth. Great Britain: Routledge. p.65.
Maier, H.W. (1987). ‘Essential Components in Care and Treatment Environments for Children’, Developmental Group Care of Children and Youth: Concepts and Practice, USA: The Haworth Press, Inc. p.40-58.
Pittman, K.J. (2004). ‘Reflections on the road not (yet) taken: How a centralized public strategy can help youth work focus on youth’, (In Garza, P., Borden, L.M., & Astroth, K.A. (eds.), New Directions for Youth Development: Professional Development for Youth Workers, 104: 90, Winter.
Quinn, J. (2004). ‘Professional development in the youth development field: Issues, trends, opportunities, and challenges’, (In Garza, P., Borden, L.M., & Astroth, K.A. (eds.), New Directions for Youth Development: Professional Development for Youth Workers, 18-19, Winter.

Child abuse/child protection and welfare: The client needs and the role of the social care practitioner in responding to those needs.

Many countries in the developed world, including Ireland, have seen a significant shift in attitudes to what constitutes as child abuse. Society has become more knowledgeable about different types of child abuse and about the impact the abuse can have on the child throughout their lives. The child’s needs and the role of the social care practitioner will be the main focus of the essay. The essay will discuss the needs of a child who has suffered abuse and propose an intervention to address the importance of care for the child and education for the carer. The role of the Social care practitioner in relation to child abuse will also be a central part of this discussion. Types of child abuse include emotional abuse, neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse. However, this essay will focus mainly on emotional and physical abuse. Suggestions on interventions will be put forth as the different types of child abuse are being discussed. Relevant policies and guidelines will be discussed in regards to how these policies have helped children by giving them rights whilst also giving them hope for a better future.

Child abuse can be defined as ‘any act of commission or omission which deprives children of equal rights and liberties and/ or interferes with their optimal development’ Gil 1975 (cited in Daniel and Ivatts 1998, p.196). The above definition accords with the spirit of Article 19 of the United Nations Convention on the rights of the child which states that it is the duty of the state to safeguard children from all types of abuse and neglect, to give ‘support to those who have been abused and to investigate instances of abuse’(Children’s Rights Alliance 2013). However, it can be difficult to give a precise or exact definition of child abuse because there are many different types of child abuse. Some types, such as physical abuse can be much more noticeable but may not have the same impact on the child as emotional abuse. Bensley et al (2004) argues that if a parent calls their child stupid and belittles them on a regular basis, the child will start perceiving these comments to be true, and will carry them into their teens and adulthood. Children’s First, the national guidance that promotes the protection of children from abuse and neglect, describe emotional abuse as generally to be established in the ‘relationship between a parent or guardian and a child rather than in a specific event or pattern of events’. It arises when a child’s need for love, support, stability and security are not met (Children’s First 2011 p.8)

Social care practitioners work closely with the child, their family and other professionals to ensure the child’s needs are being met. Social care practitioners should possess a wide range of personal and professional attributes.

A health or social care profession is any profession in which a person exercises skill or judgment relating to the preservation or improvement of the health or wellbeing of others, the diagnosis, treatment or care of those who are injured, sick, disabled or infirm, the resolution, through guidance, counselling or otherwise, of personal, social or psychological problems.

(Health and Social Care Act 2005, p.09)

Professional attributes of a social care practitioner should include a comprehensive awareness of the social care field, to be able to work on their own initiative, and as part of a team, research skills and problem solving. On a personal level, social care practitioners should be open-minded, reliable, trustworthy, and empathetic and compassionate (Lalor and Share, 2013).

Social care practitioners might find it more difficult to recognise and substantiate emotional neglect or abuse as there are no physical injuries or abrasions (Nauert 2014). Evaluation of what is occurring to a child ‘requires that each aspect of a child’s developmental progress is examined, in the context of the child’s age and stage of development’ (Department of Health 2000, p.18). By doing an assessment wheel or triangle with the child, the practitioner will get a good sense of the child, which involves more than just factual data (Buckley et al 2006 p. 40). The assessment process is designed by way of three concurrent activities and five steps. The three concurrent activities are Engaging, Safeguarding and collaborating and the five steps are Responding, Protecting, Devising, Gathering & Reflecting and Sharing/analysing/planning. The child is at the spiral in the middle. See Appendix A for diagram of The Assessment Wheel and Triangle. The aim is to deliver a consistent and organised way of collecting, recording, studying and figuring out the information required to inform ‘effective and appropriate levels of child protection and welfare interventions’ (Buckley et al 2006 p.10). Such as with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory 1969. The theory states that that we come across diverse environments during our life that can affect our behaviour in various ways. The different environments include the ‘micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem’ (Mae Sincero 2012). Yet, child abuse can be hidden from professionals and the outside world for many years before the child in need is discovered.

One of the most famous cases of severe and wilful neglect is the case of Genie Wiley. For the first thirteen years of her life, Genie was kept locked in a small room, naked and quite often tied to a potty. Her family rarely spoke to her and the times that her father did communicate with her it was through barking and growling (Rymer 1994 p.46). She was discovered by a nurse when her mother brought her to the doctors at age thirteen. The nurse believed her to be no more than seven years old. Rymer (1994) stated that extreme neglect and physical abuse had prevented Genie from developing cognitively and physically. See appendix B for the indicators of neglect from the Tusla’s practice handbook. One of the roles of the social care practitioner in cases of child emotional abuse or neglect is to be vigilant and look out for signs as noted in appendix B and to contact the necessary authorities. The main emphasis and concern of any enquiry into the emotional abuse or neglect of a child is the child (Platt and Shemmings 1997). Under the Child Care Act 1991, the HSE has certain statutory obligations for the protection and welfare of children such as taking the appropriate action to promote the welfare of the child (Children’s First 2011 p.19). When carers show kindness, love and affection in meeting the child’s needs, they support the child to develop into a ‘stable, caring, healthy and independent’ adult (LaMeaux 2014). As with neglect and emotional abuse of a child, physical abuse can have a detrimental effect on a child.

Physical abuse can be described as someone intentionally injuring or hurting a child and it can cover an assortment of negative behaviours such as smacking, shaking, repeatedly hitting, burning, cutting and the suffocation of a child (Beaver et al 1999, p. 207). Citizens Information (2014) describe physical abuse as any injury inflicted on a child due to the ‘deliberate failure of the child’s carer to protect the child’. Over the years, many Irish people have heard and read the harrowing stories and reports on the physical abuse perpetrated on countless children at the hands of their “so called” carers in Irish industrial schools. One of the major reports is the Ryan Report. The Ryan Report (2009) is an inquiry into the abuse in which children in the industrial schools in Ireland suffered while under state supervision.

The litany of terrible wrongs inflicted on our children, who were placed by the State in residential institutions run by religious orders, was collated by the Commission and presented for Ireland and the world to read. The healing process involves listening to, understanding and consulting with survivors on how the wrongs of the past can be addressed and how their needs can be catered for into the future.

(Report of the Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse, 2009 p.9)

The Ryan report, brought light to the severe physical, emotional and sexual abuse of many children. Following the report, the state was pressured to draw up a plan with the articulated aim of replying to all of the 20 separate recommendations, outlined in the Ryan Report, which were grouped into six categories. This plan also brought about the implementation of the Children’s First guidelines (Ryan 2009) (See Appendix C for the full 20 recommendations and six categories). In light of these recommendations, policies and procedures such as garda vetting and reviews into serious incidences have been implemented. However, it is not just industrial schools and services that have caused major concern, for social care practitioners regarding child abuse.

Child abuse can happen in any part of society and, rich, poor or whatever the family circumstance, any child may be subjected to the awfulness of child abuse (Childline 2015). This can have a detrimental effect on the child throughout their lifespan if not dealt with or handled appropriately. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory shows that if one’s physiological needs such as food, shelter and clothing are not being met they cannot reach their safety needs such health and family security or reach a sense of belongingness (Gawel 1997). See Appendix D for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs triangle. According to Maslow (1970 p.38) a person’s most important need is the lowermost unmet need in the pyramid. The assessment triangle analyses the child’s condition and state of affairs and gives the social care practitioner a good and informed plan of action to safeguard the best outcome for the child (Department of Health 2000).

To conclude, as mentioned above, the impact of neglect, emotional abuse and physical abuse can have a harmful and damaging effect on a child. The aim of the essay was to outline the client needs and the role of the social care practitioner in responding to these needs in cases of child abuse. “Childhood should be carefree, playing in the sun; not living a nightmare in the darkness of the soul” (Pelzer 1995 p.98). Children need love, support and affection to grow to be confident and happy adults. In an ideal world, all parents and caregivers would give this love and support to the child in order for the child to grow contently. However, in reality many children face unwarranted hardships on a daily basis, through no fault of their own. It is our role as social care practitioners to help and support these children who need help, so they can be assured a deserved brighter future.

REFERENCE LIST

Nauert, R. (2014). For Kids, Mental Abuse Can Be Worse than Sexual, Physical Abuse. Psych Central. Retrieved on February 16, 2015, from http://psychcentral.com/news/2014/10/09/for-kids-mental-abuse-can-be-worse-than-sexual-physical-abuse/75945.html [accessed 16 Feb. 15]

Daniel, P. and Ivatts, J. (1998) Children and Social Policy, London: Palgrave

Children’s First (2011) National Guidance for the protection and welfare of children [online] available: http://www.dcya.gov.ie/documents/Publications/ChildrenFirst.pdf [accessed 16 Feb. 15]

Rymer, R. (1994) Genie: A scientific tragedy, New York: Harper Collins

Health Service Executive 2011) Child protection and welfare Practice handbook, pp19-21, [Online] available: http://www.tusla.ie/uploads/content/CF_WelfarePracticehandbook.pdf [accessed 17 Feb. 15]

LaMeaux, E.C. (2014) ‘5 Needs your child must have met at home’, Gaiam Life: Your Guide to Better Living. [Online] available: http://life.gaiam.com/article/5-needs-your-child-must-have-met-home [accessed 17 Feb. 15]

Beaver, M., Brewster, J., Jones, P., Keene, A., Neaums, S. and Tallack J. (1999) Babies and Young Children: Early years care and education, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes

Citizens Information (2014) Child Abuse: What is child abuse? [Online] available: http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/birth_family_relationships/services_and_supports_for_children/child_abuse.html [accessed 18 Feb. 15]

Report of the Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse (2009) Implementation Plan, Dublin: The Stationary Office

Mae Sincero, S. (2012). Ecological Systems Theory.(Mar 14) Retrieved Feb 19, 2015 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

Maslow, A. (1970) Motivation and Personality, (2^nd ed), New York: Harper and Row

Children’s Rights Alliance (2013) Uniting Voices for Children: Summary of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child [Online] available: http://www.childrensrights.ie/sites/default/files/information_sheets/files/SummaryUNCRC.pdf [accessed 19 Feb. 15]

Department of Health (2000) ‘Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families’ , Department for Education and Employment Home Office, London: The Stationary Office

Bensley, L., Ruggles, D., Simmons, K.W., Harris, C., Williams, K., Putvin, T., Allen, M. (2004) ‘General population norms about child abuse and neglect and associations with childhood experiences’,Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(12), 1321–1337.

Health and Social Care Professionals Act 2005, No. 27/2005, s.3, Dublin: Stationary Office

Childline (2015) Physical Abuse | Abuse and Safety | Explore [online], available: http://www.childline.org.uk/Explore/AbuseSafety/Pages/Physical.aspx [accessed 24 Mar 2015].

Gawel, J. (1997) Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, [Online] available: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED421486.pdf [accessed 24 Mar. 15]

Van Devall, T. (2013) ‘Printable Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Chart / Maslow’s Pyramid Diagram’, available: http://timvandevall.com/printable-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-chart/ [accessed 25 Mar 2015].

APPENDIX A

The Assessment Wheel:

The Assessment Triangle:

APPENDIX B

Indicators of Neglect Tusla (2011)

Indicators of neglect are likely to be visible in the appearance or behaviour of the child. Individuals/agencies concerned should consider making a referral to the HSE Children and Family Services if they notice that a child:

• Wears soiled clothing or clothing that is significantly too small or large, or is often in need of repair;

• Seems inadequately dressed for the weather;

• Always seems to be hungry, hoards, steals or begs for food, comes to school with little or no food;

• Often appears listless and tired, with little energy;

• Frequently reports caring for younger siblings;

• Demonstrates poor hygiene, smells of urine or faeces, has dirty or decaying teeth;

• Seems emaciated or has a distended stomach (indicative of malnutrition);

• Has unattended medical or dental problems, such as infected sores;

•Displaying apathy, unresponsive to affection;

• States that there is no one at home to provide care;

• Presents with frequent accidents and/or minor injuries

• Growth not within the expected range

• Signs of developmental delays, poor attention/concentration, lack of self-confidence/poor self-esteem, low academic achievement (including erratic or non-school attendance);

• Behavioural signs, e.g. overactive, aggressive, poor coping skills, impulsive behaviour, indiscriminate friendliness, withdrawn, poor social skills development, bed-wetting, soiling or destructive behaviours, substance misuse, running away, sexual promiscuity, self-harm, offending behaviours.

APPENDIX C

The Commission’s 20 Recommendations

•Commission’s Recommendation 1: A memorial should be erected

•Commission’s Recommendation 2: The lessons of the past should be learned.

•Commission’s Recommendation 3: Counselling and educational services should be available.

•Commission’s Recommendation 4: Family tracing services should be continued.

•Commission’s Recommendation 5: Child care policy should be child-centred.

•Commission’s Recommendation 6: National child care policy should be clearly articulated and reviewed on a regular basis.

•Commission’s Recommendation 7: A method of evaluating the extent to which services meet the aims and objectives of the national child care policy should be devised.

•Commission’s Recommendation 8: The provision of child care services should be reviewed on a regular basis.

•Commission’s Recommendation 9: It is important that rules and regulations be enforced, breaches be reported and sanctions applied.

•Commission’s Recommendation 10: A culture of respecting and implementing rules and regulations and of observing codes of conduct should be developed.

•Commission’s Recommendation 11: Independent inspections are essential.

•Commission’s Recommendation 12: Management at all levels should be accountable for the quality of services and care.

•Commission’s Recommendation 13: Children in care should be able to communicate concerns without fear.

•Commission’s Recommendation 14: Child care services depend on good communication.

•Commission’s Recommendation 15: Children in care need a consistent care figure.

•Commission’s Recommendation 16: Children who have been in State care should have access to support services.

•Commission’s Recommendation 17: Children who have been in child care facilities are in a good position to identify failings and deficiencies in the system, and should be consulted.

•Commission’s Recommendation 18: Children in care should not, save in exceptional circumstances, be cut off from their families.

•Commission’s Recommendation 19: The full personal records of children in care must be maintained

•Commission’s Recommendation 20: Children First: National Guidelines for the

Protection and Welfare of Children should be uniformly and consistently implemented throughout the State in dealing with allegations of abuse.

In examining the Commission’s 20 recommendations, it was decided to group them into six categories.

1.Addressing the effects of past abuse;

2. National child care policy and evaluation of its implementation;

3. Regulation and inspection;

4. Management of children’s services;

5. Voice of the child;

6. Children First, the national guidelines for the protection and welfare of children.

(Ryan Report 2009)

APPENDIX D

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

(Tim’s Printables 2013)

1