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Though parental liability laws are creating a great deal of controversy, there is little doubt that parents exert a huge influence on children and their behaviour. One research proves that alcoholics were likely to have parents who were alcoholics, while domestic abusers were likely abused themselves as children. Academic and research literature contains a wealth of information tying parental influence to children’s behaviour. In the area of peer influence, for example, Chen et al (2007) note that, in a study among California and Wisconsin high school students, it was found that parental influence on peer affiliation still is significant even as parental involvement in adolescents’ lives diminishes. But it isn’t only growing teens that respond to parental influences. Infants, even very young infants, respond to parental stress and react to it (Molfese et al, 2010). In fact, it has been revealed that parental stress and/or reaction can actually have an impact on vocabulary and cognitive development (Molfese et al, 2010).

On the other side we’ve seen literature extolling the positive benefits of tools such as parental training on the success of children. For example, Sheely-Moore and Bratton (2010) discussed how a family-oriented, strengths-based approach toward working with lower-income African American families helped raise children’s grades while lowering school discipline problems. The authors in this study pointed to the need of positive parental involvement on children’s academic achievement and socio-economic development, though pointed out that parental involvement can be difficult for those who live in poverty (Sheely-Moore and Bratton, 2010).

Furthermore, it has been proven that parental influence also has an influence on driving among their teenage offspring (Crawford-Faucker, 2009). According to the National Young Driver Survey (involving 5,665 students in grades 9 through 11) parenting styles had a definite impact on choices the young drivers made (Crawford-Faucker, 2009). The authoritative parenting style combining emotional support with clear rules and monitoring had a definite (and positive) influence on driving-related behaviours and other attitudes among adolescents (Crawford-Faucker, 2009). These teens had a lower crash risk, experienced fewer crashes as passengers and were twice as likely to wear seat belts as a driver (or passenger) then were teens with uninvolved parents (Crawford-Faucker, 2009). Furthermore, this group reported less alcohol use (Crawford-Faucker, 2009).

But harsh verbal and physical discipline isn’t necessary the way to go, either. McKee et al (2007) studied harsh verbal and physical discipline and child problem behaviours in a sample of 2,582 parents and their fifth and sixth grade children. The findings indicated that the harsh discipline was associated with child behaviour problems, with one dimension of positive parenting – parental warmth – helping to buffer children from the more detrimental influences of the harsher physical discipline (McKee et al, 2007).

In this section that parents have a huge influence on their kids, whether those kids are tiny, helpless infants or defiant teenagers. Children tend to mimic their parents, for better or for worse. Some years ago, the organization Partnership for a Drug-Free America aired a series of advertisements showing a father breaking into his son’s room, drug paraphernalia in his hands. “Where did you get this?” the father thunders. “Where did you get this and how do you know about it?””I know about it by watching you!” the son cries out. “I watched you do it!”

The point of the commercial, of course, is that children will take their cues from their parents. If parents act in a responsible manner and own up to a mistake or problem situation, children will take that same cue. If, however, parents are carelessness and put the blame on other people for their own mistakes, children will do the same things.

Discussion

The issue we need to address here, however, is that this is not necessarily a black or white scenario. Tyler et al (2000) point out that the parental liability laws, in which parents are charged with the crime committed by their offspring, could end up penalizing the poor. In a poor family, both parents might be working leaving their children to their own devices, simply because they can’t afford child care. Furthermore, if a child is delinquent, poor people (at least, in theory) may not be able to afford counselling to find out the problem.

Few people want their children to be delinquent (especially lower-income people). But then again, even among poor families, we find out that not all children are delinquent. What is the difference between the well-behaved children of poorer families and those who act out? One word: Parenting. Even if there isn’t a male role model in the house, many times, the matriarch of the family takes a strict stance among her offspring, raising Cain if the offspring get into trouble.

Furthermore, there are resources for parents of lower income families to find help for their children if there are issues. Though going through governmental red tape can be a hassle to find a counsellor, a community agency or even religious organization official can be of great help in an area such as this. The point here is that there is really no excuse for the parent not to get help if the child acts out.What about if the child’s mother is little more than a child herself? If this is a situation of a teenage mother who doesn’t know how to parent, the situation changes a little, but not a whole lot. The teen mother still needs to be penalized, and then needs to be mandated to attend parenting classes. Failure to do so is the teen mom’s choice and if the teen mom doesn’t attend classes, this tells the law enforcement officials that her defiance could be passed on to her children.

Poverty isn’t a good thing and it makes things very difficult, especially as it pertains to the parent-child relationship. But to use that excuse not to charge parents for a child’s conduct is passing on responsibility. Such a situation may serve as a wake-up call for not only the child, but the parent who is involved with the child’s upbringing.

Conclusion

Parenting is not an easy job and there is nothing more frustrating than hearing from the school – or from the police – that one’s child is in trouble. Furthermore, there are those who point to the fact that trying to manage an unruly team is tough, and it’s not the parents’ responsibility if the teen gets into trouble.But this isn’t true. We’ve shown, through the literature, that parents have influence on their teenagers, even if their teenagers don’t seem to be listening to them. Parents who keep lecturing to their kids about the evils of drugs and alcohol abuse are likely to have kids who grow up disdaining both of those substances. However, if kids see their parents freely addicted in alcohol (or drugs), the kids will ask themselves “why not?” and go ahead do the same thing.

Parental liability laws aren’t meant to be malicious, nor are they meant to beat up on parents. What they are trying to do is to help parents teach their kids some responsibility. Even parents in poverty stricken families have a choice as to how they raise their kids. If they make the wrong choice, and the kids break laws as a result, the parents need to be held responsible.

Commercials and posters flood our daily lives by projecting images of helpless children who are in desperate need. Many people are aware of the children living in poverty, orphans, and abusive households. The media portrays neglected children who suffer from malnutrition, starvation, and the absence of love. In return, the advertised organization seeks for a small contribution of a dollar a day to help make a child’s life better. However, what about the child who endures the exact opposite of neglect? Less attention is veered towards the silent abuse of parents who control their child to the extreme that they are actually hindering their development and performance by not allowing their child to grow and experience life healthily. Does a child who is overly cared for and overly protected by their extremely overprotective parent still possess a better life than the child who is neglected? Or is the overprotected child just as helpless as the neglected?

Significance:

The children today are the future and faces of tomorrow. A child’s future is greatly influenced by his or her parents. A parent who is abusive restricts a child from possessing a healthy lifestyle and developing healthy relationships with other individuals. However, a parent who is over controlling will limit a child from developing essential skills necessary to govern and direct their own life in a positive and healthy manner. Yet many fail to acknowledge this and assume that parents are just being loving and caring; emotions that all parents and guardians are expected to express. Therefore, many people do not listen to these children and believes that their problems are not as severe as the children who suffer from physical or verbal abuse. This is significant to human development because many children suffer from the limitations their overprotective parents impose and do not have access to the same amount of help and assistant as children with abusive parents.

Problem Statement:

Through my research, I hope to raise public awareness of this silent abuse. Most importantly, I hope to reach out to parents who are over controlling, as well as abusive, and have them place their child’s interests before their own. If a parent, who is over protective of their child, cares about their child deeply, then they should care more about their child’s wellbeing rather than their own personal desires and expectations of their child.

Literature Review:

Parents who overprotect their child to the extreme can prevent their child from acquiring the basic fundamental skills of life. As a result, the child can become emotionally handicap and rely on his or her parent throughout their life. As stated by Cossentino, “children in this situation are not able to develop a knowledge of independence and remains bound to the parent while the parent is bound in a cycle of overprotection” (The Overprotected Child). This dangerous cycle leaves the child and parent bonded together in such a way that it is unhealthy for both members. The child relies on their parent immensely that the parent is responsible to attend to every single matter of the child’s life; from basic chores, resolving a conflict, to communicating with acquaintances of the child. This often stifles the growth and development of a child, who cannot live without authority. Thus, the parent cannot leave this cycle because the parent raised the child in this manner.

“Children lack a knowledge of resolving conflicts and have a high chance of being rejected by their peers due to low confidence and an inability to stand up for oneself” (Cossentino). With parents always protecting them, the child will never be aware of how to stand up for oneself and is unable to confront the realities of life. These children have the inability to be very social among others besides their own parents, which causes them to develop a low self-esteem as well as low self-confidence.

The inability to make decisions on his or her own can cause a child to be unprepared for the future and is unable to live without a parent or authority figure. As stated by Cossentino, “children will lack life-experiences of decision making, life skills, age appropriate freedom, and conflict resolution”. An overprotected child becomes bound to a parent in a way that is similar to how a baby is bounded to its mother for the rest of its life. The child is completely unprepared for freedom and responsibility, finding it hard to exercise self-discipline and is more vulnerable to getting emotionally hurt.

As argued by Guthrie and Matthews, “Overprotecting parents can lead children to develop Peter Pan Syndrome” (No More Push Parenting, 44). The ‘Peter Pan Syndrome’ affects people who do not want or feel unable to grow up. In other words, people with the body of an adult but the mind of a child. Peter Pan was a fictional character who refused to grow up and had a never-ending childhood. Those with this syndrome do not know how or do not even want to stop being children and start being adults. These people are unable to grow up and take on adult responsibilities; they see the adult world as very problematic and glorify being a child, which is why they want to stay in that state of privilege.

Children who have been neglected on the other hand are in complete control of their life and are forced to survive on their own. Neglected children do not have an authority figure and may be more likely to replace the unknown feeling of love with hate and anger. “Children tend to try and please their parents to gain affection. However, when they cannot please their parents, they become filled with rage and take their anger out destructively” (Nguyen). The violence neglected children seek for may be towards other individuals or other substances, but for some, they seek to hurt themselves. “Children repress rage only to become depressed and suicidal” (Watkins, A3). These children possess a great amount of emotion built up inside them that it becomes unbearable and hard to deal with. Thus, they try to fill the void of love in their life with other things or someone’s acceptance. As Andron stated, “Children with low self-esteem search for someone’s acceptance, which usually winds down a damaging path eventually set up for death or become life-threatening” (23). More than likely, they fall under peer pressure or experiment with drugs and alcohol, anything to make them feel accepted. Because they lack a knowledge of what is normal or who to trust, they are more vulnerable to perpetrators and are often abused by their peers.

One form of violence an individual may express is through school. For example, the University of Texas massacre in Austin left 18 dead while the Columbine High School took a death toll of fifteen, and the highest toll of thirty-three lives was the Virginia Tech massacre (Watkins, A3). When an individual commits a crime, he or she is questioned for the reason of their action. However, few people turn to the parents or even glance at the child’s home life. “Children turn to destructive manners for coping as a way to test if their parents really care for them or not” (Nguyen). By hurting oneself, an individual tests the love of a parent, or to see if anyone else bothers to really care.

Many parents are incapable of seeing the damaging effects of placing their own needs before their child’s. They fail to see the atmosphere and living situation they created and forced their child to endure. Most importantly, they fail to treat and raise their child healthily. By overprotecting to the extreme, a parent not only shields a child from pain, but also robs the child of their adulthood by keeping them from developing friendships, intimate relationships, and independent skills along their journey of life. Thus, through neglect, a child is forced to learn how to survive through life on their own without the protection of a parent, without the love and guidance a parent has to offer, and without the comfort of a real family. Therefore, what is worse: overprotection or abandonment?

Methodology:

By listening to the personal stories of my volunteered subjects, I hope to obtain data that reflects whether or not both children, who are on opposite ends of the spectrum, share the same difficulties. The individuals I will choose will be children and their parents who reside in Cambodia.

Cambodia is a poverty-stricken country and the home to many neglected children who roam the streets begging for food. Sadly, because of this, it will not be difficult to find a neglected child to speak with. The difficulty will be trying to find the parent or guardian of the neglected child and persuading him or her to share their own personal story.

In addition, families who are wealthy have higher expectations for their children and try to mold their child into what they want by controlling every aspect of their child’s life. Because of this, I will listen to the stories of a child is in a more well-off family and his or her parent’s story .

Urie Bronfenbrenner theory is based on ecological theory, which is focusing on environmental factors (Santrock, 2011). The Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is explained how natural environments can be a big influence to the development of persons. In other words, the development of persons can be affected by the surroundings from home to the wider context such as culture. Bronfenbrenner stated that there were many different levels and types of environment effects that might affect how a child grows and develops (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). There are the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.

The microsystem refers to the interactions between a person and the people surroundings him or closes to him. To put in differently, it is the small and immediate environment where the person lives in for instance a person’s family, school, peers, neighborhood play area and work. The second of Bronfenbrenner’s environmental layers is the mesosystem. The mesosystem is defined as the relationship or connection between different parts of the microsystem like the relationships between family and teachers, family and peers, and teachers and religious group. Next is the exosystem. The exosytem level has the less interaction or may not have it all between the children or adolescents and the other people or places but they may affect the development of the person herself, for instance parents’ work environments, extended family members and neighborhood. Last but not least is the macrosystem. Bronfenbrenner defines that the macrosystem consists of cultural, subcultural, or social class context (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). It is wide, and the largest level in this theory but still it has a great influence to the person. The macrosystem includes the economy, government, wars, the relative freedoms and cultural values. Therefore, the persons can get the positive and negative impact from this level. Finally is the chronosystem. The chronosystem is about how the pattern of individual’s life is changing over time depending on the environmental events. Besides, the environmental changes caused by cognitive and biological changing that occur at the puberty as well as the age of the individual.

How the Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory apply to child development

Family, teachers and community members play important role in raising children with applying values and customs to socialize them so they can contribute something to the society. From the views of Barbour, Barbour and Scully (2011), children develop some attitudes by observing actions, hearing words and surmising the feelings of significant others in their environment.

At this point, family, peers and religious group are located in the Bronfenbrenner’s innermost environmental layer, or microsystem. It means people in the microsystem are the major influence of the child especially at the early age. Children’s perceptions and behaviors can be developed early from home and the direct interactions take place in the microsystem like the interaction between a child and parents, siblings, teachers and peer group. Besides, the good environment and better encouragement to the child will affect how better the child will grow up (Oswalt, 2008). According to Oswalt (2008), “Each child’s special genetic and biologically influenced personality traits, what is known as temperament, end up affecting how others treat them”.

Another case is how some parts in microsystem having the connections or interrelationships among them like parents, teachers and peers. For example, a child’s parents have a good relationship with teachers will have a major influence on children’s learning and acceptance of school. Also parents and teachers support the children’s interest and the competition that they participate. As a result, it will help the child’s overall growth. The child might feel confident about her talent and ability consequently will affect her performance in study and have good relationship with other people. This kind of interaction between different parts of the microsystem is called the mesosystem. . According to the Shaffer and Kipp (2010), Bronfenbrenner argues that development of a child will be effective if the connections between microsystems are strong and supportive. Conversely, if the connections are non-supportive, it can produce trouble on child.

For the third environmental layer or exosystem, this may not have contact with the child but might affect the development of the child. As an illustration, parents’ work environment. If both parents have their own careers, it might cause the conflict between the caring for children and the responsibility at the workplace. The conflict is largely happened to the mother because beside responsibility for children, they also have full participation at the workplace. Therefore, this will give the impact to the children and the time for family interaction will decrease, increased dependence on child care and fewer choices in recreation. As a result the family will have less information about the children’s activities and the children only depending on her friends who can be good or bad friends. Oswalt (2008) states that the child at home can possibly be affected by a parents experience at work.

Then, another environment is about the larger context called the macrosystem. For example, the family role in culture, how children should be treated, what they should be taught and the goals they should achieve. The styles of interaction within family will reflect the roles expected of children (Barbour, Barbour & Scully, 2011). For instance, in most European American families encourage their children to go outside and find and establish other relationship. While in Asian families’ cultures, they pay respect for elders and the children are expected to be family oriented and encouraged to work hard for the family. To sum up, very family has different styles in raising their children and from that it will influence their behavior.

Lastly is the chronosystem. The chronosystem is about how the feeling, perceptions and attitudes of child can be changed over time. This model includes a temporal dimension (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). It is focusing on the ecological context of development or the transformation of the child can influence the way that development is likely to take (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). For instance, when the child is found out he is an adopted child, he will feel rejected and abandoned. He will have low self -esteem and struggle with identity development issues. This event may affect the child for a few years, but after he has grown up, the curiosity, sensitivity and the rebellious are becoming less and the interaction with family will be more stable. After all, the environmental factors like age, cognitive and biological changing play a major role in human development.

How the Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory apply children in preschool and early primary levels

Normally children are only exposed to the family at home until they are placed in day care, preschool classes and begin their formal schooling. When they grow up, there are more exposures from many sources to them. In the microsystem, family is one of the factors that affect children in development. Furthermore, family plays important role to the physical development of children in aspect of education and family income. Family who has good education and good income usually has awareness with their diet. Therefore, parents will model healthy eating habits for their children, who are also dependent what food is put in the table. When the child gets enough nutrition in his diet, he will develop well. Besides that, environmental factors like family and peers also affect the social development of child. For example, when a child is shy, aside from inherited characteristic from a parent, it also can be caused from interaction between parents and child. Sometimes, parents are having less interaction with the child and the parents don’t even speak to each other. It will affect the social development of child, however, the difficulty to have appropriate sociality with peers will decrease after he enters the school. It can be concluded that, parents can influence the social actions of child but it will change after being exposed to the peers, hence surely can be influential factor to the development of child.

The interaction between people in the microsystem is essential for the development of child in the aspect of emotional development. For instance, family-teacher relationship that many people overlooked the importance of this relationship especially the teachers that only focus on to their relationship with children only. Children in the school always feel insecure, difficult to accept criticism, or punishment and unadaptable. Therefore, parents and teacher should work together for child’s growth and development. Teacher can know the family background of the child and their culture. Furthermore, it is really important for teacher to maintain the children’s culture since cultural identity and family connectedness are critical emotional health. In addition, both teacher and parents can discuss the children’s problem in school and together helping to solve the problems that may have lifelong consequences. Also, when their relationship is good, they can inform one another and the information might be useful and has lifelong effects on the child. Invite families to the social events in school and hold a parent-teacher conferences are some of the ways to build the partnership. On the whole, this relationship can provide support to children and build children’s emotional health.

Next we proceed to the level where children do not make any contact with these people and places but still have an effect on them. This level is the exosystem. Parents’ workplaces and mass media can be a largely affected to the children in term of emotional problems and cognitive development. Parents nowadays usually spend their time at work more than at home with their children. It will result in having less time to spend with children. They don’t have time to know their children’s activities, they can’t control their children and they don’t have time to help their children in developing important skills. Stress at work also influences the children because they might release their stress by resting and sleeping at home and lead to have less interaction with children. So then, the emotional problem will be faced by children because don’t have bond with parents. Studies have shown children who are given plenty of attention and love usually less have emotional problems than those who do. Besides that, mass media also influences the development of children. Children can develop and acquire the cognitive development from the good television shows. For example Blue’s Clues, Dora the Explorer, Go Diego Go!, and The Smurfs. Moreover, another electronic media source is internet that also contributes the cognitive development of children. It provides children to solve problems, practice skills and creativity, and widen their knowledge base (Barbour, Barbour & Scully, 2011). For instance, practice chess, puzzle word and creative writing. But, as long as parents monitor their children from accessing inappropriate websites, internet can be a rich resource for children’s lives.

The next layer of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is the macrosystem. Government plays a big role to the development of children. What government can do is enacting the law for protecting the children hence to ensure the well-being of development of children. The examples of the law are Education Act 1996 [Act 550] and The Compulsory Education Act. Both are related to the compulsory for parents to make sure their children attend preschool and primary school. Preschool Education is for all children to improve their necessary skills at the early age and the programmes are provided by Government in rural and urban area. The purposes are to develop basic communication skills, and characters, moral values, doing physical activities for good health and improve critical thinking skills through senses. Besides, the Education system in preschool emphasizes on nine elements for children development like Malay language, English language, Islamic education, moral studies, civics education and children’s physical development. From the policies, personal development and the socialization process can be acquired by children and can affect children positively.

Summary

Children acquire many things from surroundings for their development and they depend on how good and bad of their environmental are. Adult people should know their roles as parents, teachers and societies to the development of children. Although they affect the children’s growth and development in some ways, their behaviors and viewpoints also affect their perceptions and attitudes. However, adult also can be influenced by children. The family is the major influence in the systems because they are the most trusted by children. So it is essential for family to stress on the development of children in the elements of physical, cognitive, emotional and social development. The place also like home, is supposed to be the suitable place for children to develop with more tools provided and more interaction with children. Even though some environment is out of family’s control, but they can do their best to develop their children necessaries’ skills for their lifelong consequences.

“Play is like a reservoir full of water. The deeper the reservoir, the more water can be stored in it and used in time of drought.” (Bruce 1991). In this literature review I will discuss the theories surrounding learning through play, a widely explored approach to learning and teaching within the early years setting. I will attempt to assess how it can be used to support the learning of children within the Primary Framework. Research into play based learning approaches relating to older children is more limited, although I believe there are some key themes that are relevant to teaching and learning for all children.

Before exploring the benefits of learning through play, it is important to grasp an understanding of play. It is difficult to define what play is. There are no less than 33 different definitions of the word in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary. Play varies among activities, social contexts, and age groups. It might involve a game, but not always. Play can involve imagination, but it may also base itself on reality. Many theorists have endeavoured to make concrete attempts to clear the water on the definition play. Huizing (1950) states that if an activity is fully absorbing, includes an element of uncertainty and involves a sense of illusion then it is play. Groos (in Hyder, 2005) argued that play is a means through which children make sense of adult roles within society. According to Piaget (1969) play is a way for children to unify experiences, knowledge and understanding. Vygotsky (1966) considered play to be important for an individual’s cognitive development. Smith (1998) believes a definition of play is important, while noting the quandary in attaining a single, all-embracing definition. Fisher (2002) supports this view, arguing as there is no single definition of the word then playful activities can be open to interpretations in different ways.

Goodale and Godbey (1988) define play more in relation to its opposite – serious work. However, Blanchard and Cheska (1985) assert that defining play as the opposite of work is mistaken. According to them the opposite of work is leisure and work has the potential to be considered as play as well.

Throughout life play is occurring with the form of play varying as a child grows. Children play every day. Play, in one form or another, continues from childhood into adulthood. People who do not take part in any form of play are believed to be more likely to suffer stress, depression and boredom. Bruner et al (1976) found that play reduces stress. They viewed play as a form of problem solving which required self-initiation, therefore increasing a child’s problem-solving ability. Additionally they argued that play enables children to focus and establish their own learning experience goals, thus enhancing learning attainment. In the same vein, Eden (2008) argued the benefits of therapeutic play being particularly beneficial for children who are experiencing stress as it allows them to become absorbed, putting aside any fears and frustrations and restoring confidence.

Play has an important role in the physical, social, emotional, language and cognitive development of children and in essence it is a learning experience. Play contributes to children’s general personality development, allowing them the opportunity to practice their linguistic, cognitive and social skills. Play is also associated with creativity, especially the ability to be less literal and more flexible in one’s thinking.

There are four types of play that reflect increasing levels of children’s social interaction and sophistication. Solitary play is a play that takes place alone, often with toys, and is independent of what other children are doing. Parallel play involves children engaged in the same game or activity side by side but with very little interaction or common influence. Associative play is much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in terms of sharing, turn-taking and general interest in what others are doing. Cooperative play occurs when children join and work together to achieve a common goal, such as building a large castle with each child building a part of the structure.

Play can be divided into two definite categories: free play and structured play. Free play takes place when the child is leading the play experience, setting out the rules and boundaries. This type of play will often hold the child’s interest longer and children can become engrossed in the activity because they developed it themselves. Structured play is adult led, guided and planned. Structured play tends to be more limiting and minimises the child opportunities to be inventive. Good quality play provision begins with providing activities to stimulate all areas of development. It is important that in a child’s development there is a good balance between free and structured play. (Too descriptive??)

There has been a strong case argued for play as a means to teaching and learning, moreover it is now widely seen as a child’s primary need. The Charter for Children’s Play (2007) state that play is something that children want to do naturally and is the most effective way of learning as they can explore the world around them, develop their imagination, participate, share and socialise with others.

To appreciate the benefits of play, we must recognise that children learn better when they can experience, manipulate, explore and experiment from direct sensory encounters around them. Play allows children the opportunity to develop sharing and turn taking skills, whilst also providing an outlet for a child’s feelings to be displayed. Montessori placed emphasis on children’s self-initiated learning stating that play supported the maturity and development of the mind, body and brain in terms of gaining greater awareness and sharpening abilities to gather and organise information. Montessori supported Gross in his view that when children play, it is their work.

In evaluating the value of teaching and learning through play there are a wealth of psychologists and theorists including Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Isaacs, Montessori, Froebel and McMillan all documenting a variety of research supporting the effectiveness of play based learning. All see it as an integral factor in supporting and promoting children’s social and emotional development. Much recent research on play cite the work of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed through play children can discover the world, formulate opinions and impart some meaning to their ever-changing view of the world. Piaget argues play parallels development, while Vygotsky puts forward that play promotes development. Piaget (in O’Hara and Smith, 2004) believed that children were actively in control of their own learning, with their major task being that to develop an ability to organise their experiences and learn from them, thus enabling children to make sense of the world. Piaget’s play theory reflects his focus on the intellectual development in children, concentrating on the child’s construction of reality rather than on the social context of learning. Piaget perceived play as a method which children use to develop their cognitive abilities and to practise their emerging cultivated capabilities. He also saw play as a child’s adaptation to the world around them through application of assimilation. Piaget claimed there are three stages in the development of play; imitative or purposeful play, imaginary play, and play with rules.

Vygotsky’s (1978) view differed from Piaget about there being stages in play development, however he agreed that play stimulates the development of abstract thought. Vygotsky advocated play based learning, not merely for younger children but those in late childhood too. He argued that through experimental play and experiences children are able to develop vital thinking thought structures.

Dewey (1966) supported this concept of experimental learning, maintaining that being able to experiment with and manipulate objects and situations is a significantly more effective teaching and learning method. He refutes methods that rely heavily on content and passive learning, where children are required to memorise information from a book or other source.

Gardner (1991) argued that all pupils do not learn in the same way, believing formal learning methods do not take into account those who have different learning methods therefore short-changing all but those who happen to match the teaching of the instructor.

Bruner and Haste (1987) argue that being active is what causes children both physically and cognitively to construct their own view of the world, to personalise the experience and to apply it in ways that makes sense to them. Fisher (2002) supports this view, believing that as children are active learners the most appropriate curriculum for them is one that offers experiences which enable them to investigate, explore and play. She further argues for a learning environment that offers relevant, meaningful and worthy of active involvement is necessary. In other words, according to Rieber, (1996) a learning environment that encourages children to play. Piaget echoes this belief, deeming the child learns through hands on experience.

Friedrich W. Froebel, (1782-1852) studied childhood play and developed the concept of focused early learning experiences, based on play. Through his studies and observations, he took the natural play of children and gave it status, making it of central importance in his philosophy for the education, care and development of young children. He considered free-flow play an important aspect, common to all human beings, and saw every child as a unique individual needing sensitive and appropriate help to develop and learn optimally. Over the years he developed a curriculum around children’s free play, which he believed was the highest form of learning, where the “children were encouraged to learn through playful activities and songs”. (MacLeod-Brudenell, 2004, pg 4)

McMillan and Isaacs were early play pioneers who recognised the importance and value of play for children’s development. In particular, Isaacs was so convinced of the value of play that she claimed “that play indeed is the child’s work, and the means by which he or she develops.” (Isaacs, 1929) MORE ON McMILLAN AND ISAACS

The Government is aware of how important and significant it is for children to have access to suitable and safe play opportunities and experiences, both indoors and outdoors and have included plans to create as many opportunities for this as possible within its document, The Children’s Plan.

The Government recognises play as “important for children’s development, build social and emotional resilience, develop social skills, strengthen friendships, help children learn how to deal with risks – and of course because children enjoy it.” (Every Child Matters, The Children’s Plan, pg 30 para.1.46) CHARTER FOR CHILDREN’S PLAY AND EYFS.

Macintyre (2001) documents young children’s desire to succeed and be right, often causing them to avoid certain situations, ones which they believe will result in them failing. Play has demonstrated itself as an effective method of developing self-efficacy. In the Early Years Foundation Stage children are able to experiment with no apparent fear of failure. Macintyre (2001) argues that this allows children to challenge themselves and embark upon experiences they might otherwise avoid. As children move into the subject based Primary Framework they are conditioned into searching for the right and wrong answers which Macintyre (2001) believes may make them begin to withdraw from certain learning experiences altogether.

Dewey (1966) believes that through a play based teaching and learning context children are given an opportunity to gain new information and concepts, thus enabling their intellect to be engaged and to support progression.

A direct link between play and learning is believed, however there are some theorists who criticise the use of learning through play, and disagree with the research findings. Anning (1991) assert little empirical evidence has been found for the pedagogical value placed on play. Bennett et al (1997) point out that whilst the case for play may be strong ideologically, it is debatable whether it provides a coherent framework to guide education practice. They argue that in the current climate of target setting and assessment play is hard to evaluate and may not produce any tangible outcomes. Meadows and Cashden (1998) consider children’s play to be brief and at times aimless and therefore not resulting to anything prolific. Smith and Cowie (1991, in Fisher, 2002) believe that the lack of confidence in the importance of play is due to the lack of any real evidence that play does or does not have the effect and benefits proposed. Meadows and Cashden (1998) believe that observing and assessing the implicit learning in play is not an easy thing to do, therefore the value given to an activity most likely depends on the understanding and observational skills of the observer. Fisher and Williams (2004) consider that if play is to serve as an educational tool it needs to be purposeful and requires the intervention of supportive, knowledgeable adults, who encourage children to think about what they are doing and provide them with opportunities to explore and experiment with ideas. Horner and Ryf (2008) consider the teacher’s role to be crucial in extending learning. Vygotsky (1978) emphasised the significance of an adult or more knowable other, assisting a child to acquire skills and understandings that they may not reach alone. He refers to this gap between what children can do alone and what they can achieve with help, as the ‘zone of proximal development’. Vygotsky (1978) maintains that when children play they give cues to adults about their readiness to learn new skills with assistance.Sylva et al (1980) advocate the need for teacher interaction and intervention at opportune moments to ensure optimum value in play can be appreciated. Brown (1998) stresses the importance of approaching children’s play with sensitivity, getting involved and possibly provided a new direction, but not taking over.

Dewey (1966) contends that it is not enough simply to introduce play, but that everything depends upon the way in which play is employed. Adams et al (2000) found positive gains through play when it was used as a teaching tool rather than being viewed as an addition to the ‘real curriculum’. Moyles (1989) argues the case for play to be looked at as a way of teaching and learning rather than as a separate entity. “Because of the relevance and motivation of play to children, play must pervade how teachers present potential learning activities, not sit as an uncomfortable and somewhat suspect activity in itself.” (Moyles, 1989, p.86)

Umek and Musek (2001) believe that when properly structured, play can enable teachers to see pupils demonstrating their understanding of a subject, thus making it a method of effective assessment. They argue that “Children can achieve higher levels of individual cognitive functions (conservation, one-to-one correspondence, decentration) in their symbolic play than they demonstrate when the same mental operations are tested and measured in formal, non-play, situations” (Umek and Musek 2001, p64).

After reading the document produced by Tom Burkard and Tom Clelford, “Cutting the Children’s Plan” which gives an insight of why the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) should be scrapped. It states that the Statutory Framework EYFS which was launched in 2007 should be scrapped to save ?315 million. However the authors do not state which areas of the EYFS they want scrapped, which causes concern. The EYFS is a large framework for practice and assessment and is the umbrella under which all the children aged 0 – 5 years who receive care and education. It has been a great impact within the early years establishments as well as having influences of various theorists to support the children’s learning and development. Before thinking of scrapping the EYFS altogether the authors should consider looking through the framework and see what the positives and negatives are as some aspects of the EYFS don’t work for some whereas other aspects are of great use. As it mentions in Pugh.G et al (2010:100) “There are also those who think it goes too far and is too perspective. (Open Eye, 2007:2008)”.

Within the document it is mentioned that the EYFS is an intrusive attempt to ‘micro-manage’ all 0 – 5 childcare establishments as well as dictating ‘best practice’ including parents. Within the EYFS it does not specify that the parents should do as they are told neither does it specify how practitioners should work with the children. Therefore Pugh.G et al (2010:105), states that “It requires the practitioner to differentiate to understand each child as an individual and personalize the curriculum content to match their needs and interests”. However practitioners should have an in depth knowledge of their key children, so that they can use the EYFS Framework to support and help plan opportunities and activities. These will then enhance children’s learning and encourage the individual children’s development in a way that will interest them.

The EPPE Project (Sylva et al, 2004: Chapter 4) identified the importance of a form of interaction between children and adults, that they call ‘sustained shared thinking’ in promoting children’s learning and development which is now as part of the EYFS. On the other hand working in partnership with parents is essential as it helps all children to achieve their full potential. As stated in The Times (2008), “The EYFS is about responding to the individuality of each child, in the context of loving and secure relationships and creating a stimulating and enabling environment that will promote age – appropriate experiences for learning and development”. Furthermore, Nurse A.D (2007:73) states that “Children can be said to prefer to learn through the enactive mode as their ability to represent images and use symbols is less well developed”. In this Bruner agreed with Piaget that active, first – hand experiences are an appropriate way to present new knowledge to young children.

The document also questions whether the EYFS encourages good practice. According to Pugh.G et al (2010:105) “we need to focus the curriculum on what is important for the children, the things that they need to be doing at this stage of their development”. By looking at the research and practice the most important things are Being Social, Being Positive, Being a Communicator, Being Creative and Being Healthy and Safe (ECM:2003). By introducing reading and writing at an early stage it could be argued that it can lead to complications later on and also delaying phonic work, therefore the EYFS recommends that practitioners use their professional judgement with introducing phonics. On the other hand the authors are claiming that children who come from a less stimulating disadvantaged environment ‘waste an entire year’ falling further behind their middle class peers in learning (e.g reading), whose parents generally know better than to delay reading instruction. This is not entirely true, Gaunte (2010) clarifies that “Parents with the support of the wider family, are children’s primary educators. What parents do at home with young children has the most impact on all aspects of their development – social, emotional, intellectual and physical”.

Nevertheless it could be alleged that children who have strong home learning environments are ahead socially and intellectually by the age of three, which is continued into schooling. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development emphasises the role of the wider environment and the children’s interaction within it. Bronfenbrenner and Caci (1994) proposed that the environment was the main influence on children’s development. Bronfenbrenner produced systems which included the following ‘Microsystems’, ‘Macrosystems’ and ‘Exosystems’. The following diagram illustrated below shows how these systems are interacted and impact on the child’s learning and development. (Smith et al: 2003). Bronfenbrenner also led the ‘Head Start’ programme in America which required helping disadvantaged children overcome their poor beginnings.

The EYFS recognises the importance of the wider environment both in working in partnership with parents and the ethos of the EYFS, providing equality of care and education for all. Research has shown that good quality early education and care has wide – ranging benefits for all children. Being provided across nurseries, reception classes, pre – schools, children’s centres and childminders, it enhances social and cognitive skills and is of particular benefit to disadvantaged children (N.A: 2010). However other curriculums have also the quality input that the EYFS has, for example the High Scope Curriculum, Montessori etc. It could be argued that children who have an intellectually and physically stimulating environment will maintain a more complex network of synapses in the brain (Bee: 1997). These biological changes in nature can have implications for practice, the EYFS however has a variety of suitable activities planned for those at different ages and stages of development. This is a prime example of how ‘nurture can influence nature.

Additionally Bowlby’s (1907 – 1990) research found that babies/children succeed if they receive care from one main caregiver which is usually the mother. They are also more likely to make secure attachments and then initially grow up into being well – balanced adults. (O’Hagan et al: 1993). Therefore modern researchers have disputed the fact that only the mothers can perform this task (Smith et al: 1993), regardless the debate of ‘working mothers’, it still remains that the children’s emotional and cognitive development are best when there is that continuity of care available. When in care children under the age of 5 should each be allocated key workers so that children can form key attachments with this person, this is where secondary attachments are formed. The key person is a key to developing relationships with the children that are assigned to them as swell as sharing and collecting information by working in partnership with parents of the key children allocated. The EYFS reflects this by stating that “Each child with early years care and education should be allocated a key person” (EYFS: 2007). By having a key person allocated to the children it enables them to develop an attachment with the practitioner on a secure basis knowing that they can rely on the key person.

Lastly the authors stipulate that despite the ambitions of the EYFS, childminders have not been able to see the practical effect of this. It could be argued that there is too much paperwork involved for them within the EYFS. However there is evidence that most childminders have developed knowledge and understanding of how to put the EYFS into practice and use it to identify, plan and provide foe individual children’s needs in their care. On the other hand many childminders have given up their jobs due to this and others who are thinking of this. On one forum a childminder writes her views on the EYFS Curriculum and how she feels about it which can be accessed on

The childminder states:

“I, like many other childminders, gave up an enormous amount of personal time just to prepare for my Ofsted. I spent weeks compiling my Portfolio, cataloguing my Toys, books, games, puzzles and equipment; compiling cleaning rotas, putting together endless policies, parent information booklets, files for training, files for resource collections, working out a system for recording each child’s development, the list goes on and on. I still cared about and loved the children, I still provided the caring environment, and I still try to help each of my little ones to blossom and flourish, to feel loved and cared for, to be aware of the needs and feelings of others and to know that each one is recognised as being unique and valuable. Yes it should be obligatory for childminders to attend relevant courses and keep up to date with current thinking and procedures, in order that they can prepare to do the job effectively, but the burden of delivering EYFS in a childminding setting is too much for many childminders, and this needs to be reviewed.

Mrs R Richardson, Registered Childminder”

Therefore it could be argued that the EYFS should not be scrapped but reviewed again. Purnima Tanuku, chief executive of the National Day Nurseries Association argues that “We are receiving clear signals about the positives of the EYFS and recommend that the Government focuses on refining and improving the EYFS rather than introducing radical change”.

What is the meaning and intent behind this rhyme? What types of messages are given with a rhyme to children? How children internalize these messages?

What are little boys made of?

Frogs and snails and puppy dog tails

That’s what little boys are made of.

What are little girls made of?

Sugar and spice and all that’s nice.

That’s what little girls are made of.

(Marchbank & Letherby, 2007).

Immediate after the birth, children are surrounded with environmental input from the society in which they grow up, peers and teachers they interact, media, books and parents related to their gender and roles attributed to their gender. Those messages and social cues tell children there are two ways of existing (Marchbank & Letherby, 2007).

Children are surrounded with environmental in-put about gender from family, peers, and the media. At the same time, they make their own attempts to understand the world and to form categories that help organize it. Gender provides one convenient way for them to accomplish this cognitive organization. In addition, society suffuses the gender distinction with affect, making gender what is perhaps the most salient (Eckes and Trautner, 2000).

Gender is seen as a categorical system made up of many levels. Although at the most fundamental level, it is defined by physiology as biological differences between the sexes, on the basis of their sexual anatomy; it usually refers to social, cultural and psychological rules and traits linked to males and females through particular social context.

Gender Identity is defined as individual’s experience oh himself or herself as masculine or feminine and one of the strongest components of socialization is the development of gender identity. Gender identity, an aspect of self-concept, develops in childhood, learned early and well (Richardson & Simpson, 1982).

The acquisition and modification of children’s gender roles, attitudes, and social behaviors related to gender, are regulated by many factors, including the values of social class to which they belong, interaction with peers and teachers, exposure to behavior and standards through mass media and especially parents and their parenting styles are the most principle and most influential agents in children’s gender socialization process (Mussen, et al, 1979).

In the fallowing part, the influences of parents will be discussed; however, it is needed to look at theoretical overview of gender role development to understand the role of parents in detail.

Theoretical Overview of Gender Socialization

All theories of gender role development focus on primary socialization and deal with how children learn gender identity, at the time they become aware of two sexes having different gender roles and acting differently. Gender socialization and gender role development are influenced by a variety of significant elements such as biology, social constitutions and social interaction and personality. Different theories bring different point of look and understanding to these each element (Lindsey, 2005).

Biological accounts of gender differences have been popular in recent years by focusing on the hormonal and genetic factors. Physical differentiation of two sexes and differentiation of sex organs are determined due to the sex hormones and chromosomes. Here, starting at the conception, it could be said that hormones play a role in sex differentiation between male and female bodies, but it is not at all (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007).

Biological theories of sex differences indicate that hormone activity as biological events are viewed as producing psychological and cognitive differences between sexes in terms of being nurturance or aggressiveness. For example, the changes in the mood of women during the menstrual cycle are seen as result of the hormone levels in their blood or the level of testosterone becomes a common explanation used to explain aggressive and hostile behaviors (Burr, 1998).

However, there are also studies in literature rejecting the effects of hormones on the differences of behaviors among the females and males. Monozygotic twins sharing 100% of identical genes have been analyzed in terms of the similarities and differences in their behaviors. Mitchell and his colleagues resulted that genes can explain from 20% to 48% of the differences among the behaviors, but environmental factors have a greater role in the range of 52%- 80% of differences (Helgeson, 2005).

When the attention is drawn on the studies of testosterone hormone, according to the study of Brannon, both males and males involved in criminal activities and the relationship between aggressiveness and violence can not be solely depending on the testosterone level in men (Brannon, 2005). Similar to the results of Brannon, according to a study conducted with prisoners, college students and psychiatric patients, it is found that there was no positive correlation between hostility and testosterone levels (Burr, 1998).

Additionally to these findings, the level of testosterone should not be associated with males, rather in a study; there is a correlation between increased testosterone levels of female students and improved performance on tests for spatial abilities. However, the improvement is not due to the presence of testosterone, rather it is related to relative level of testosterone seen as determinant character of optimal performance (Smith, 2007).

When the attention has been turned to the brain studies to explain sex differences in cognition and behaviors of females and males, again paradoxical explanations can be seen in that era. Although, some argue that differential brain lateralization contributes differently to the emotional and cognitive functions of two sexes, the findings are not satisfactory to explain gender role differences (Hetherington & Parke, 1993).

Different areas of brain have been playing different roles in terms of different cognitive functions. It is believed that right-hemisphere dominated male brain makes men superior in the spatial abilities, while women are good at verbal and language skills because of the lateralization of their brain which is left-hemisphere (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007).

However, in a study, damage to the right-hemisphere related to spatial skills influenced both men and women. Hiscock and colleges concluded that the differences among two sexes because of the brain specialization are very small with 1 and 2 % variability (cited in Helgeson, 2005).

Besides, it is reviewed that right-hemisphere is more emotional half of the brain. So, if women are left-hemisphere and men left-hemisphere dominated how women are seen as more emotional than men (Lindsey, 2005).

When it is generally looked at the literature of brain studies and biological theories, it should be said that the evidences are contradictory and those studies supporting the influences of biology on the gender differences suffer from methodological inadequacies. Therefore depending on the theories of many researches on the issue of gender socialization, it is assumed that biology alone can not be thought as determinant gender roles and gender differences in behavior and cognition. However, those biological theories draw attention of the theorist to explain the reasons of variability in the behaviors of men and women. That is why it is needed to focus on social-situational and cognitive factors while investigating the process of gender role development.

To begin with the psychoanalytic theory, Freud in his theory, talked about a series of stages playing role in the development of personality and third stage focused on the development of gender roles (Helgeson, 2005). In the third stage called as “phallic”, Freud described the role family environment where children engage in the process of identification with mother’s feminine virtue of love and nurturance and with father’s masculine strengths of discipline and rules. That means phallic stage is the starting point that boys and girls discover their genitals and they realize that only boys have penises which leads both boys and girls to view girls as inferior.

Due of the desire of opposite-sex parent, oedipal complex, boys fear castration, because father figure is seen as source of threat and fear. Boys, at this stage, overcome their castration anxiety, by giving up sexual attraction for their mother and by identifying with their fathers (Eckes and Trautner, 2000). For girls, the resolution of Electra complex with the meaning of being sexually attracted to their fathers is not completely resolved in the same way that the oedipal complex of boys resolved. Freud was not clear explaining girls’ identification with their mothers. For girls, anxiety occurs because of the penis envy, realization of girls that they do not have a penis and they blame their mothers for anatomic deficiencies. Therefore, girls want to attract their fathers which lead them to handle conflict, Electra complex, by identifying with their mothers and transferring their energies to make themselves attractive towards their fathers (Smith, 2007).

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, however, has been criticized on a number of grounds. One of them is that it is not possible to evaluate thoughts and actions by sexual instincts of unconscious mind from a scientific standpoint. That means it is difficult to verify objectively, whether girls suffer from penis envy or boys from castration anxiety. Another criticism comes from feminist theories due to the Freudian thoughts related to penis envy and castration anxiety. Karen Horney, a feminist psychologist, pointed out the importance of social forces as determinant of gender identity rather than biology. Horney, believed that penis envy experienced by girls, does not reflect an actual adoration to have a penis; rather it is envy of power and social status attributed to men (Brannon, 2005).

On the other hand, psychoanalytic theory has been criticized by many researchers of not considering any outside influences such as parents, peers or media (Matlin, 1987). Margret Mahler’s and Nancy Chodorow’s “Object-relation Theory” grew out of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, but it emphasized the importance of early relationship in establishing gender identity. Like Freud although they stressed the importance of sexuality, Mahler and Chodorow believed that rather than unconscious process, family structure and children’s early experiences have an important role in shaping their gender socialization (Helgeson, 2005).

Besides Parson mentioned that Freudian psycho-analytic theory is needed to be modified by pointing out on the development of social roles of children. In his model, Parson emphasized that children learn the male and female roles by playing roles of other family members. Girls learn how to be a mother, or boys learn how to be a father by observing what is expected of individuals who enact roles. According to Parson, gender development of children is the result of learning by mastering of prescribed roles (Eckes and Trautner, 2000).

Unlike psychoanalytic theory of Freud emphasizing anatomic human drives in the role of socialization, social learning theory should focus on external events controlling children’s behaviors and the theory also posited that defining factors which promote gender socialization come from the social world. It is assumed by behaviorists that appropriate behaviors have been learned directly through reinforcement or indirectly through observation and imitation (Burr, 1998).

Depending on operant-conditioning theory, different expectations lead to different reinforcement from parents, teachers or other agents such as television programmes, books, comics including a rich source of symbolic models reinforcing stereo-typical behaviors for females and males. They reinforce children for behaviors which are thought appropriate to their gender and such social pressures serve to condition gender-typed behaviors such as for girls playing with dolls or for boys playing with balls. Children by this way, learn that gender appropriate behaviors which are reinforced with praise and gender inappropriate behaviors which are scolded by punishment (Smith, 2007).

On the other hand, Albert Bandura, social learning theorist, explained the process of socialization of children emphasizing the role of observation and imitation. Parents are seen as primary figures who are imitated and viewed as role models by children. Throughout the time they spent with their parents, children first discriminate gender-typed behavior patterns, then they make generalization of what they have learned to new situations and they performed similar to what they acquired from their observations of their parents. As a result, girls become feminine and boys become masculine by imitating similar models, because society rewards them to behave in particular way (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007).

However, like psychoanalytic theory, social-learning theory has been criticized in many ways. Depending on the first criticism, a girl can be rewarded for a masculine activity, such as being a basketball player; however they keep a tight hold on other aspects of feminine role. That means rewarding or punishing a behavior does not always lead children to behave in desired way. Besides, social learning theory underestimate the importance of social changes such as increasing number of single or divorce family environments where adults take on a range of non-traditional roles. Lastly, and the most apparent critique towards social learning theory is that it’s view of children passive recipients of rewards and punishment and it fails to explain children who are quite rigid about constructing their personal version of gender roles (Lindsey, 2005).

Unlike social learning theory, cognitive developmental theory views children as primary agent of his or her own gender role socialization by pointing out the importance of cognitive skills as determinants of selecting role models. Building his theory of Piaget’s work, the most and the first influential cognitive-developmental theory of sex typing were proposed by Kohlberg. According to him, as children have developed intellectually, they become able to understand the world in terms of categories, including gender categories. The starting point of comprehending the world of child is self-realization which is distinguishing each individual from others. To acquire all aspects of self-realization, children develop their gender identity by observing and labeling behaviors of males and females and translating those sex-typed behaviors at the age six where gender constancy is in place. After that time, to develop their self-esteem, same-sex attitudes, occupations and activities are seen as “good” by children (Serbin, et. al., 1993).

Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental model of sex typing has been influential since it gives importance to children’s active roles in determining gender-based value system. However, like other theories, there are some limitations in cognitive developmental model. It is criticized since there is a problem to understand the sequence in this model whether gender identity or children’s understanding of gender constancy comes first. According to theory, gender constancy should be acquired before children start to develop a gender-based value system fitting their gender role. However, studies stress that there are children who can not acquired gender constancy, become aware of sex-typed behaviors and integrate them in their lives (Lindsey, 2005).

On the other hand, the theory fails to explain why sex such dominant category rather than race, religion, or even hair color. Therefore, to understand why children become sex-typed, rather than race or religious typed, and why priority is given to gender schemas, it is needed to look at the Gender Schema Theory (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007).

Like Kohlberg, Sandra Bem, mentioned children categorize their social world along gender lines and their desire is to develop an identity which is consistent of social expectation. However, Bem, as mentioned above as shortcoming of cognitive developmental theory is only has valid explanation for the development of gender identity, not other variables such as eye color, race or culture (cited in Serbin, et. al., 1993). Depending on this theory, schemas are cognitive structures used to grasp the knowledge about the world, take perception and process new information. Gender schema includes information related to what being male or female means and what kinds of behaviors, cognitions, attitudes and emotions associated with those gender-related schemas. Children first learn what their gender is and they realize that there are significant differences related to each gender. This knowledge which children acquire by the sex-differentiated social messages, leads them to the information of gender schema (cited in Smith, 2007).

Like Kohlberg and Piaget, Bem agreed with the view of children as being primary agent of his/her own sex-role socialization, however, unlike those theorists, she emphasized the role of society as providing information used by individuals to acquire gender roles (Bem, 1983).

Gender schema theory is the combination of the elements of social learning theory and cognitive developmental theory. When it is looked at the philosophy of social learning theory, it talked about how individuals acquire the different characteristics of female and male gender categories and what kinds of characteristics are associated with those categories. On the other hand, cognitive developmental theory also explains how children start to encode new information and how the accommodate this information into the schemas and categories maintain consistency. Besides, as an answer to the question of why sex-typed categories are dominant, Bem believes that gender is more salient and significant and society assigns to the category of gender a broad functional significance (cited in Helgeson, 2005).

In short, gender schema theory indicates that every culture includes assumptions about certain characteristics within personalities of individuals. Sandra Bem used the term “cultural lenses” to define culture’s values, beliefs and norms and due to the influences of those cultural norms and forces, without questioning and altering them, children accept to organize their world (Bem, 1983).

When it is considered biological, social-learning, cognitive developmental and gender-schema theories, it could be concluded that each theoretical perspective has a number of problems. Although some of them focus on the environmental forces affecting gender identity, some others mentioned the importance of self-cognitive functioning as determinant issue of developing sex-typing behavior, but in fact, none fully explains gender identity acquisition and gender typing. However, generally, all these theories, offer productive avenues to explain gender role socialization. Now, it is needed to move the attention to sociologically based explanations accounting for primary socializing agents who play an important role on attitudes and behaviors of children regarding gender (Lindsey, 2005).

Parent’s Expectation and Children’s Gender Role Socialization

Within the aim of this paper, it is expected to find the answers to the questions of do parents provide different socialization for their girls and boys and do they have different expectations from them?

Numerous studies on this issue reveal that by modeling traditional roles and encouraging sex-typed activities, parents influence children’s gender role socialization. (Fagot, 1974).

Even starting before birth, mothers give sex-appropriate meaning to the activity of fetus. If fetus moves actively by kicking, mothers define this sign as the child will become more likely male than female (Lewis, 1972).

Mothers and fathers have different expectations from their sons and daughters leading children’s’ gender role socialization depending on their values, attitudes and beliefs which are differentiated for girls and boys. To support this differentiation, a study was conducted with 1200 mothers and fathers from different cultural backgrounds to see how children socialize differently in terms of their gender in family environment. The results reveal that parents emphasize on their sons’ competition, autonomy, achievement and they support sex appropriate behaviors of their sons compared to girls. When parent-daughter relationships have been examined, parents concern warmth and closeness in the relationships with girls (Block, 1973).

The study conducted by Pomerantz and Ruble also the relationships between attitudes of parent in use of control on their children and children’s’ self-evaluation. When it is looked at the outcomes of the research, parents are more controlling with their daughters rather than their sons and they give more autonomy to boys rather than girls. Children’s self-evaluation analysis also indicates that girls outperform boys in school and they have fewer behavioral problems, but on the other hand, they are more vulnerable to anxiety, depression compared to boys. The authors believe that parents’ differentiation of use of control with girls and boys is influential factor in their socialization (Pomerantz & Ruble, 1998). Supporting the claims of Pomerantz and Ruble, Goshen-Gottstein mentioned that supporting dependency of boys rather than girls, mothers believe that boy should be autonomous (cited in Lindsey et.al.,1997).

Similar to the findings of those studies and observation mentioned above, depending on the research of Lewis about the interaction between parents and child and expectation of parents, mothers believe that boys should be independent and autonomous than girls and hence they show more proximal behaviors such as touching, holding, or rocking to support their sons to explore their world. On the other hand, mothers look at the eyes of their girls and talk to their daughters more than they do with their sons as part of distal mode of behaviors (Lewis, 1972).

Apart from mothers who spent a great deal of their time with both their sons and daughters, when the literature on parenting has been discovered, it is concluded that fathers play primary role in socialization process of their sons especially. A study done by Rothbart and Maccoby parents’ differential reactions towards their sons and daughters have been analyzed. Fathers have been seen to be potent constructor of the understanding of gender for their children. More likely than mothers, they encourage more traditional gender specific behaviors in their son. They empathize more with them and support independency and autonomy for their sons, rather than girls (Rothbart & Maccoby, 1966).

Besides, fathers have higher expectations for their sons and they give more emphasis on their sons’ achievement and occupational attainment rather than the success and carriers of their girls. (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974).

As indicated above, due to their different expectations from their sons and daughters, parents reflect their values, beliefs and desires towards their attitudes, communication types and relationships with their children influencing their understanding of the world in a gender-schematic process.

Clothes and Arrangement of Children’s Rooms

Most parents know the sex of their baby before birth and design child’s room accordingly. It is not surprising to see boys’ rooms are covered with educational and art materials, sport equipments, toy animals and vehicles, while girls’ rooms consist of dolls, house-keeping toys, and floral furnishings. In a study conducted by Rheingold and Cook, parent’s furnishing rooms of their sons and daughters has been examined and thought as providing index to their ideas about appropriateness by sex and their different attitudes towards their children. 96 children between the ages of 1 and 71.6 months are the sample of the study. The result of the study reveals that parents design differently the rooms of their daughters and sons with different styles of furnishing and toys. The boys’ rooms involve more vehicles, and toys supporting motor abilities of children, while girls’ rooms are full of with domestic equipments and toys of home encouraging nurturance and concern with fashion. According to authors, some of the differences were more apparent and impressive than expected. In girls’ rooms, there are not vehicle toys such as wagons, boats or buses which can be frequently found in boys’ rooms. On the other hand, almost total absence of baby dolls and domestic equipments can be observed in boy’s rooms seen in Table II (Rheingold & Cook, 1975).

According to authors of this study, the differences in parents’ furnishing of the rooms of their daughters and sons can be associated in other classes of their behavior towards their girls and boys (Rheingold & Cook, 1975).

Color-coded and gender-typed clothing of children are widespread and parents choose gender appropriate colors when dressing their children. While they prefer pink, yellows clothing and clothes in pastel tones with embroidered hearts and flowers for their girls, for sons, dark colors such as brown, blue or red clothes with superhero and athletic motives are preferred. According to social learning theory mentioned above, children receive strong messages from their parents related to their gender and by those positive reinforcement associated with their clothing, toys selection and room arrangement, they start to learn what is or not gender appropriate (Lindsey, 2007).

Communication and Interaction Differences with Children

Differences in the behavior of boys and girls are associated with the differences how parents behave toward them (Rheingold & Cook, 1975). Numerous studies indicate that parents play a pivotal role in shaping children’s gender role development by interacting and using different communication types with their sons and daughters. The conversation styles of parents with their children are seen as persuasive socialization mechanisms through which gender roles are conveyed to children (O’Brien & Shinn, 2008).

In a study conducted by Horan and with his colleagues, the aim is to investigate the differences among the communications between mother-daughter, mother-son, father-daughter and father-son dyads. Depending on the collected results of dyads, it is concluded that mothers communicate with their daughters by giving more feminine gender role messages compared to their sons. Similarly, when it is looked at the results of father-son dyads, it can be said that fathers encourage their sons to communicate in masculine styles by sending more masculine messages than they did to their girls. Fathers perceive their sons as being self-reliant, dominant, aggressive, competitive and ambitious than their daughters (Horan et.al, 2007).

In another study, fathers have been found to play with their newborn sons and talk them more when compared to their daughters. Besides, when father’s interaction with their girls has been examined, the result shows that they are more gently cuddle to their newborn daughters, while physically rough to their sons (Fagot, 1974).

According to the study conducted by Mussen and Rutherford (1963), masculinity of young boys is closely associated with the nature of father-son relationship. That means appropriate sex-role preferences in boys directly correlated with nurturing, affective relationship with their fathers who strongly motivate them towards masculine behaviors. On the other hand, by acting in feminine ways, participating with their daughters in girls’ game such as housekeeping, mothers become a feminine role model by encouraging their girls to act in the expected ways (Mussen & Rutherford, 1963).

More recently, a meta-analysis has been conducted about how parents behave towards their sons and daughters. Siegal (1987), concluded that mothers and fathers treat differently and the apparent differences has been found in the era of physical involvement. That means both mothers and fathers participated in physical activities with their boys and they were more strict, and restrictive with them (cited in Helgeson, 2005).

Similar to those studies, in another research of O’Brien and Shin, they aimed to discover differences in communication styles between mothers and fathers engaged in conversation with a 9-year-old son or daughter. They put two types of communication styles characterized differently for men and women. Assertive communication styles consist of characteristics which are directing attention of others, controlling whole conversation by influencing ideas of others and even interrupting the conversational partner and this style is thought as reflecting men’s power and status in the society. On the other hand, affiliative communication which is considered to reflect lack of power of women in society is characterized by concentration on other person through conversation, focusing on other’s ideas and expecting involvement from partner. The results of the study indicate that fathers use more assertive communication styles and mothers were more affiliative through conversation. In this study, sex of child has an important role of use of each communication styles. When the powerful status of males and even male children have been considered in society, according to authors, it is not surprising that both mothers and fathers used more affiliative speech with their boys to support their power and dominancy (O’Brien & Shinn, 2008).

Besides those studies, in another study, the frequencies of mothers and fathers parenting behavior with their sons and daughters have been examined. Depending on the results of the study, mothers engage in personal interaction with their daughters rather than their son and similar results of fathers with their sons. According to the authors, traditional gender stereotypes children acquire are the consequences of differential parenting of girls and boys by their mothers and fathers (Moon & Hoffman, 2008).

Play and Toys Selection

In the socio-emotional domain, children develop through the expansion of their social network, from the early relationship with their parents to relationship including other people, especially peers. In this step of the socialization process, play becomes most powerful agent for the formation of peer relationships (Smith, 2007).

When the developmental literature has been discovered, consistent findings indicate that children prefer playing with traditionally stereotyped toys for their own sex more than toys stereotyped for the other sex (Martin et.al., 1995). While boys tend to be more active and show higher interest in rough-and-tumble play, girls mostly prefer playing with dolls in the dramatic play (Thorne, 2005).

Even starting very early in their lives, children show sex-differences in terms of play and toys selection. Depending on the study of Goldberg and Lewis, 13 month olds, 32 girls’ and boys’ behaviors in free play, their interaction with mothers and mothers’ responses to their infants have been observed. Results indicate that boys and girls reflect striking differences in terms of interaction with mothers, toys and styles of their play. When it is looked at their play styles, girls select toys appropriate for fine motor coordination rather than gross motor abilities. In contrast girls, rather than sitting on the floor, boys are more active by rolling the landowner over toys seen in picture below. Considering maternal behavior of mothers showing differentiation between girls and boys in terms of touching, vocalization and response to their play, author concluded that parents catalyze sex-role appropriate behaviors of children by reinforcing sex-typed activities (Goldberg & Lewis, 1969).

Parents are the first agent who enact traditionally prescribed sex role

Introduction

The Montessori Method was conceived in the early 1900’s by Dr Maria Montessori, and was developed as an alternative method of early childhood learning. (Stevens, (n.d.) Montessori centres became established and recognised internationally including within Aotearoa NZ. Basic to Montessori is the premise that children are deemed individuals and need to be understood and given the freedom to be guided or directed through the system as opposed to being instructed. Learning should be determined by, and adapt to the needs, as they change through childhood. (Chattin-McNichols, 1992) Emphasis is placed on the use of specific equipment and other designated resources. The whole environment of a Montessori centre is designed to capture interest and lead to self learning, self discipline and fulfilment of a child’s potential. (Montessori, 1912) As with other countries, a sociocultural aspect has been introduced here, and along with the introduction of Te WhA?riki, brings modifications to the original dogma. Although long controversial, the method is in demand as a valid means of alternative education and a wide variety of literature presents a valuable source of theoretical and practical knowledge. (Shuker, 2004)

Background

Early years

Maria Montessori (1870 – 1953). She graduated as a doctor of medicine with honours in 1896 from the University of Rome. Her CV in the following few years included research work at a psychiatric clinic where her interest in children was sparked. She studied the works of academics and practitioners such as Seguin, Rousseau, and Froebel and undertook courses in anthropology, philosophy and psychology. Tests and experiments in the 1900’s at a school for the retarded children successfully helped develop her theories. This was followed in 1907 with the successful application of her methods at a new school in the slums of Rome. With success came global fame and acclaim for her and her system, followed by the establishment of centres globally. (Hainstock, 1997)

Montessori in NZ

In Aotearoa New Zealand, Montessori started in 1912, continuing till the 1950’s when there was a decline. A revival started in 1975 continuing to this day. (Shuker, 2004)

Montessori terminology

A few examples of Montessori terminology integral to the system are as follows: didactic materials, discovery of the child, liberty, normalised child, order, prepared environment and sensorial exercises. (Hainstock, 1997)

Overview

Purpose

The essence and essential purpose of Montessori is well encapsulated in the following statement. “If young people are to meet the challenge of survival that faces them today, it is imperative that their education develop to the fullest extent possible for their potential for creativity, initiative, independence, inner discipline and self confidence.” (Lillard, (1972) p. 138) Written in the 1970’s, the statement is timeless in concept, being just as applicable today as it was then.

Environment

Montessori believed that the most important factors in achieving her ideal concept were the environment and the teachers. Apart from being organised and free from clutter, the environment had to be supporting, encouraging and foster a self belief in the child that would reveal his personal attributes and interests. The indoor and outdoor environments provided activities that were meaningful learning experiences. This environment contained only resources and materials that were specifically made to Montessori’s standards; chairs, tables, equipment, all made in regard to the child’s size and strength. (Lillard, 1972) Two very important pieces of furniture that could not be done without were a long low cupboard for the resources, and a set of colourful drawers for the child to put their belongings in. (Montessori (1912) as cited in Shuker, 2004)

Teacher’s role

The role of the teacher is to be able to understand from observation, the child’s individual learning needs and the changes in those needs as they occur. This leads to directing or facilitating, the child’s interest in and use of the didactic materials, exercises and games. The teacher is simply a link and therefore needs to be Montessori trained so as to be knowledgeable in the use of all the materials, techniques and processes to be used. (Montessori, 1988)

Curriculum delivery and content

The delivery of the curriculum is fed through observations to five essential stages: practical life, sensorial education, language education, mathematics and the cultural area. The materials used in these areas all helped the child’s “perception using size, shape, volume, colour, pattern, odour, sound and texture. Later materials help the children in discoveries relating to mathematics, language and literacy, art, music, science, and social studies” (Chisnall, 2008, web-based) The practical life experiences cover all the everyday routines and how to cope with them; tying shoelaces and opening and closing drawers. Sensorial education covers the use of the five senses: smell, touch, taste, sight and hearing. Language development encompasses reading and writing and learning how to use good speech. This area is closely attuned to the sensory training, for without knowing how to feel and hold a pencil; a child cannot learn how to write. The mathematics stage teaches the child the fundamental decimal system of counting up to and in groups of 10. The cultural aspect is shown through pictorial material, along with a globe of the world, puzzles and similar resources. (Hainstock, E.G. (1968)

Discussion

There are few similarities between a Montessori Method and a traditional mainstream approach while the differences are many. Some examples of both are as follows:

Similarities

Montessori believed that each child is unique with a potential that needs releasing. (Montessori, 1912) The Te WhA?riki Curriculum takes this approach and states that children learn through “individual exploration and reflecting.” (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 9)

Montessori encouraged parents and caregivers to visit the classroom at any time; however, they were not allowed to distract the children or the teacher. (Montessori, 1912) Parents and caregivers are encouraged to visit the mainstream classroom and take an interest in their children. “Parental involvement and understanding are necessary ingredients to realising the full potential of a Montessori education.” (Hainstock, 1997, preface)

Montessori believed that every child had a right to an education regardless of class, culture, race and ability. (Montessori, 1912) Te WhA?riki states the curriculum assumes that their care and education will be encompassed within the principles, strands and goals set out for all children in early childhood settings. (Ministry of Education, 1996)

Differences

Montessori’s method was to stand back, observe, and let the child solve the problem themselves regardless of time taken. (Montessori, 1912) Education is different today. Teachers have to use the New Zealand curriculum which dictates what and when they have to teach. (Ministry of Education, 2007) There is still a certain amount of flexibility; however, the teachers are unable to leave children for a long time.

Montessori grouped children into three age groups which they stayed in until they were old enough to progress to the next group. She did not have a new entrance class. (Montessori, 1912) Our education system insists that children are put into aged related classrooms. (Ministry of Education, 2007)

Montessori was a great believer in children working individually or in small groups. (Montessori, 1912) Today’s’ children are taught in classroom group situations. (Hainstock, 1997)

Influences

Controversy and confusion, mainly through misunderstanding, misinterpretation, and partial application of the method were common over the years. Other influences impacting include: mainstream resistance, political and philosophical vagaries, and funding problems, statutory and regulatory impositions. Cultural elements have also been introduced into the curriculum and modifications have occurred. The shortage of Montessori trained teachers had a detrimental effect as well. (Shuker, 2004)

Contribution to educational setting

The whole concept, philosophy and application of the Montessori Method obviously confine it to an alternative role in the field of education in Aotearoa New Zealand. Enthusiastic pioneers of the system such as Martha Simpson and Binda Goldsbrough have been followed by equally enthusiastic and committed parents. The formation of a Montessori movement, teacher training standards, and the evolution to higher education levels shows there is an enduring and well supported demand for the Montessori approach. The survival of Montessori for over 100 years is due in some part to its portability, culture sensitivity to its resident country and adaptability. (Shuker, 2004)

Conclusion

Personal reflection by Catherine Mitchell

Maria Montessori was ahead of her time. She had the children’s best interests at heart. However I feel had she been able to accept criticism in a constructive way then her methods would have had more of an influence in society today. Montessori’s methods were built on her observations of the children and were adapted to meet their needs.

I will use a lot of Montessori’s methods in my teaching, as I agree with her approach. Each child is an individual; we should be embracing this and allow the child to develop at their own pace. It is important as a teacher that you do what is best for the children in your care. My own attitudes have not changed; instead they have enforced my beliefs that each child is unique.

Personal reflection by Faye Winter

What to make of Montessori? With no real previous knowledge, apart from being aware that is was an alternative education centre, this study has been extremely interesting and revealing. The credibility of the method is well supported by the founders’ wide academic background allied with her actual experience and observations with both special needs and mainstream children. In this regard, the method is well founded. Although there is a wide range of literature on the subject, acceptance or otherwise of the approach invites further in-depth study, preferably along with hands on experience. As a staff member at an early childhood centre, I can see the potential for the introduction of certain elements, in particular, the use of Montessori didactic materials. Montessori once said she had “discovered the child.” This may well be the key to her method.

What does childhood means and what would be considered an ideal childhood? The period of time between the child’s birth till the child reached adulthood, its experiences and quality of those years sums up childhood. For children to develop to their optimal, they would need loving, warm and responsible caregivers, within an environment that stimulates their growth. They should be living in lives free from fear, violence and exploitation. Unfortunately, this is not always so. It was reported that 90% of the world children were born into poverty. They live in poorly sanitized areas and suffered from malnutrition. They are exposed to diseases such as malaria, polio, tuberculosis and Aids. They lived in fear of war and famine. Their life expectancy is only of 40 years (Gammage P. 2008)

Millions of children suffered in poverty depriving of their many rights including health and education, protection from exploitation and harm. Children’s rights are being denied and are robbed of their childhood. On the 20 November 1989, the United Nations adopted The Convention on the Rights of the Child and ratified all countries except the United States of America and Somalia. The Convention set standards concerning children and their rights. In this essay, I will discuss about the need to protect children’s rights, the aims of the Convection on the Rights of the Child and the difference it makes to children’s lives.

The need to protect children

Poverty threatens all aspects of childhood, it deprives children of their chance to grow and develop to their full potential.

Lives of poor children in Honduras are examples of children whose childhood are being compromised and needed help and protection. Hurricane Mitch in 1978 has caused serious damages to Honduras. Families live in poverty while the city is on the road to recovery. In order to provide basic needs like food, clothing and shelter, both parents would need to work. Young children are being left at home without adequate care. Their health and development were seriously affected. Some even resort to taking the older sibling out of school to help look after the younger ones. Similarly in Botswana, parents had to bring their children to work when faced without support from extended family or money to pay for childcare services. These children are at risks of being exposed to sudden life threatening injuries. For some parents, they engage cheaper inexperienced babysitters to mind their children. Young children were being neglected. There were also many cases of children being left alone at home without any supervision or care by adults. It was not a surprise for surgeons in the hospitals to attend to children who were involved in accidents at home. In Mexico, due to the lack of affordable childcare, mothers bring their young children along to their work. Once again, these children’s lives are constantly at risks. Their health and development will be affected. Research showed that 19 percent of the working parents in Vietnam and 27 percent in Mexico, left their children alone or in the care of another child at home. A high of 48 percent of the working parents in Botswana without support left their children home alone or in the care of another child. These parents were poor and had little education had no choice as they could not afford any childcare services ( Heymann, J. 2006)

Children living in poverty are exposed to diseases and malnutrition. In Africa, children live in overcrowded shacks with no running water or electricity. They live and play in alleyways that are covered with sewage and trash. Their parents cannot afford to feed them or parents themselves are ill. Due to poor diet and weaken immune systems, many African children died.

Poverty increases children’s vulnerability to other dangers including violence and exploitation. Child labour and child trafficking prevails.

In Asia, it was reported that there were more than a million child prostitutes. Parents who are heavily burdened with debts sold their children into the sex trade. There were also many who were kidnapped and forced into prostitution.

The aims of the UNCRC

In 1989, United Nation adopted the Convention on the rights of the child. It is an international treaty that defines persons aged below 18 years as children. It aims to safeguard children’s rights, welfare, interests and development. All governments have acceded to the Convention except the United States of America and Somalia. There are a total of 54 articles stating the basic human rights of all the children in the world. The right to survival; the right to physical and mental development; the right to protection from harm and the right to be involved in family, social and cultural activities are some of children’s entitlements.

Since 1989, there is a significant change in the attention given to early children’s rights. Various laws and policies in countries have been reframed to accommodate the convention. In UK, laws that govern health, housing and welfare benefits have a profound impact on the children’s lives. Children are affected by laws governing the Education and employment rights. The Children Act 1989 put in place the relationship between children, parents and the state. Local authorities were given the power to look after the welfare of children’s lives and provide safeguards against poor care. The Children Act 1989 calls for the reform in child care law pertaining to child services and child protection. Children are protected from harm, with local authorities investigating their situations of risk. Other Agencies like the housing, health and education authorities were involved in assisting the local authorities with their enquiries. Inter-agency work is a distinctive UK response to protecting children from harm (Thomas, N. 2009).

In 1999, the Sure Start Local Programme (SSLP) had most of the deprived areas in England covered. This programme was designed to provide support for families and parents. It supports good-quality play and learning experiences for children under 4 years of age. Child’s health and development, including family health were looked into (Thomas, N. 2009).

In recent years, the Childcare Act 2006 requires English local authorities to look after the well-being of young children and provide specific services (Thomas, N. 2009).

In acceding to the UN convention, UK has made provisions for areas such as the right to a good education, to participate in cultural and recreational activities, the disable child’s right to care and education. Article 12 of the UN convention states that the child has the right to express an opinion, and his voice should be heard in any judicial and administrative proceedings which affects them (Thomas, N. 2009)

On 2 October, 1995, Singapore acceded to the UNCRC and came into effect on 4 November 1995. Singapore is a nation without any natural resources. Our people are our only asset, children are our future, and thus their well being is our main concern. As reported in MCYS press release, there are several different government agencies with its policies which formed the Inter-ministry committee (IMC) on the Convention on the Rights of the Child. IMC serves as an inter-agency platform for deliberation and coordination of various issues concerning children. Children’s rights and interests are respected and protected. The government also take a serious view on any child abuse or ill-treatment of a child. However, in special circumstances, slight canning is permissible. Children who misbehave may also be given slight canning on the palm of the hand. Corporal punishment is prohibited especially towards females. Canning can be administered by the headmaster.

Singapore’s education system aims to acquire not just academic knowledge, but also impart values and increase the sense of rootedness in our children. These aims are articulated in our Desired Outcomes of Education. Children with special needs are not left out. The government has implemented the Integrated Childcare Programme, helping childcare centre to equip their staff and the centres to accommodate children with special needs.

The discussion above are examples to shows Singapore commitment to uphold the rights and best interests of children. Singapore’s vision for our children and youth is to be a confident nation full of compassion and committed to social responsibilities, yet developed strong ties with their family and community.

UNRC weaknesses

The United Convention on the Rights of the Child is not without its weaknesses. According to Vanessa Pupava, children viewed as ‘priceless’ may not be good all the time. There may be negative consequences for both child and parents. As defined by World Health Organisation, harm to child includes physical and emotional ill-treatment, abuse, neglect and exploitation. All these would affect the mental health and development of a child. In such broad terms, raising a child would become a very problematic task for parents. Parental authority may become abusive in itself. Parents would become paranoid; parents may also become ”overparented” (Furedi F 2002). These children would lose their freedom to play and learn about risk. In other cases, parents and educators may lose sight of their commitment towards children. They are afraid of infringing the rights of the children and may they feel that they cannot attain the ideal way of upbringing the children, in the end, they may transfer their duties to other institutions or even specialist services (R.Roose and M.Bouverne-De Bie, 2007 p.431-443).

In UK, children’s rights can sometimes be seen as problematic. Adolescents may become aggressive and demanding. Parents and teachers fear of losing control with their teens. When children are given the right to participate in decision making, it may seem to discard the traditional notions of parents control over their children (R.Roose and M.Bouverne-De Bie, 2007 p.431-443).

Conclusion

‘Best interest of the child’ is one of the focal point in the convention on the rights of the Child. The child’s rights include protection, prevention and participation in decision-making. It would be still a long way for successful implementation of the convention as adults still hold their own perceptions of children. This concept would also have different meanings for different countries in their own context. It would require the joint efforts of all for successful implementation of the convention and tackling with the constraints and shortcomings that comes alongside with it.

Many males think they know their bodies but not many of them actually take the time to fully understand it. When I started this research topic I thought I knew everything there was to know about the male reproductive system but I was sadly mistaken. Join me in my quest to find out all there is to know about it.

Males can start puberty as early as ten or as late as sixteen. Puberty, a frightening but necessary experience for boys and girls, can start unexpectedly in life. Most young males are too busy playing with friends to notice that inside their bodies, hormonal change is taking place. Puberty is the time when a boy becomes a man, or a rebellious teenager.

The start of puberty is caused by the brain sending hormonal signals to the testis. During puberty growth hormone is activated and although a large growth spurt is a common occurrence for the first half of puberty it is also common to have small growth spurts in height during the second half of puberty.

Males have many physical changes while entering and during puberty. The first noticeable sign of puberty is growth in testicular size. The testis will continue growing until quite a few years after the start of puberty until they have reached the normal adult size. Right after the testis has grown for about a year the shaft of the penis starts to enlarge and lengthen. Not only do the testes produce hormones but they are also the place of creation for sperm. Boys can become fertile from as early as twelve to sixteen.

The first appearance of hair on a male in puberty originates on and around the testis, near and above the base of the penis and on the side of the inner thighs. The DNA

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they received from their parents could help in determining the surface area the hair covers and how long, thick or even the color of pubic hair in males. Following pubic hair boys usually find themselves growing underarm hair and leg hair. Chest hair and facial hair are not automatic in puberty as some men never get chest hair and facial hair might not appear on a man until ten years after puberty.

. Some males think it’s a problem that they might not have entered puberty yet. For some cases, males have started puberty as late as sixteen. This is not an issue, other than the fact that bullying might occur. It is not exactly common but happens where a male’s body isn’t ready to develop and they could be left behind while their friends are all experiencing these changes.

The dreaded cracking voice can be quite an embarrassment to males in puberty. Strings in the larynx become longer and wider and the change in the vocals usually leads to instability in controlling one’s voice. With due time, however, the male will no longer have a higher sounding voice but a lower, deeper voice.

The penis is one of the parts of the male reproductive system that is located outside of the male’s body. The other is the testis. The penis is used during intercourse to enter the vagina and release seminal fluids. A male’s penis is usually flaccid but becomes harder and longer when aroused. Most males in their younger years will get more frequent erections than that of older males.

Getting an erection involves three masses of spongy tissue resembling columns that run through it length wise. These masses are known as cavernous tissue and when the male is aroused they fill with blood. Once a male gets an erection he must either wait for

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it to go down on its own or achieve orgasm to relieve the sexual tension.

The testes lie within the scrotal sac. Their purpose is to produce sperm and male sex hormones. It produces two types of male hormone: LH, Luteinizing Hormone and FSH, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone. LH is the hormone responsible for producing testosterone which in turn is responsible for what makes males different than that of females who produce estrogen instead of testosterone. The testes are fully “dropped” before a male enters puberty.

FSH is responsible for changes in the pubic area and reproductive system. When puberty hits FSH along with LH are produced more rapidly, often causing the young male to become very hormonal. FSH causes the growth of pubic hair and growth of the testis and penis.

Most human males have two testicles surrounded by the scrotum. The scrotum is a covering of skin to protect the testis from varied temperatures. When it is cold the scrotal sac rises, bringing the testis up closer to the body to warm them. When it is warm the testis relaxes and the scrotal sac lowers to give more freedom to the testis.

The scrotal sac is almost saggy in look. One testicle within the scrotal sac usually hangs a little bit lower than the other. Pubic hair usually resides on the male scrotum but it is not like that for everyone, Just like how people have varied amounts of pubic hair than others.

The pathway of the sperm to the oocyte involves quite the process:

The testes are where sperm are manufactured in the scrotum. The epididymis is a tortuously coiled structure topping the testis, and it

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receives immature sperm from the testis and stores it several days.

When ejaculation occurs, sperm is forcefully expelled from the tail of the epididymis into the deferent duct. Sperm then travels through the deferent duct through up the spermatic cord into the pelvic cavity, over the ureter to the prostate behind the bladder. Here, the vas deferens joins with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct, which passes through the prostate and empties into the urethra. When ejaculation occurs, rhythmic muscle movements propel the sperm forward. (E)

No one wants to find out that their genitals have a disease, not male or female. It does, however, happen in this world. There are so many different types of diseases that can affect the penis. The first I’m going to talk about is a yeast infection. Most people believe that yeast infections can only happen in women but they are wrong.

A yeast infection has the following symptoms on the male’s penis:

-Swollen

-Itchy

-Blotchy

-Red all over

-Smells, cheesy

-Flaky penis tip

-White ooze from the tip of the penis

“That is your yeasty neighbor at home on your manhood and causing you to

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ITCH.” (A) There are quite a few ways in which a person can cure or try and cure their yeast infection. Since the can be quite a few ways to obtain yeast infections such as eating moldy food, drinking alcohol or having sex with someone who has it, so naturally to cure yourself you’re going to want to stop having sex, throw away the moldy food and stop drinking. After this, go see your doctor and get yourself some anti-fungi pills or cream. Another way to rid yourself of a yeast infection is by rubbing yogurt on your genitals. You could say this is the “all natural” approach. Also, it has been proven that vinegar and warm water mixed together and poured on the genitals can help kill the infection.

Other problems with the penis which men know they can get are such things like STI’s. There are so many types of venereal diseases that you can catch because you weren’t careful while having sex. Some diseases you might have had for a long time and never realized it, and others, you will know you have them from the physical signs on your genitals.

Men, it almost seems that for a majority of men, sex is a competition: Who has the most sex, who they had it with, and for some, how long it lasted.. In high school these guys may seem so cool but chances are that because they’ve given sex away so many times they picked up a few hitch hikers along the way.

Chlamydia is a disease that has to be treated as soon as possible because it can cause serious health problems. 50% of males wind up with a term known as infectious urethritis which is an infection in the urethra. Side effects of Chlamydia are painful urination, fever, swollen testis and discharge from the penis. Epididymtitis can be caused

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when Chlamydia spreads to the testicles. If this happens it is possible for sperm to become sterile if you do not get treatment within six to eight weeks.

Let’s face it, guys we have all been there, sitting in class, perhaps sleeping when you realize, uh oh! Spontaneous erection! Your face probably grew red hoping that no one notices. Well, here is the good news. It’s perfectly natural. There is nothing wrong with getting an erection.

Morning erections are a perfectly normal occurrence. Some guys have complained about this as a problem and thought that there was something wrong with them but in fact it’s actually not normal if you don’t get an erection in the morning. Why, you might ask? This is because a morning erection or “morning wood” as it’s more commonly known, is the last erection in a series of erections that happen throughout the night as men sleep. On average a male will have four to five erections during the night, averaging to last about thirty minutes a night.

A male cannot have sex if their penis is flaccid and not erect.. If you try to have coitus with a flaccid penis, it’s not going to work. There are a few reasons for this. First, you won’t be able to penetrate into the woman’s vagina during sex. Second, if you try and have sex with a flaccid penis it is not stimulated. If your penis isn’t stimulated it is going to be a very difficult thing for a man to receive pleasure during intercourse. If a man cannot get stimulated during sex then he won’t be able to reach the climax, or orgasm.

A flaccid penis should become erect once sexually aroused. The reason for not being able to get an erection is most likely because that male is suffering from an erectile

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dysfunction. If this occurs you should consult your doctor.

When it comes down to it, there are only two types of penises, circumcised and uncircumcised. Every man on earth is one or the other. For many men who are circumcised it usually wasn’t their own choice. Circumcision usually takes place during the first year of life. A baby’s parents will decide whether or not to cut the foreskin from their child’s penis.

Studies have shown that a lot of males who are circumcised wished that they weren’t circumcised. Many men who aren’t circumcised enjoy their foreskin and say that during sex it increases pleasure. There are pros and cons to both circumcised and uncircumcised penises.

Circumcised penises are cleaner and women say that they look nicer than those with foreskins. It has also been said that a circumcised penis is more pleasurable for woman during intercourse. Uncircumcised penises, however, increase pleasure for males but are harder to keep clean. If you have a foreskin you have to be sure to scrub under it to keep it clean so you don’t carry around bacteria.

The male orgasm is the climax during sex. During intercourse movements of the hips let a male bring his penis in and out of the vagina. This stimulates pleasure in the head and shaft of the penis. As this pleasure continues and increases, heart rate increases along with breath intake. The sperm will then travel through the male reproductive system, out of the urethra and be expelled in spurts along with seminal fluids.

Safe sex is good sex. If you don’t want to have a baby then you’re probably going to want to use a condom. There are a variety of different sizes and types of condoms for

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males plus the numerous brands. Condom sizes don’t necessarily have to do with the length of a man’s penis. Most condoms base their sizes off of the girth of a penis.

The main reason for a condom is to protect the female from pregnancy during intercourse and on average a condom has a 90% chance of doing this. However there is more to using a condom than just preventing pregnancy. It also helps prevent sexually transmitted infections. A condom should always be used during intercourse unless the two people who are sharing in coitus are planning on having a child.

Condoms come in many different types. The mainstream type of condom used is made of latex. Latex is an excellent protector against STI’s and helping to prevent pregnancy. If a person is allergic to latex there are other options such as condoms made out of a firmer plastic. They provide the same help and support as those made of latex do. Another type of condom is that made from lamb. They are proven to almost fully stop a person from getting pregnant but due to small pores throughout the condom it is very easy for STI’s to be contracted.

Condoms can be made in different ways to help stimulate pleasure. Some condoms may be thinner so that you feel more contact between genitals; some may have built in lube while others might even be studded. Along with this, condoms can usually be bought in different colors and even flavors.

To put a condom on, you have to first open the package, never do this with scissors or your teeth for you might accidentally tear the condom. There should be a slit in the package so that you can just rip it open and pull the condom out. Once out, you take the condom’s base in one hand and place it above the head of the erect penis. Once

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overtop of the penis, it is crucial that you pinch the tip of the condom to leave room for the ejaculation. Once you have gotten hold of the tip of the condom with the other hand, roll the base of the condom until the penis is fully covered.

Some condoms may feel very uncomfortable so some people enjoy putting lubricant inside and sometimes outside of the condom. Using lubricant in your condoms also helps prevent the chances of it tearing during intercourse. Only water based lubricants should be used with condoms as oil-based lubes can damage the integrity of the condom.

Many males get to the age when they feel that they are no longer interested in having kids. They probably by now already have children or don’t feel like having any at all. There is a simple way to stop the process of impregnating a woman. A vasectomy involves a doctor making small incisions in the males scrotal sac to get to the vas deferens. The vans deferentia are then cut and cauterized or clamped shut.

A great way to protect the male reproductive system from any harm is to stay abstinent all together. Abstinence is the only way to be 100% sure that you’re not going to get a girl pregnant or wind up with a sexually transmitted disease. Most people that think they are staying abstinent try fooling around, such as mutual masturbation, where their genitals don’t come in contact but they are still being sexually stimulated. They are wrong. You are technically keeping your v card but you are at still at risk of sexually transmitted diseases and in some cases a woman will still become pregnant even when they think they are playing it safe. It only takes one sperm to enter the oocyte and cause pregnancy.

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If a person is extremely sexually active rather than instead of having sex with every pair of legs they see they could try pleasuring themselves. This is not the best solution to sex but it is better than risking all the diseases and risk of pregnancy. Many males, especially teenagers, have tried self pleasuring at least once in their lives.

Penis size is usually noted as a problem amongst males and is a big stress causer. Many guys are wondering how their penis size matches up to those of their friends. It’s not gross or a sexual thing, just plain old curiosity. The fact is penis sizes vary and no penis is going to look the same. The average size of a male’s penis is around five to six centimeters. If you have a penis size of four to five inches it’s not a terrible thing. It’s not the size; it is how you use it. On the other hand you might have an abnormally large penis. If a male has a large penis they probably feel superior to other males but the truth is, not only is it less pleasurable and less intimate for the male but it is also less pleasurable and can even hurt the female during intercourse.

The male reproductive system is part of all guys. Every guy is born with a penis and testicles. As we develop we begin to change, it’s all normal and natural. As a guy you need to accept what you have and work with it, be cool, be calm, and be yourself.

In recent days, using of Internet has totally changed the environment in which where we live, learn and work. Simultaneously, children are frequently using the Internet and all are always accessing the online. Notably, children have limited knowledge for browsing the information what they want and more difficult to search and retrieve the results than the adults. So, young children are being forced to manage the designs that require complex typing, accurate spelling, advanced reading skills, and understanding of abstract concepts or content knowledge that lies beyond their still-developing abilities (Moore and George, 1991; Solomon, 1993; Walter et al., 1996). Based on Jakob Nielsen et al. (2010), the differences between children and adult in applying the design are the children use Internet for entertainment although the adult is used for communication with people and their communities, children usually use 12, 14 point and adult use 10 point (up to 14 for seniors) for font size, children have slowly typing and poor mouse control than the adult who can do like as expert, children like animation and sound effects for their design but adult mostly disliked and age-targeted design is importance between child groups but not necessary for adult.

1.2 Investigating preferences of children

According to Dina Demner et al. (2001), children use computers and Internet for different purposes and functions which are depend on their like, dislikes, ages, interest, behavior, characteristics and habits. The group of children can be classified into four groups: 3-5 years old pre-readers (only memorize the data that they learned before a day), 5-8 years old beginning readers (start to play cooperatively with other people), 8-12 years old children (become more concentrate on connection between people) and teenagers (willing to analyze the new things but usage of Internet is less than the adult person).

Currently, developers who designed for children do not consider the children’s skills and preferences. As a result, the applications may not be easily learned and used by children who have rare knowledge (Hutchinson, Bederson, 2005). Besides that, majority of the tools available are for the expert users which are not suitable for novice users like as children particularly for children who have very limited knowledge in computer. The interactions of children with the technologies depend on their age levels. Based on (Acuff and Reiher, 1997), the children between 8 and 12 change their interests from fantasy to reality. They start to understand more abstract terms, longer terms and more complex terms. Researcher (Inkpen, 2001) studied that the children who ages from 9 to 13 like point and click rather than drag and drop. Moreover, (Read, J.C., MacFarlane, S.J., Casey, C, 2001) discussed the various kinds of text input techniques for children. This research is restricted and compared to the corresponding research for adults.

In addition, colour preference is also one of the key issues to investigate the preference of children. Colour has a great impact on our live from early childhood onwards. Colour alters, evokes emotions, and affects our perception. Besides, preferable colour can increase the cognitive processes (Boyatzis, C.J., & Varghese, R. 1993). An experiment (Chung, H. Y., et al. 2009) implemented the colour preferences among children revealed that boys preferred vivid colours for yellow, red, and blue, and bright light tones for yellow, green, and purple. On the other hand girls preferred light tones for yellow, green, and purple and pale tones for red and blue. Design should be based on its targeted users rather than emphasize on discussion with users and the children are not interested in the User Interface design guidelines (Shneiderman, 1998). Therefore, designers should be focused on searching the useful designs which will provide for children’s preferences such as development, health, social activities.

2.1 Why sport important for children

Exercise can reduce stress that the children who has stress, depression, anxiety as adult have. However, sport, not exercise, encourages growth and contributes to improve physical and emotional health. Sport psychologist: (Dr. Glyn Roberts of the University of Illinois) emphasizes that sport is an important thing to learn the environment for children. Besides, sport provides various kinds of functions and can attain valuable things that can apply in their life. They learn to work hard for winning, study how to cope with life if face with problems, how to continue after failing, learn to listen, to stay concentrated, to obey rules and regulations and many things that can help them to grow into mentally healthier persons. Another benefit is emotional development which contains how to cope with winning and losing, how to try again if it is fail. In addition, team sport also provides the friendship skills that mean if the children want to win, he or she must help other members to finish their part of work and that can help to success in their daily life and also future life. Sport provide healthy, physically and socially growth of children as well as emotionally and social skills. Moreover, the attitudes and behaviour taught to children in sports carry over to adult life. Participation in sports can get many benefits from being physically active for children. It can improve health, develop quality of strong bones and muscles and reduce obesity to maintain a healthy weight, reduce obesity to maintain a healthy weight, improve cardiovascular fitness, provide friendship among people, reduce stress and help relaxation, improve self-esteem.

2.2 Sport sites for children

Sport sites in Internet are very useful for children because every child can contribute from its contents. Besides, it does not need to have materials that support for sport and can play just only have computer and broadband internet connection and developing mobile services. There are many available sport sites for children in Web. In our paper, we address some useful sport sites for children called http://www.nflrush.com and http://bettersoccermorefun.com. These websites are official sites and made especially for children. It contains about the positions for football, how to play them, information about fun facts, getting advices and tips.

Figure1: Main Form of nflrush website
Figure 2: Main Form of Bettersoccermorefun website
3. Design a sports site for children
3.1 Usage of internet by children

With the ubiquitous internet access, children have more opportunities been exposed in the light of internet and carried out various online activities. According to Livingstone and Helpsper (2007), the amount of children accessing the internet has continuously increased and internet has become an indispensable tool for them to acquire information and communicate. Comparing with traditional resources, web source is more preferred and used by children (Bilal,

1998). Some data about children’s web use has been analyzed, for instance, one survey (Johnson, 2010) investigated among children whose average age is 10.7 revealed that most children prefer playing online games and visiting websites in a community place like peer’s house.

3.2 Sports sites for children

The fun and learning opportunities that provided by the Web sites is the big concern of children between 6 and 14 years old according to Baumgarten (2003). Besides, a good site should also consider expanding somewhat extent of complexity to meet children’s self-recognition and different developmental levels (Demner, 2001). Therefore, a high quality sports site can go far beyond providing sports related knowledge and skills, actually, it has much to offer to children, for instance, fun, relaxation, chances of communicate and collaborate with peers and develop their interests. This perspective may give a guideline to the designers and help them understand better about the users’ tasks and adjust design to meet their goals.

Therefore, understanding our users, testing and maximizing the degree of usability of the site is critical. After analyzing the particular aspects of children and their unique features, all these should been given high consideration when designing the sports sites. Based on the data (Livingstone & Helpsper, 2007) collected among Britain children between 9-19 years old, it has been found that generally boys and young-age teenagers use the internet more often and spend more time on it when comparing with girls and older teens. Another widely accepted fact is that boys spend more time in football games ( ), thus as the main users of the site, the site design should cater for their favours, while at the same time not ignoring their female counterparts. Thus the features of boys should be the focus of designers.

3.3 Usability of web sites

As the definition of usability (ISO 9241), it presents the “effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction with which specified users achieve specified goals in particular environments.”

Brinck et al. (2001) has proposed some features that a successful web design should include, it should support independent exploration and communication, encourage the users accomplishing their objectives in a fast, efficient and easy way. All these features can also be considered when trying to design a sports site for children.

Many existing studies have adopted participatory deign with children, which means the children actively and directly involved in the design process and act as design testers and partners, have found productive results (Read, 2002). The usability engineers in Microsoft (Hanna, L. & et.al, 1999) have researched in usability testing by working with groups of children, and have concluded several design guidelines of computer products in the criteria of activity, instruction and screen design. For instance, the activities provided should be interesting and constitute some reward scheme to encourage children to interact with, and supportive instructions should be easy to comprehend. All these can be adopted for planning a sports site for children.

Considering the inhibited reading skills and comprehension ability of children, web contents transferred through intuitive formats like animation and audio is necessary. An experiment (Kahkonen & Oyaska, 2006) implemented among children has revealed that children are more likely to learn from animation instructions, as they expect to explore the functionality and have fun from the site. However, according to their research achievement, a combination with simple textual instructions is also important, as children may confused and feel lose something if only animation can be shown.

3.4 Interaction and collaborative learning of web sites

In a survey (Jonson, 2010), researchers have found that, respectively 60.7% and 62.9% of investigated children prefer to visit web sites and play online games in peers’ houses. Allen (2003) also pointed that the social motivation, sense of attachment, winning friends and recognition, for instance, is a vital factor for sports involvement of children in teenage. In addition, football is a team sports, most children may seek online role play games together. Therefore, entertainment feature of collaborative learning and interaction of the site is another essential matter before beginning the design step. Based on the research approach of a collaborative learning project (Ivan & Michal, 2006), maintaining connection among participants, recording their characters and behavior, and then establishing efficient communication tools for them is the premise for formulating an effective collaborative online environment. Just putting this into practice, a football site for children may construct membership scheme to attract participation, diverse role play games which can arouse enthusiasm, intuitive interactive activities, in addition, a corner for children to communicate with each other, like discussion boards, online chat rooms are also praiseful.

4. Children’s online behaviour
4.1 children’s online seeking behaviour

From the perspective of designers, identifying how children use the internet and their online behaviours is crucial as all these things will directly influence the design issues. Many studies have been done in this area, for instance, in one investigation carried out among British children between 9-19 years old, Livingstone and Helpsper (2007) have found that, the frequency and time spent of internet using by boys and young-age teenagers is much higher when comparing with girls and older teens. Another finding is that boys accessing to the internet in more places than their female counterparts.

During the research process of children’s online behaviour, Bilal (2000) has found that invalid switches (e.g. frequently shifting back and forth, visiting sites), continual looping and minimal navigation are the prevalent problems encountered among children’s using of the sites. The main reason has been attributed to the abstract and complex representation of the web information. In this context, straightforward icons and children’s familiar metaphors can be used to alleviate frustration of iterate actions and support their efficient navigation in the site, as well as a good arrangement of content categories.

According to the outcome released by another experiment (Kahkonen & Oyaska, 2006), researchers found that due to the limit learnability of help function, most children rarely use this part in the web sites. However, considering the cognitive capacity of children and their levels of computer experience, a useful help function is necessary and it is a critical part for their acceptance of a sports site. Thus, for this special group, the help part should be provided in a directive and intuitive way, long and tedious texts, abstract concepts, ambiguous categories should be avoided. Besides, effective real time help is more helpful.

4.2. Participation of Parents

Parents’ participation is very important for children, according to the Eccles’ expectancy-value model (Eccles & Harold, 1991), parents influence their child choices by providing differential levels of support for activities. They also proposed that the level of support is based on expectations of the likelihood that their child will be successful in that area, and the personal beliefs about the value of success in that domain. The degree of involvement of parents in their children sport activities is also important. Most of the parents under involve and most of the parents over involve in their children activities. Under involvement means parents watch on sidelines and they do not actively participate in their children programs. Over involved parents excessively involve in the running program of their children. They emphasize on winning and motivate their children to get success in their running programs. Parents’ participation in their children sport make the child to get competitive advantage, the children can actively involve and can do happily their activities with the support of their parents.

(include features for the participation of parents , teachers, interactive games, information the site provided)
5. Design Principles for Children

Since designers design the system, they must know clearly “Who are the users using the system?” If the system is for various users who have different knowledge about it, they need to focus on from different perspective like what are the user needs and interests depending on users’ profiles and personas.(children)

Norman (1988) defined user-centered design as “a philosophy based on the needs and interests of the users, with an emphasis on making products usable and understandable”. He added that easy to understand and easy to use of the products are pointing out the user to let them know what to do and the user can clearly understand what is going on. According to the Rubin (1944), user-centered design is techniques and procedures for designing usable systems with the user at the centre of the process. “User-centered design principles place increased attention on developing products that are ease of use and ease of understand by focusing on the user throughout the design process” (Dumas & Redish, 1993; Eason, 1988; Gould & Lewis, 1985; Shackel, 1991).

If users are elderly, text font size should be larger than usual as they cannot see the small font size clearly, voice output should be provided more longer than as usual or instead of voice output, text output with large text font should be used as the elderly may be lost in hearing.For users with disabilities, the system designers need to use more flexible computer software in order to support special tools for them. For low vision or blind users, voice output should be provided instead of message output. For the users who have trouble in hand function, using mice and trackballs can be a problem for them. Instead of using these input devices, speech recognition device like voice input can solve the problems for disabled children.

There are many important interaction design principles and there are many way to apply those principles. As our paper focuses on children, we will describe some of the principles and point out what designers should take into account when designing the interface design for children. According to the (Heim, 2007), two main categories can be used to present the principles in a systematic and structured way: namely effectiveness principles and efficiency principles. He defined efficiency as “a design that enable users to accomplish their tasks in the easiest and quickest way as much as possible without having to do overly complex or extraneous procedures.” Efficiency and effectiveness are the principles that support usability. According to the (Usability), the term usability means “The level of ease with which people can employ a particular device in order to attain and increase usability”. There are many design principle that are applied in human computer interaction. There are three main design principles which support usability such as learnability, flexibility and robustness. Under each of these categories, there are many sub principles that affect them (usability). Among these principles, the principles that are required for children will be discussed.

Learn ability is the primary goal of the user interface design and it is the very important design principles for children. It they do not know clearly how to use the system and if it is very difficult for them to use, they can get confusion and they will not use this system anymore. For example, if too many clicks are required to complete a task, children cannot memorize at once and it can get them confused. Next time they visit back, they will not be sure how to go through to complete their tasks.

Responsiveness is also one of the design principles in which the response time of the system should not take long as users are children. If system response time is slow, they may think that the system cannot provide what they want and it cannot work properly.

Children cannot memorize many things at one time like the adult. They can memorize well only one thing at a time. For example, when installing the software, many steps are required to finish. Users need to click on “Next” button to move forward and need to choose location to place the installed software’s icon. After all the steps have been done, users need to click “Finish” button. Software installation process should not be different. It should be consistent. If installation process for different software is not the same, it can be problems for users to memorize what should they do for this software to install and what should they perform for other software. If the installation process is similar for different software, users can predict how should they move on by calling memory on past interaction history.

As the focus users are children, the designers should know the characteristics of children and should design the site to allow them ease of use and should provide required functionality. From the examples of Heim (2007), the design for a drawing program should enumerate all of the tools required to create digital drawings, another example is that in a website, all the information must be provided that are required by the visitor in order to accomplish his or her goals.

For the children who are less than five year cannot read the instructions in the form of message. Designers need to consider this factor. Instead of displaying instruction in the form of message, audio, video, animation should be used to let them know what should they do to complete their tasks. For younger children rather than older children, Sears & Jacko (2008) stated that “To eliminate the need for mouse clicking, the cursor is transformed into a big yellow star with room for five small stars inside it. As the mouse is held over a target, the small stars appear once at a time. When the fifth star appears, it counts as clicking on that target. If the child does click, the process simply moves faster”. For the adult, double-clicking is not a problem for them. For the kids, they do not know the action of double-clicking. Single click action should be provided instead of double clicking.

Conclusion

The following are design issues for children that should be considered when designing the system for children.

Multiple navigations should be avoided because it can be a problem for children and they can get confusion on it.

In sport sites, if text font size of guideline instructions such as rules and regulations for each sport is 12, they cannot focus on it. So, text font size should be larger than as usual.

Youngest kids do not know how to scroll up and scroll down. This is the big problem for them. Instead of using scrolling, multiple pages should be used.

Radio buttons and checkboxes should not be used as they do not have ability which option to choose.

Search box should not be provided. They do not know how to search and they are slow in typing. Instead of search box, the required functions should be put together on the screen.