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Translation from a major language into a minor one is very different from translating in the opposite direction.

Introduction

It has been suggested that minority languages are not even acknowledged in many parts of the world, and where acknowledgement does exist they are defined as uncultured, primitive,simple dialects because they have been suppressed by the more dominant,official languages. Lotman and Uspensky believe the structure of language must be at the centre of every culture for it to survive, describing languages the heart within the body of culture and putting into perspective the distinctions between a language accepted as minor, and that which is a flourishing major language (Lotman and Uspensky 1978, Pages 211 – 32). Research into minor languages, however, reveals a taxonomic sophistication that adequately expressed its speakers’ cognitive requirements synchronically, but has not evolved adequately to incorporate the plethora of technological terminology that dominant languages encompass with relative ease, resulting in many loan words taken from the influence of adjacent major languages. Many minor languages die out as their speakers age, but some undergo a revival as enthusiasts propound the benefits of their continued value.

The fundamental difficulty within many of the minority languages today, however, continues to be one often minology, described asa semiotic science of cognitive and communicative organisation of knowledge (Myking, 1997) and considered to be the central discipline or the common denominator for all the aspects of a translator’s work (Holljen, Translation Journal, 1999, January). Most minority languages are often not particularly suited to adequate translation in terms of modern concepts and technologies and are more inclined towards maintaining the socio-linguistic aspects associated with those languages, as recognised by Holljen:

The scientific aspect of any languages dependent on the vocabulary of that language. The possibility must be retained for people to be able to express themselves in any given field in their mother tongue, no matter on which level of abstraction ( Holljen, Translation Journal, 1999,January).

Some of these minority language groups, such as the Nordic languages, are now utilising language planning techniques to standardise their natural languages rather than indiscriminately incorporating loan words from technically advanced languages such as English. As a result, NORDTERM has spearheaded the campaign for a standardisation procedure across Finland, Norway and Sweden, designated the ‘Nordic Terminological Record Format‘ (Holljen, Translation Journal, 1999,January), supported by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages to ‘ protect and support historical, regional

and minority languages in Europe ‘ (Part I, Article 1, Council of Europe, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN.htm).

Discussion

We cannot yet specify satisfactorily just what we mean by a ‘perfect’ language

(Aitchison,1991, pp. 214)

Toury noted that Translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury 1978:200). Nida concurred, adding that, if the cultural and linguistic disparity was particularly great the socio-linguistic facet would be more of a problem (Nida, 1964, Page 130). The potential difficulties in translating major languages into minor languages can be illustrated through the concept of the ‘space of possibilities’ upon which utterances based on context provide a background for semantic representations of inferred language that might be spoken or, equally, left unspoken and from which linguistic form triggers interpretation rather than conveying information (Winograd and Flores 1986, p.57), contributing to external influences which, with memorised sequences and pre-cognitive learning (Gutt,1991, p.26), can all be attributed to a meaning’s intertextuality, or all pervasive textual phenomenon (Hatim, 1997a, Page 29).

Newmark identifies cultural,technical or linguistic disparity that might require a translator to add extra information to maintain intelligibility (Newmark, 1988, Page 91) whilst Hatim considers inter textual information provides the various textual clues(Hatim, 1997b, Page 200). A translator initially needs to identify inter textual markers and then evaluate the implications for understanding by the target audience when translated, particularly difficult in cases of extreme cultural diversity, or ‘implicates’ in Baker’s terminology (1992, Pages 71 – 77).Baker suggests translators may attempt literal translation, cultural substitution, elaboration and explication, translation by omission or transliteration through retaining the source language within parts of the text.

Hatim and Mason’s model of context takes into account the context of culture with its aspects of ideology and sets of values (Caldas-Coulthard, 2000a, Page 2), reinforced by Hoey’s connective pattern which highlights the more predominant points due to paradigmatic and syntagmatic properties of lexical priming (Hoey, 1991: 82), established in the West Greenlandic language, or kalaallit oqaasii (or kalaallisut) (Petersen,in Collis, 1990: 294), through the highly developed inflectional use of nominal and verbal paradigms (Fortescue, in Collis, 1990: 309) and which, with its spelling and pronunciation alterations being contingent upon grammatical and lexical requirements, provides an excellent illustration. West Greenlandic is a deeply inflected, polysynthetic language, heavily influenced and dependent upon the concepts of theme and rhyme, and reliant on the positions of Subject and Object to develop an adequate semantic and pragmatic morphology (Fortescue,in Collis, 1990: 309).

The ‘resource [for] making meaning‘ (Gerot and Wignell, 1995: 6) is notably, in West Greenlandic,realised through a very long string of words built up from bases and associated affixes whose meanings describe, very adequately, the sparse surrounding landscapes in very accurate and specific terms, less appropriate, however, for evolving technology. These inter textual messages are a necessary precondition for the intelligibility of texts (Hatim and Mason, 1997, Page 219) without which only partial understanding could possibly be achieved. Inter textual reference provides a semiotic approach which can link previous text to define tenuous meanings although precedence should be intentionality over informational content (Hatim and Mason, 1990, Page 136) maintaining semiotic status and lexical devices in terms of cohesion and coherence to ensure that translation continues to make sense, retains its original tone/voice and engages the intended response from the target reader.

Sapir recognised the disparity between individuals’ cognitive environments, commenting that No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality (Sapir, 1956, Page 69). This recognition that translation is not just a transfer of information between languages, but a transfer from one culture to another (Hervey et al, 1995, Page 20)controversially requires translators to acquire adequate understanding and empathy of a particular culture to enable the necessary inter textual cues to be recognised and available for transfer into language use. Modern German has sixteen forms for ‘reiten’, whereas Old English had thirteen forms of ‘ridan'[both meaning ‘to ride] (Coates, 2004). Over time these inflections became lost which added to the flexibility of language used, e.g. nominalisation;additions of pre- or -suffixes, and word-blending, e.g. the Norse word ‘rein’ meaning ‘deer’ added to the Old English word ‘deer’ meaning ‘animal’ giving a literal meaning ‘deer-animal’. Evidence of this concept is still apparent in the innumerable lexemes associated with the concept of snow in West Greenlandic

The vastly controversial Sapir-Whorf hypothesis also recognises these constraints that can be placed on communications within the concepts of cognitive experiences, according to principles of linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity, with subscription to language being utilised in order to discern differences between agents. Lexicaland grammatical devices add to the flexibility of language used, e.g. nominalisation, with additions such as suffixes or post-bases, inflectional endings and portmanteau verbs contributing to the rich diversity of this language’s morph-syntactic adaptability. Strong determinism associated with the Arctic traditions evolved from man’s close proximity to nature which, in turn, shaped their concept of language realised through cognitive thought (Maclean,in Collis, 1990: 164). The difficulty in translation, however, occurs through the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which acknowledges everyday word usage taking a rather flexible position in a typical Kalaallit sentence, with markers to identify their relation to other lexemes (Maclean, in Collis, 1990: 164).These Kalaallit characteristics can be explained through the theory of reference in relation to the semantic relation between an element in the text and some other element that is crucial to the interpretation of it(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 8), with ‘lexical priming‘ (Crystal, 2003:162) providing the cohesion that displays an expectancy relations between words (Eggins, 1994: 101) in accordance with Nunan’s model whereby randomsentences are distinguished[through] the existence of certain text-forming, cohesive devices (Nunan, 1993: 59).

West Greenlandic relies on the static nature of word-internal morphemes. If their order was changed, the utterance would lose its full impetus and implications. The implications of local and global meanings are revealed through code-switching, i.e. switching the positions of over 400 post-bases and 300 inflectional endings to achieve con notational and denotational meanings, the ‘signals for retrieval‘(Caldas-Coulthard, 2000: 5) which can be demonstrated through reference in the form of an exophoric or endophoric context within an utterance where cohesion lies in the continuity of reference (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 31). The syntax of this language reveals a major problem when translating languages such as Kalallit into major languages. Fortes cue suggests that A particularly characteristic trait of the language is the re cursiveness of its morphologyitsword-order is fairly free; it is a ‘non-configurational language (citedin Collis, 1990: 311) resulting in a ‘global freedom’ which can, conversely create a strong cohesive bond between lexical items[that]cohere with a preceding occurrence even with different referents (Haliday andHasan, 1976: 283), a feature Hoey describes as the ‘study of patterns of lexis in text (Hoey, 1991: 10). Stoddard explained the coherence factor exhibited through cohesive devices whichmight be expected to occur most frequently might also be expected to exhibit the most fruitful network patterns…[and the] types of cohesion which are global in nature might be expected to exhibit the most common patterns (Stoddard, 1991: 32), especially pertinent to the syntax of Kalaallit.

A particularly interesting concept in translation that reveals the ethos between translating from any minor languageinto a major language and vice versa is the translation of poetry, recognised by Bassnett (1991, Page 101) who describes a gulf between cultures through distance in time and space. Thai poetry, for example, reveals the representation of ‘jai‘, or ‘mind’ of the writer, lacking appropriate morphemes to provide a suitable translation, explained as just pretty words, nice sounds to show you that the words are feeling words (Conlon,2005). The translator needs to decide whether to maintain the ethos of the target language, or to aim for literary significance, described by Bassnett as modernisation as opposed to archaisation (Bassnett, 1991), or to follow Luke’s principle of maintaining comprehensibility by providing a chain of signifier in the target language (Luke and Vaget, 1988: 121).

Conclusion

This essay focused on the difficulties associated with translation from a major language into a minor one which is a very different concept from translating in the opposite direction for various reasons, not least the differences between cultures[which] may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure (Nida, 1964:130). The socio-linguistic aspects of translation are more profound when a major language is being translated into aminor one, evidence of which can be observed through the cognitive-conceptual significance of Kalaallit which, together with its specific connotation and denotation, is directly associated with their dependence upon survival in an inhospitable terrain. This factor has contributed to the highly specialised differentiation of its morphological characteristic, utilising a switch-reference system in preference to the development of a more syntactic-based language (Petersen, in Collis, 1990: 294), a feature that is often present in minor languages through the dependence of their speakers on ever-changing features of the landscape for survival, requiring an awareness of language planning according to Holljen (1999, January, Translation Journal).

Whilst there are various difficulties associated with translating from a minor language to a major one, these are mainly represented through expressing elusive cognitive meanings into these mantics of more prosaic terminology. However, major languages are representative of fairly well documented cultures whose ways of life, whilst not necessarily familiar, do not represent totally unknown and incomprehensible traditions and, coupled with well-established linguistic understanding, makes the task of translating an abstract concept from a minor language less arduous than attempting to establish sufficient empathy to adapt technological terminology from a major language into a more fundamental vocabulary.

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Introduction

According to Glentz (1996), the term postmodernism was coined in the 1930s and it was in reference to the major historical change that was in progress. However, it was not until 1970s that postmodernism gained widespread attention. In the academic circles, postmodernism was able to emerge as the description used for a broader culture trend as compared to when it was initially taken as a label for the theories expounded in English and Philosophy departments in the University.

Postmodernism is a term that indicates a desire to move beyond the modern mind-set while at the same time not separating it from modernity since that is where it emerged from but with time came to react against.

Modernism as Sarup (1993) puts is an experiment which can be used to find the inner truths of any given situation and can be characterized by self-consciousness and reflexive ness which makes it very closely related to postmodernism. He goes on to say that in a way, if one looks at modernism as the culture of modernity, then there is a likelihood of the same person looking at postmodernism as the culture of post modernity.

Postmodernism according to Sarup, (1993) refers to the incipient or actual dissolution of those social forms associated with modernity. He goes on to explain modernization as a term used to refer to the stages of social development which are based upon industrialization. He points out that “modernization is as a result of the uniting of the social economic changes generated by scientific and technological discoveries and innovations…”

Dimension of Postmodern Thought.

Post-modernism is defined as an eclectic movement which originates from or in aesthetics, philosophy and architecture in Ryan Bishop’s article in the Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (1996). Postmodernism is thought to adapt to a systematic uncertainty of theoretical perspectives which are grounded in a certain way. When the uncertainty is applied to anthropology, it tends to shift its focus from the sole observation of a particular society to the observation of the anthropological observer too.

Bishop (1996) is for the idea that the postmodern attacks in ethnography are based on the belief that there is no true objectivity and the authentic implementation of the scientific method can be considered to be impossible. As he points out, “Postmodernists are suspicious of authoritative definitions and singular narratives of any trajectory of events” (Bishop 1996: 993).

Postmodernism follows similar ideas as those in modernism. It does not accept the boundaries mounted between high and low forms of art, the rigid genre distinctions are duly rejected but emphasis is placed on appropriation, caricature, playfulness and irony.

The Postmodern thought when compared with the modern thought brings out differences in five different areas namely; reasoning, science, part/whole, God and language. In reasoning, the modern thought starts from the foundation upwards whereas the postmodern thought is web-oriented such that multiple factors of multiple levels of reasoning are involved.

According to Klages (2007), Postmodernism is concerned with questions of the organization of knowledge. Knowledge in modern societies was contrasted to narrative and equated with science. Science is said to have been considered as the good or acceptable knowledge while narrative was associated with women, children, primitive and insane people since these were the people who were thought to be primitive, bad and irrational.

For one to be knowledgeable generally, they had to undergo the schooling system or in a simpler term, be educated. The Postmodern society emphasizes on not only the knowledge of things but the use of that knowledge as well, which makes knowledge functional. Sarup, (1993) points out that the educational policy nowadays lays emphasis on skills and training as compared to the vague humanist ideal of education generally.

This ensures that knowledge in Postmodernism is distributed, stored and systematically arranged in the societies which have embraced the postmodern thought than in the modern societies. Knowledge in the postmodern society is also looked at as anything that can be recognized and stored by a computer.

Klages (2007) concludes by pointing out that, postmodernism in its own way offers some alternatives to the joining of the global culture of consumption; this is where commodities and other forms of knowledge are provided by forces which cannot be controlled by individuals or to put it in her own words, “…forces far beyond any individual’s control”.

In science, the modern thought is focused on the Universal optimism whereas the postmodern thought leans towards the Realism of Limitations. The post modern thought considers the parts as comprising the whole whereas in Post-modernism, the whole is more than the parts. The post-modern thought considers God to be a Top-down causation whereas the modern thought looks at God as one who acts through the violation of the laws which are considered natural or by what is considered to be ‘immanence’ in all that exists or is.

Language is looked at as transparent with words serving only as what represents our thoughts or other things around us; the modern thought on language is referential. It depends on the idea that signifiers always point to signifieds (Klages, 2007) whereas the postmodern thought derives meaning in the social context through the manner in which it is applied or utilized which means that only signifiers exist or simply put, surfaces without any depth or signifieds.

Postmodernism according to Klages (2007) is hard to define since it is a concept that manifests itself a number of areas of study for instance in architecture, art, music, film, literature, fashion, communication and technology among others. This makes it hard to even establish where exactly postmodernism starts since it cannot be located temporarily or historically.

According to Glentz (1996), postmodernism is “…the rejection of certain central features of the modern project, such as its quest for certain, objective, and universal knowledge, along with its dualism and its assumption of the goodness of knowledge.

It is that critical agenda, rather than any proposed constructive paradigm to replace the modern vision that unites postmodern thinkers.” As opposed to the modernist thought where perception corresponds to truth and language used refers to an independent referent, postmodernism does not accept the basic premises of modern epistemology.

New Religious Movements

The last thirty years have seen an increase in the number of new religious movements as a result of the desire of the people to embrace diversification. This shows that there are changes in the nature and role of religion in the society. Religion stops being framed in terms of post-modernity, post-modernity etc since these terms can only be said to be among the many theoretical terms of analysis available and there can never be any reason to restrict the study of the New Religious Movements which have emerged or are in the process of emerging to the certain terms of reference.

In the contemporary religions, the emergence of the New Religious Movements has brought about changes in both the structure and the ideologies. This means that for the new religions to compete in the created market place of religions, they must work towards the rationalization of their efforts and just like other modernity institutions, the religious organizations become more business-like and bureaucratic.

This makes all the religious movements to appear similar in the form and manner of functioning. They must also be subject to the extra-religious criteria of efficiency. Just like in a business scenario, the products of the new religious are subject to standardization and marginal differentiation.

Every organization within the market place attempts to design a product that meets similar preferences of the consumers. The competitive edge through the development and the preservation of existing marginal differences in both style and approach used. The products are forced to conform to what is dictated by the new institutional locations they find themselves. The religions which emphasize on the satisfaction of the private life needs like issues related to sexuality, marriage, family norms etc are likely to gain a competitive advantage over the rest of the religions (Berger, 1967).

He goes on to point out that with all the pluralism that is portrayed, the religions can either accommodate themselves to the situation which will make them come to terms with the pluralism by modification of the product to suit the demands of the consumer. Alternatively, the religions can choose to continue professing their previous objectives as if nothing is happening. This means that they stay put behind the religious structures which they can be able to maintain or construct.

The New Religious Movements are however not considered to be revivals of the any tradition. They are said not to be capable of bringing to life the dying religions which existed in the past. This can be attributed to the way in which they make use of the evangelism methods which are too secular which is also reflected in other areas like in their mode of financing, the methods they use for publicity and the mobilization of believers.

The traditional religious concerns are left in preference of the more pragmatic attitudes and for systems of control, financing and other issues like propaganda and the content of their doctrines which tend to lie more on the secular enterprise as compared to the traditional religious concerns (Wilson, 1988:965).

Hard and Soft Modernism

Most aspects of modernism do not blend with the Christian faith but the correspondence theory of truth and the referential theory of language are what harmonize it with what is intended by the scriptures. Most of the leaders of the emerging churches have been known to accuse the evangelist followers for being bound to the modernism culture.

Evangelicalism is countercultural in various ways but rejects some issues like the strict empiricism associated with modernism which does not agree with miracles and revelation. The only groups who seem to have embraced modernism and all its views are the classic and theological liberals.

Patton (2008) a self declared postmodern is for the idea that the post-modern movement is hard to define but goes on to point out that it is acceptable to define post-modernism from a secular point of view and still be objective. Patton (2008) differentiates between hard and soft modernism.

Hard modernists are those who have had a philosophical shift as far as the nature of truth is concerned. Hard modernists view truth relative to the time, culture or the situation of the individual. This means that truth does not exist beyond the thoughts of the subject on focus. For instance on a subject like Homosexuality, the hard modernist will consider it either right or wrong depending on the situation of the person or person’s involved.

This is for the reason that according to them, the morality of a person’s sexual orientation can not at any time be defined by what they choose to call an “eternal principle” to which all people must adhere to at all times but by the situation(s) in which the people involved find themselves in. This distinguishes hard modernism; the concept of the correspondence view of truth to objective reality. The hard modernists are not subjective.

It is considered to be the logical outcome of pantheism or atheism which both denies the existence of an eternal God. The subject is brought out in several situations in our daily activities. Patton (2008) gives an example of how the education system in a large way shows the learners that God is not part of the objective reality compared to what is taught in class which they consider part of the objective reality. Hard modernism is not Christian in nature which explains why it has no part in the biblical worldview and why it is not advocated by Christians.

According to Patton (2008) Christianity has as its foundation the atoning work of Jesus Christ’s death, burial and resurrection that came about as a result of the eternal counsel of a God who is triune. The atonement was necessarily since man had already broken the eternal laws of God. This makes Christianity an eternal objective truth and not truth based on someone’s own subjective experience.

The explanation behind this is the fact that in the Christianity confession, an eternal God has eternal precepts that time bound man has broken. Christians can not advocate for the hard modernism unless they do not comprehend the terms modernism and Christianity. Emerging churches have been influenced by the postmodern culture and some of what it believed in has been sympathized. The difference between the group of emerging churches and hard modernists is that they are suspicious of all truth claims. The suspicion according to Patton (2008) is based on the denial of their ability to come to terms with the certainty that exists in the human mind about truth.

Soft modernists believe in the existence of the objective truth. They are for the idea that most truth claims must be held in tension, understanding our limitations which means that it is hard to know or be certain that what we have is the right truth and if we are expressing it how it should be expressed. It is important to however note that postmodernism is not built upon the denial of truth or the metaphysical concern but with the ability to know the truth or the epistemological concern.

The emerging churches therefore would believe in an eternal God who has some laid down eternal precepts which have already been broken by man who needs to be restored through Jesus Christ. Bearing this in mind, it is therefore in order for man to hold the truth in tension since they understand that they also have there own limitations which are normally arrived at when trying to define God, who he is, what he requires out of man and how to accomplish and apply redemption.

The emerging church minimizes or tends to ignore those issues that were at some point in the center of controversy and makes these issues irrelevant. The reason provided for this is that whether or not there are right answers or not, who is to decide who is right and who is not? The emerging church emphasizes on what unites as opposed to what divides. The emerging churches therefore advocate for the going to church by Christians to worship God as opposed to learning about God. “We do not go so that we can better understand, articulate, and defend our faith; we go so that we can commune with fellow believers…” (Patton, 2008).

The Emerging Church is hard to pin down on when dealing with certain issues. It is an evolving movement and not a denomination with an official doctrinal statement to refer to. The Emergent is a community within the larger context of the Emerging church. It embraces mystery considering that faith is a process and Christianity is a journey (Oakland).

Negative Emerging Church response to Postmodernism

Gibbs (2005) defines emerging churches as communities that practice the way of Jesus within postmodern cultures. The practices involved when emerging churches are defined this way are that the emerging churches identify with the life of Jesus, have their own way of transforming the secular realm and at the same time are able to live extremely communal lives.

This is what makes the churches have a spirit of welcoming strangers, serving with a lot of generosity and other things like participation in spiritual activities as producers, to lead as a body and as created beings.

Emerging when compared to emergent is wider, informal, global and church-centered. Emergent on the other hand is an official organization in both the U.S and the U.K. It is an intellectual and philosophical network of the emerging movement which means that all the emerging movements cannot be narrowed down to what is referred to as the Emergent Village.

The Emerging Churches provides what can be called a guideline to churches in the postmodern culture. The emerging movements are provocative in a deliberate and conscious manner, even the Christians involved are for the idea that the church is in dire need for a change and on that note, living as if the change has already occurred (Gibbs, 2005).

The emerging movements from a postmodern point of view portrays that it is hard to reduce post modernity to the denial of truth but instead it can be considered as the collapse of the inherited overarching explanations of life just like in Science or Marxism. The reason provided for the collapse is due to the impossibility to take their assumptions outside.

The evangelical Christians are however not discouraged from joining or embracing the elements of post modernity even when the consequences for the adoption of post modernity is either good or otherwise. The emerging movement is thought to have the ability to uphold faith which seeks understanding and trust which comes before the apprehension or the comprehension of gospel truths.

According to McKnight (2007), Christians in the postmodern context means that they either minister to post-moderns, with post-moderns or as post-moderns. Those who minister to post-moderns look at them as trapped in moral relativism and epistemological bankruptcy out of which they need to be rescued. Those who minister with the post-moderns live, work and talk to them, they accept their post modernity as part of life and generally view post modernity as a condition of our present lives and into which the Christians have been called to not only proclaim but to live out the gospel.

The Christians who minister to and with post-moderns make the greatest majority of the emerging Christians. They believe in Jesus Christ as the truth, they do not deny that the Bible preaches a gospel of truth and they stand for or they do not deny the truth. The Christians who choose to minister as post-moderns are for the idea that Christians should not embrace the truth. They speak of the importance of the social location in the shaping of how one views truth and they also speak of the end of metanarratives. They are known for their frequent expression of nervousness about propositional truth.

Patton (2008) in an evaluation of the emerging churches and soft modernism points out that the emerging churches are subject to compromise. Soft modernists are unwilling to stand for anything uncertain. But since there will always be those things that are uncertain, or those that we are less certain than others, where can the line be drawn between what is certain and what is not? What should be used to determine certainty of any issue should be the evidence we have on the subject which will show the level of certainty about it.

Besides if we are to have absolute certainty on everything we encounter, what would result is moral anarchy since most people would rather settle for nothing since they are not certain about anything at all. The soft modernists’ evidence humility with the ability to know the truth but the humility can be misleading at times since it tends to seek acceptance even with the threat of compromise as the cost. The idea of compromise may be what can be attributed to why the emerging churches do not attract many people since the conviction is lacking and people need to be assured that you stand for something to prevent one from falling for anything.

Tradition is another thing that must be present in the emerging churches but caution must be taken so as to avoid the overuse of tradition without making any considerations. For instance, when considering the traditions which came with the reformation. The emerging churches accepts the earlier traditions but denies the reformation a place which is in itself very contradicting since for the development of a certain theology to take place, all history must be taken into consideration (Patton, 2008).

Positive Emerging Church responses to Postmodernism

The emerging churches recognize the human need for mystery in the course of their Christian lives as advocated for by the soft modernists. It is these mysteries that help us to learn a lot considering that it is important for Christians to hold most of their beliefs in tension (Patton, 2008). Another positive element which can be derived from soft modernism is the focus that has been brought back to the Christians methods of doing theology.

Soft postmodernism has a lot of distrust in tradition and this has resulted to the church being looked upon with a lot of suspicion due to the unfounded traditions. The good thing that can be said to have come out of fundamentalism is the rebellion which was portrayed when postmodernism unmasked the negative aspects of the fundamentalist church. The rebellion against traditionalism can be said to have played an important part.

Nonfoundationalism

It is also called anti-foundationalism. It rejects the balanced image of the beliefs that support beliefs which are not basic. The non fundamentalists support the image of a mutually supporting belief web which can be passed on through a particular community. In theology, they are known for bringing to light how doctrine operates to regulate the form of life of a particular community which holds a certain belief.

Characteristics of a Postmodern Emerging Church Theology

The emerging or emergent church according to (Reynolds, 2008), is a controversial movement that was founded in the late twentieth century to react to the influence of modernism in Christianity. The proponents of the emerging church support postmodernism and they gave the movement the term ‘conversation’ with an aim of stressing how decentralized in nature with very little coordination the movement was due to the contributions it received from people with varying beliefs. There are no agreements about the nature and role of the church.

The aim of the emerging church movement is to dismantle and re-establish Christianity since most of the members who are found in North America, South Pacific, Africa and Western Europe all live in a postmodern culture.

Many of the emergent Christians have varying doctrines and practices but some of their characteristics and values are similar;

According to Reynolds, (2008), the believers practice missional living since they hold the belief that they have been sent as blessings to the people around them. This means that the lifestyle they adopt must be able to reflect the kingdom of the Lord through a number of ways for instance, evangelizing, social activism and through the talents that have been given to them by God.

The emerging Christians emphasize on the narrative presentations of faith and Bible through propositional presentations like systematic theology viewed as reductionism. A theology that gives priority to narrative can define its core and contextualize the content of the teachings of the bible.

The emerging churches theology is a matter of commitment which is methodological and celebrates, exploits and reinforces the community. It is also said to be relational, interactive as well as conversational in nature.

The emerging churches believe in Generous Orthodoxy (Reynolds, 2008). They have a good understanding of the doctrine which is trying to move from the debate between conservativeness and liberalism while still honoring the beliefs and traditions of the Postmodern, modern and premodern Christian denominations. The do not restrict dialogue with those people who belong to non-Christian religions.

The emergent churches are Christian-centered and they tend to hold a commitment to emulate the way Jesus Christ lived and they advocate for the love of God amongst all people especially towards those people who might be considered to be our enemies. This means that they are under the lordship of Christ. They look at the gospel as centered on Christ and this is based on the message about the Kingdom of God and the reconciliation between man, God and God’s creation.

The emerging Christians can be said to have a sense of plurality in their interpretation of the bible. They provide several interpretations with consideration of what the culture and other circumstances that lead to the reader having different interpretation of the same. The initial message is therefore put in a way that blends with the reader’s surrounding environment.

The emerging churches can be said to have a sense of Authenticity in that they are for the idea of sharing their personal experiences and interactions as testimonies in the course of their teachings in church or in groups called fellowships. For this reason, the emergent Christians have been labeled “true to the social constructs of their local narratives as opposed to other absolute, past and cross-cultural authority” (Reynolds, 2008). This and the fact that their theology’s core is a reading of the scriptures and seems to have a good understanding of intimate relationship that exists between text and the historical narrative.

The emergent churches are also famous for how they create a conducive environment for conversation or dialog for all those who have differing opinions. They allow people to talk and incase of disagreements, both parties are listened to with grace compared to what is said to be “the dogmatic proclamation found in historic Christianity” (Reynolds, 2008).

Other Characteristics of an emerging theology are; they are that it is mainly for a community that possesses continuity and is selfcontinous in nature. The theology is committed to renewing of its own discourse which includes speech and all the other methods of communication. The theology of the emerging churches attempt to integrate as opposed to dissociate the modes of thought, analysis and practice that draws on the mind of the entire community of faith. The theology has an inclination towards discovering the meaning and truth that exists outside itself.

Finally, the theology of emerging churches bears an eschatological orientation towards the renewal of the creation of humanity within a comprehensive ecology which makes it more public than private.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it has been established that the emerging churches are Christian movements whose participants or followers aim to live their faith in modern society by emulating Christ Jesus without necessarily considering the traditions of the Christian religion.

Emerging churches can also be said to be the fresh thinking and practice within the church. It is considered to have a mission focus in a western post-modern context a thinking which has been developing for over a decade (Reynolds, 2008).

The emerging churches were as a result of the perceived influence of modernism in the western world of Christianity. The Christians who advocated for the changes within the church did it in response to existing cultural shifts. According to them the contemporary church was culturally bound to modernism and they therefore aimed to reach a culture that was no longer related to some common practices of the Christians.

The emerging Christians started by challenging the church of the twentieth century due to the extreme emphasis it laid on the pretense of goodness and its preoccupation with conservative Christians in the political process. Other reasons are how the twentieth century church used the institutional structures, its theology was systematic and it used propositional teaching methods, it was also perceived to have a preoccupation with buildings and how much it tried to bring people into the church as opposed to improving their surroundings.

The emerging churches therefore aimed at re-assembling the modern church and its culture by enhancing dialogue or two-way conversations whose aim was to lead people to Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit on their own terms. This explains why the emerging church movements have a diversification of beliefs and practices although some concentrate on issues like social activism, political activism, sacred rituals and the good works.

Postmodernism can also be called the modernist movement. It is aesthetic, political or social philosophy and literary. It can be referred to as a cultural and intellectual phenomenon. Initially it was a reaction to modernism and was to a large extent influenced the disillusionment induced by the Second World War (Patton, 2008).

Postmodernism is diverse and the emerging churches to a large extent are diverse. The emerging churches differ on a number of peripheral theological and practical issues. The issues do not help in the definition of the movement much as they are a real part of the emerging church movement. The emerging churches share a lot of things with the non-emergent movements. For instance, the belief in contextualization, friendship evangelism, fellowship and other things like caring for the needy in the society (Patton, 2008).

The emerging church movement is popular for its diversification in terms of the groups of people in it. The people identify with Christianity but they feel that in the postmodern era, there is a need for the radical reshaping of the beliefs and practices of the church so that they can conform to postmodernism.

According to (Glenz, 1996) “…the rejection of certain features of the modern project, such as its quest for certain, objective, and universal knowledge, along with its dualism and its assumption of the goodness of knowledge. It is this critical agenda, rather than any proposed constructive paradigm to replace the modern vision that unites postmodern thinkers.” From this, it can be established that postmodernism does not accept the basic premises of modern epistemology.

The modernist theory looks at perception as corresponding to the truth and language which refers to a referent which is independent. Language refers to something real, in the mind of the person who communicates. Most aspects of modernism cannot be combined with the Christian faith but the referential theory of language and the correspondence theory of the truth is what synchronize them with the beliefs of the scripture.

The leaders of emerging churches have been known to accuse evangelicals of being bound by the culture of modernism. Evangelicalism has been a countercultural movement which rejects some of the modernisms beliefs for instance their strict empiricism that does not allow miracles and revelations.

The only groups that can be said to have accommodated modernism wholly are the classic, theological liberals. Within the post modern thought, there is no normal truth or morality which means that it is hard to dictate to postmodernists what is true and right for them. They are for the idea that truth and other morals can only be found within the context of a specific community and they are different for different communities.

Christians must be sensitive to their cultures but the gospel must never be altered to fit what is considered the culture of a certain group of people. This is what makes Christianity which has been post modernized to be called compromised Christianity which most emerging churches are guilty of due to the way they have embraced some beliefs of post modernism.

References

Berger, P. L. The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. Doubleday: New York. 1967.

Gibbs, Eddie and Bolger, Ryan. Emerging Churches: Creating Christian Community inPostmodern Cultures. Baker Academic. 2005.

Grenz, Stanley J. A Primer on Postmodernism. Grand Rapids: WM. B.Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996.

Groothuis Douglas R. Truth Decay: Defending Christianity against the Challenges of Postmodernism. London: Intervarsity Press. 2000.

Kimball, Dan. The Emerging Church

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In the world we live in today there are many different religions. Islam is a religion that has over one billion followers worldwide. It teaches that one must submit to God (Allah) in heart, soul, and deed. A person that follows Islam religion is called a Muslim. Islam is based on the teachings of Muhammad, the central figure in Islam.

He symbolizes to Muslims the perfect man that shows what it means to be a Muslim. The Quran is the book of Allah and it is written in Arabic. The word Quran means recitation in Arabic. All Muslims must recite the Quran in Arabic, regardless of their national language.

The Quran consists of one hundred and fourteen chapters of six thousand verses, originally revealed to Muhammad over a period of twenty-two years (Esposito, Islam 17). These chapters which are called surahs are arranged according to length, from the longest being some twenty-two pages of Arabic text for sura two, through the shortest being only a single line for sura one hundred and eight (Rippin19).

The name of Allah appears more than two thousand five hundred times in the Quran (Esposito, Islam 22). The Quran emphasizes service to God. “It envisions a society based on the unity and equality of believers, a society in which moral and social justice will counter balance oppression of the weak and economic exploitation” (Esposito, Islam 29). The Quran is the central religious text used by most Muslims to guide their prayer rituals, worship services, and family traditions.

Muslims have many different forms of prayer rituals that they perform on a daily basis. To them, prayer is very important in their way of life and they use the Quran for many of their prayers. They perform prayer rituals called Salat five times each day. They pray at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening. These five prayers, in the order of which they are performed, are called salat al-subh, salat al-zuhr, salat al-asr, salat al-maghrib, and salat al-isha (Rippin 101).

Since Muslims live all over the world, there are Muslims praying all the time because of the time differences. Prayer is always done in the direction of the Kaaba shrine in Mecca. Kaaba is the House of God and Mecca is the holiest city of Islam and the birthplace of Muhammad (Esposito, What Everyone 24). The prayers are said in Arabic and they combine “meditation, devotion, moral elevation, and physical exercise” (Esposito, What Everyone 24).

Their basic physical positions for prayer are standing, bowing, sitting or kneeling, and prostration (Zepp 82). The prayers take about five to ten minutes each (Ahmed 33). “The whole sequence of the ritual is repeated twice in the morning, three times at sunset, and four times in the noon, afternoon and evening prayers” (Rippin 101). This equals to seventeen daily prayers.

Additional prayers can also be performed. There is the witr prayer which is performed at night (Rippin 102). Also, the wird prayer is a private prayer based on the recitation of the Quran (Rippin 102). Before Muslims pray they must perform ablution. Ablution is a spiritual and physical cleaning. They begin by cleaning their minds from thoughts and concerns and concentrate on God and his blessings. Then they wash their hands, face and feet.

The arms they wash up to the elbows. Then they say, “I bear witness that there is no god but God; He has no partner; and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and messenger” (Esposito, What Everyone 25). The person that recites this must say the statement with an honest intention. If a person is under ceremonial impurity, then he must wash his whole body. The cause of this impurity is any seminal emission or contact with sexual organs (Williams 98).

Worshippers may also use sand when water is not available. This process is called tayammum. The person places the hands on the soil and rubs the face with the hands (Williams 98). There are two types of ablution. They are ghusl and wudu. Ghusl is done after acts of great defilement like sexual intercourse. Wudu is done after small defilements like going to the bathroom, sleep, and simple contact with the opposite sex (Farah 138).

Muslims also follow the Quran as a guide to do their worship services. They follow the Five Pillars of Islam to Worship Allah. The first pillar is daily confession of the faith called shahada. A Muslim must say, “There is no god but God (Allah) and Muhammad is the messenger of God” (Esposito, What Everyone 17). This proclamation confirms to Muslims that there is only one God and to idolize others is an unforgivable sin. The second pillar is daily ritual prayer called salat. They are performed five times a day.

The prayers are recitations of the Quran in Arabic. The prayers are done with physical movements. These movements are: standing, bowing, kneeling, touching the ground with one’s forehead, and sitting. The recitation and movements demonstrate submission, humility, and the adoration of God (Esposito, What Everyone 19). At the conclusion of the prayer, they recite the shahada and they repeat their “peace greeting” twice. This “peace greeting” says “Peace be upon all of you and the mercy and blessings of God” (Esposito, Islam 89).

The third pillar is paying the alms tax called zakat. Muslims are required to pay an annual contribution of two and a half percent of their individual wealth and assets. This money is used to help the poor, orphans, and widows. Zakat is an obligation to respond to the needs of the less fortunate. It is an act of worship, or thanksgiving to God, and of service to the community (Esposito, Islam 90). The fourth pillar is fasting during the month of Ramadan and is called sawn. It is done once a year on the ninth month of the Islamic calendar.

During this month, Muslims that are healthy must abstain from dawn to sunset from food, drink, and sexual activity. Families eat before sunrise to sustain them until sunset. Then they eat a light meal at dusk and eat a late evening meal (Esposito, Islam 91). Fasting lasts for twenty-nine or thirty days. Ramadan is a time of spiritual discipline and of expressing gratitude towards God (Esposito, Islam 90). “Total abstinence reminds the Muslim that each life is one of sacrifice, dependent on God” (Zepp 88). Muslims recite a special prayer that is only recited during Ramadan (Esposito, Islam 91).

The Eid al-Fitr is the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast of Ramadan and is a celebration that lasts three days (Esposito, Islam 91). The fifth pillar is a pilgrimage to Mecca called hajj. At least once in their lifetime, a Muslim must make the sacrifice to make this pilgrimage which is done after Ramadan. The conditions to go are that they must pay for themselves without burrowing the money and be able to afford it (Ahmed 37). They are from different classes, colors, nationalities, and races and they are in the same dress performing the same rituals (Zepp 90).

About two million Muslims go every year. Pilgrim men must wear two seamless white sheets and the women must cover their whole body except for their hands and face. These coverings symbolize purity as well as the unity and equality of all believers (Esposito, What Everyone 22). As Muslims arrive in Mecca they go to the Kaaba where they move counterclockwise around the Kabba seven times symbolizing their entry before God.

The Kaaba is known as the “House of God”. It is a cube-shaped house in which the sacred black stone is embedded (Esposito, Islam 91). In the coming days, the pilgrims participate in several ritual ceremonies that symbolize important religious events. They also visit the Plain of Arafat where they stand before God in repentance for forgiveness for all Muslims (Esposito, Islam 92). The Eid al-Adha is the Feast of Sacrifice which lasts four days and symbolizes the annual completion of the pilgrimage to Mecca. Here they sacrifice animals and most of the meat is given to the poor (Esposito, Islam 92). Also, during daily prayers, the faithful go to the mosque to pray.

The mosque is a place of peace and serenity without images or idols of worship. The mosque has a carpet on which to stand or sit and meditate. “If a mosque is unavailable, a prayer rug may serve as a “mosque”, and each rug will have a point in its design to orient the prayer to Mecca” (Zepp 81). Muslims stand and bow before God. Worshippers begin by raising their hands and proclaiming God’s greatness, “Allahu Akbar”, or God is most great (Esposito, What Everyone 25).

Then, passages of the Quran are recited. On Fridays a great congregational prayer is done in the afternoon called juma. The men and women worship in separate groups (Esposito, What Everyone 33). This prayer is led by a leader who is called imam. There is also a sermon called khutba which combines religious advice on social and political issues based on the Quran’s teachings (Esposito, What Everyone 33). Muslims use the Quran as a guide to worship Allah. They invoke the name Allah (God) on an average of no less than twenty times a day (Farah 6). Worshipping Allah has many effects on their actions.

Muslims shed the attire of daily life for a plain white linen cloth as a symbol of equality. A person must profess the Shahadah, or open testimony which states their belief in Allah. “The words of the Shahadah are said fourteen times a day if a Muslim does all daily prayers. The Shahadah is heard at every significant occasion from birth to death” (Zepp 80). “Al-Islam” signifies the total submission to the will of God. Muslims also have obligations they must follow.

For instance, they have obligations such as obedience to Allah, kindness, consideration, and chastity (Farah 127-28). They also have a social morality that requires them to place duty before right, as well as ceremonial duties (Farah 128). These duties are incumbent regardless of their status in society. Their most important act of faith in their ceremonial duties is “There is no god but God”, or al-Shahadah (Esposito, Islam 88).

Muslims also use the Quran to guide their family traditions. To them, marriage is the basis of a family. Although to have a valid Muslim marriage, a marriage contract or marriage proposal must be mutually agreed upon by the bride and the groom (Zepp 99). The man must give the bride a mahr, or gift, as a form of surety. This gift is usually money, but it can be any other thing. Two Muslim men must be witnesses to the offer and to the acceptance (Zepp 99). Unlike other religions, marriage is not a sacrament but a social contract to establish family unity (Zepp 99).

Marriage is preferred to be between two Muslims and within the extended family, even though men are allowed to marry non-Muslim women (Esposito, Islam 94). “The Quran permits a man to marry up to four wives, provided that he is able to support and treat them equally” (Esposito, Islam 95). On the other hand, “The vast majority of men are monogamous” (Ahmed 152). The marriage “emphasizes the great significance attached to family life as a force for unity in Islamic society” (Farah 166). Divorce and remarriage is allowed as a last resort. A requirement stated in the Quran says that a husband must pronounce “I divorce you” three times for a period of three months to allow time for reconciliation (Esposito, Islam 96).

Nowadays, in many countries, Muslim women can request a divorce from the courts based on different grounds. Also, in a marriage, the men must pay the household expenses and he has the final decisions on family matters. The wife takes care of the house and the children and supervises their religious and moral training (Esposito, Islam 96). On the other hand, the wife obeys her husband. The birth of a son is a joyful event for every Muslim family. When the son reaches the age of seven, the circumcision rite is performed and strictly observed (Farah 167).

Male circumcision is required in Islam according to tradition and Muhammad’s example (Sunnah) (Esposito, What Everyone 101). Circumcision symbolizes submission to God’s will. It is an important part of a boy’s life showing a transition to adulthood that includes male responsibilities and attendance to public prayer. This circumcision rite launches the boy’s formal study of the Quran at school (Farah 167). The daughter on the other hand stays close to the house where she receives her education. The girl is taught to become a good housewife and mother. The parents’ main concern is about a properly arrange marriage (Farah, 167).

For Muslims, the Quran is the central religious text that guides their prayer rituals, worship services, and family traditions. Memorization of the entire Quran brings immense prestige and merit. The Quran provides rules that guide a person in relation to modesty, marriage, divorce, inheritance, feuding, intoxicants, gambling, diet, theft, murder, fornication, and adultery (Esposito, Islam 29).

The Quran emphasizes service to God because is their belief that it is on earth and in society that God’s will is to govern and prevail (Esposito, Islam 28). Islam is not only a religion but an all-embracing way of life (Farah, 14). The Quran is the sacred text that is most widely read in the world today (Farah 79). As a result, Muslims use it to help guide their spiritual life all over the world.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Akbar S. Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World. London: I.B.Tauris, 1999.

Esposito, John L. Islam: the Straight Path. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1998.

Esposito, John L. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. New York: Oxford UP, 2002.

Farah, Caesar E. Islam: Beliefs and Observances. 7th ed. Hauppauge: Barron’s, 2003.

Rippin, Andrew. Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Vol. 2. London: Routledge, 2001.

Williams, John A., ed. Islam. New York: Washington Square P Inc., 1961.

Zepp Jr., Ira G. A Muslim Primer: Beginner’s Guide to Islam. 2nd ed. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas P, 2000.

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Investigating Arts Management Practice

This report will look into technical jobs in the theatre industry. Looking at the people who work as technicians. Do they have a technical theatre degree or did they get into the job by gaining ‘hands on’ experience. The report will show if there are specific requirements for technicians e.g. to have a degree to work in the west end on a ‘high profile’ show or if to work in a regional theatre that has a variety of small scale shows, would ‘hands on’ experience be preferred, as they would not just be working in one area on a show, they will need the knowledge to work in all areas of backstage in a theatre.

Research was compiled by emailing questions to production and touring theatre companies, interviewing the technical managers of two regional theatres, and from sourcing information from job adverts in ‘The Stage’, on careers advice websites and on theatre forums specifically for theatre technicians.

The findings show that technicians who work in the regional theatres mainly started out as casuals who then gained experience and applied to the job full time, where as the production and touring theatre company do not necessarily look for people with degrees but if they are applying for a manager or head of department job then it would only help their application, or if they were wanting to work as a stage manager then preferably studying a specific stage management course at a drama school would also be benifical.

To conclude although a degree is not needed to get into the industry if you were wanting to go into a management position then having a degree could help you application as the company would know that you would have had some level of ‘paper based’ learning which would have involved for example financial studies.

Introduction

This report is based on the question:

‘To work in the theatre industry is it necessary to gain a technical theatre degree or is experience preferred’

This subject has become an increasingly talked about topic within the theatre industry. Older theatre managers nowadays never had the chance to gain a qualification, as there was no such thing, some still feel that it is a waste of time to go the academic route as the job is practical and this is the way to learn it.

This topic is discussed a lot on the technical forum ‘Blue Room’. Where technicians can speak to each other asking questions about the jobs backstage, or how to get into the industry. One member of the forum answers a similar question about which university courses give the best training to get into the industry:

‘I don’t believe the best way to get involved in this industry is to take an academic course – production/sound is a very practical hands on job that benefits more from experience than teaching.’ ‘Gareth Young, Freelance lighting designer & sound engineer’

This is the way a lot of people think in the industry but as there is now more choice of specific courses to study to get into theatre, a lot of people are taking these up.

‘The industry is changing as there are now more and more specific technical courses. I think that the non-University route is a valid one and I know many people who have been successful without going to Uni.’ ‘3Pens – Blue Room’

After speaking to the technical manager at the regional theatre Wycombe Swan, who did study a degree in drama said on the topic

‘It helps to get a degree if you want to go into teaching, but 10 years ago the industry laughed at people who went the university route, but people are slowly beginning to realise that it might be a good idea, not necessarily to become a technician but if they ever wanted to become a technical manager’ Sebastian Petit – Technical Manager at the Wycombe Swan

Literature Review

When researching this topic a lot of information was found on the technical theatre forum ‘Blue Room’ (bringing backstage online). This is where people who are specifically interested in the backstage jobs of a theatre can talk to other people about any questions they have or just have a general chat.

Topics include general chats about productions, non-technical chats about insurance, working overseas etc, technical forums for each technical area, stage management, lighting, props etc and another for training and qualifications, ‘A forum for the discussion of Training and Education issues’. This is where the research information was sourced.

Many people have joined this forum asking question such as ‘Interested in the industry – Where to start?’ These questions are usually asked by younger aged people deciding what to do after GCSE’s or people who are at the age to go to university and are asking what is the best option to get into the industry, a degree or experience?

In one of the forums ‘Industry Training, Interesting comment from L&S International’ ‘Paulears’ talks about an article that was printed in the monthly journal ‘Lighting and Sound International’ added 22 April 2007.

“One thing that I am very keen to do is head off as many kids as I possibly can from taking the college route. We do have quite a few people here from LIPA and Liverpool Community College, but they will all tell you, more or less, they have wasted three years of their life attaining a piece of paper that, when they walk in here or anywhere else in the industry, isn’t worth anything at all. They might be able to give me a brilliant description of the polar pattern of a microphone but they can’t even put up a mic stand properly or wind a cable.” ‘Andy Dockerty, the Managing Director of Liverpool’s Adlib-Audio’

This shows that in his company experience is preferred, that although the student could explain technically they couldn’t do the job practically, therefore would have to gain the experience after gaining the degree, setting them back 3 years that they could have had that experience.

This topic has also been discussed in the weekly newspaper ‘The Guardian’. In the guardian education, there was an article ‘Playing in the mud’ This article is discussing ‘the future of live events is threatened by a lack of technicians … Step up the new skills academy.’

They are discussing the future of the live music business:

‘No Glastonbury festival, no Radiohead tours and no Brit Awards … that could be the future of the live music business, according to research for the National Skills Academy for the creative and cultural industries’ Allan Glen – The Guardian

The popular live music industry has bought major opportunities both for the education sector and the live music industry. Thus allowing a variety of courses to be set up, but there are some strong views about this within the music industry

“What you don’t want is someone breezing in waving a degree and telling everyone how to do their job.” Geoff Ellis, director of DF Concerts, The company behind T in the Park festival and the Glasgow venue King Tut’s Wah Wah Hut.

This is how the technical manager at The Civic Centre Aylesbury feels, as he doesn’t have a degree, he feels that people do not have the practical knowledge to do the job, even with the ‘piece of paper’. Also mentioned in the article was Chris Hill, director of Wigwam Acoustics, who launched ‘the company’s Charlie Jones sponsorship programme at the School of Sound Recording in Manchester’. Talking about the company he works for, and the school he set up:

“All the CVs we receive from kids on music courses go straight in the bin, our programme at least allows students to be taken seriously by prospective employers.” Chris Hill

The general vibe of the article is that going down the education route does not gain you any idea of what it is like to actually work in the industry, it is no good knowing that you have to do something, but not actually be able to do it. Andy Reynolds a university lecture and a tour manager explains,

“The live event production industry is very sceptical of graduates, they are often not prepared for the reality of what they will be doing, which is cleaning mud off speaker boxes that have been at Glastonbury for a week.”

Frazer Mackenzie who also works as a lecture in music management and production feels that

“If the industry feels graduates leave university without the necessary skills, it should contribute more actively to the education process,”

Due to this the government are speeding up the opening of the National Skills Academy (NSA) for live entertainment and the DCMS are to launch an apprentice scheme. The course will concentrate on courses in lighting, sound and backstage skills, therefore allowing students to get the ‘piece of paper’ as well as learn the skills practically. The idea of bringing back apprenticeships gives everyone to do both routes, whether they are academic or not.

Methodology

To conduct this study my idea was to look at two regional theatres and two London theatres. The two regional theatres that were researched were the Wycombe Swan and Aylesbury Civic Centre, these venues are receiving, so they have a variety of performances by different production companies. Their technicians are not hired to do a specific job, for example stage management; they need to have the knowledge to work in all areas of technical. To find out if their technicians have experience or degrees, they were interviewed, simply asking about their technicians, and how they got into theatre.

To find out if technicians in the west end had degrees, e-mails were sent out with these questions:

If people who enquire to you about work have either the qualification or experience,
If the majority of people who work for you have a degree or have gained the experience instead?

But with no reply, contacts were then made with a production company, who contract staff to theatres for the run of a show and a touring theatre company. Information was also gathered from collecting programmes from the west end venues that have biography of the lighting and sound operators; these were then used to see if they had attended university.

‘The Stage’ a newspaper for the performing arts industry was also used a source, where adverts for technicians are placed, these describe what their person specification is, what they want from an employ. Research was also done by looking at careers website for example learndirect and prospects.

Finding and Discussions

I wanted to find out if technicians in either regional or London theatres have degrees or experience. From the interviews that were conducted with the technical managers of the regional theatres it showed that none of their technicians had done the educational route.

At the Wycombe Swan many of the technicians were casuals while at school, then became full-time once finished. At the Aylesbury Civic Centre all of the technicians are older, a couple of them came from other theatres, one whom used to work in London loading and unloading the trucks for shows, the others just applied with no theatre experience.

Because e-mails were not sent back from the two London theatres that were contacted, contact was then made with production companies that contract our staff to these venues. Companies that were contacted and replied were PSL “one of the leading rental and event production companies based in the UK”.

Darren Glossop, a director of the company answered:

‘Generally we are not bothered whether people have degrees or not as mostly they are irrelevant to what we want. What is important is the drive and the enthusiasm to be successful and of course fit the job profile, which is the most important thing.

So long as people are organised, are intelligent, motivated and have common sense that is good enough. For education generally we look for English and Maths GCSE’s. We have taken on graduates but not because they had degrees but more because they were the right fit for the business.’

This shows that for their company a degree is not necessary needed, they just need to be able to show that they can do the job.

For another side of the industry contact was made with the Northern Ballet touring theatre company, the same e-mail was sent out and this was the response from Diane Tabern, PA to the Directors:

‘For some areas of theatre work, e.g. lighting, stage, wardrobe etc. degrees are less important than practical experience – though these can only add strength to an application as Heads of these departments need to balance budgets, manage staff etc. as well as the practical work involved. The Government are currently looking into Creative Skills Apprenticeships for such areas and hopefully this would lead to academic/practical courses for each area. For other departments e.g. Stage & Stage Management degrees do exist already so naturally having one would put you above a candidate who only had practical experience. I would imagine in our technical departments most have gained experience in their chosen field rather than degrees.’

This answer shows that degrees are not needed to become a technician but if they are wanting to progress into management then they would be needed to strengthen their application, she also mentioned about the apprenticeships that were said before in the guardian article, mentioned in the literature review, thus showing that this would be a better option for people to get into this industry as it gives you both the experience and the academic side of job role.

Also mentioned was that the technicians that already worked for the company had fallen into the job and gained the experience rather then the study route, suggesting that they are probable of an older age.

This company shows that they do accept people with degrees, rather then at the regional theatres who would prefer people who had gained the experience practically as they have to be able to do the variety of backstage jobs, whereas the production and touring company only have people for specific roles, for example if they are hired to be a sound engineer then this is all they will do, they wont need to know about lighting or stage as they will not work in them areas.

From looking at ‘The Stage’ job vacancies you can see that there is only one (Appendices 1.0) that is advertising for a theatre technician. This specifically asks for the person applying ‘to be educated to a good standard’ and need ‘relevant experience’.

This shows that they are looking for someone who has a degree, or at least a level of higher education, with relevant experience that would have been gained while doing this.

From the other job vacancies (Appendices 2.0) you can see that the majority of these are for technical manager jobs, for a deputy chief electrician, and a theatre technician. This asks for ‘a minimum of one years experience’ and to be ‘multi-skilled in all aspects of technical theatre’. All of the others say ‘previous experience is essential’ or with ‘a minimum of three years experience’

This shows that they are looking for someone who has experience rather then a degree, as they would have gained more experience working. If someone has a degree this would then mean having to gain three years experience after three years studying, where people who have studied for the degree would then no want to start at the bottom gaining the experience which they could have been doing instead of the degree.

Looking at the careers advice websites you can see that for technical crew jobs it says that you do not need any formal qualifications to become one ‘You would often start as a casual technician’ Learndirect http://www.learndirect-advice.co.uk/helpwithyourcareer/jobprofiles/profiles/profile695/

It does say that if you want to progress into technical and production roles, for example specifically stage management you could enrol in a technical theatre or stage management course at a university or drama school.

This shows that although you do not need the degree to get work in a theatre, you may find it useful to study a specific stage management course to get into that job role.

From the prospects careers advice website it states the following entry requirements for a technical stage manager:

It is still possible to enter theatre stage work from any degree discipline, but candidates with relevant qualifications are often preferred. If you are interested in technical theatre, you should ensure that your degree has considerable practical content. Prospects –http://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Explore_types_of_jobs/Types_of_Job/p!eipaL?state=showocc&idno=463&pageno=3

This suggests that it is better to get into the job with a degree, but preferably with a relevant one, that has a practical content. These are usually best from a drama school, or a university with facilities to support the practical content, for example a theatre. It also states that it is possible to get into the job without the degree, but practical experience is needed.

Entry without a degree or HND is sometimes possible. Practical experience of performance-related work and technical skills in sound, lighting or carpentry can be helpful. Some stage managers come through acting or writing route. Prospects – htttp://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Explore_types_of_jobs/Types_of_Job/p!eipaL?state=showocc&idno=463&pageno=3

Conclusion

From the research I undertook to answer the question

‘To work in the theatre industry is it necessary to gain a technical theatre degree or is experience preferred’

it was shown from the interviews I had with the technical managers of the two regional theatres that their technicians were not a degree level, and had ‘fallen’ into the job by starting as a casual technician, gaining experience then starting full time, thus showing the company that they are competent at working, and already have the skills to do the job.

From the e-mails that were sent back from the production company and touring Theatre Company it was shown degrees are not looked for when a person is applying for the job, that they are less important then practical experience but for the touring theatre company if they were applying for a head of department role, or specifically a stage management role then a degree would strengthen their application.

From these results and the adverts that were placed in the stage the report shows that it is not necessary to gain a technical theatre degree to get work in the industry, but if someone did want to progress into technical management then a degree could only help. This could be because there is a significant amount of paper based learning when studying a degree where the applicant would have these skills, for example most technical theatre degrees have a module of touring their own show.

In this module they have to put together a budget, and know about licensing issues, and although this could eventually be learnt ‘on the job’ they would already have some knowledge of this from going the academic route. Also seen from the results if someone wanted to go specifically into a stage management role it seems that they would be better off studying a specific course for example at a drama school.

This could be because the job, although ‘hands on’, it is also a management position, where you will have control of a stage and technical team beneath you. This job also involves knowledge of budget and licensing issues, which are taught in university and drama school modules.

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TESOL stands for Teaching English to speakers of other languages. Of late, the English teaching industry has developed this acronym which is associated to learning, teaching and examination and also certification of the English language. Presently, the world studies two major branches of English; British English and American English. Since the English language is the world language there has been creation of different acronyms all over the globe by trainers and educators in this field.

North America’s # I rated TESOL institutions and Global TESOL collages leads to the way in professional academic based TESOL in the whole world. All the in-class and distance education syllabuses are designed professionally, monitored, administered and quality controlled so as to ensure that the graduates are of very high quality of teachers available today. The in-class TESOL guaranteed courses are offered across America and Canada.

Globally, the North America and other colleges have become a household name in TESOL distance learning, offering quality professional quality TESOL diploma and certification courses online and also through correspondence (Ohta 2001, pg 53). About 35 percent of graduates complete successfully their TESOL courses by distance learning. Global TESOL institution was the first institution to provide a TESOL teacher qualification program in Canada. It has currently expanded its programs to include professional and advanced level diplomas to achieve the demands of students’ worldwide and English teachers.

All basic and secondary institution students presently in the United States will be contributing to and living in an increasingly varied society and inter reliant community a countries in the 21 century. To understand their social, personal and long term career goals, individuals will be in a position to communicate with others proficiently, effectively and appropriately. The challenge of modern education is to prepare all the students for life in the new world, together with the learners who join schools with another language other than English. There has been increased purpose aim of identifying the ESL standards and their roles in associated with the system.

In the United States, communities and schools are experiencing increased cultural and linguistic diversity. Annually, more and more learners with different languages other than English and who come from communities, homes with varied traditions, histories educational experiences and world views, fill classrooms in urban, rural, and suburban settings. There has been an increment in the number of youths and school-age children who speak other languages other than English by 68.6 percent in the last 10 years.

In 1993, the English language learners in United States public schools totalled to more than 2.5 million. Currently, projections estimate that, by the year 2000 most of the school age individuals in over 50 major United States will be from language minority surroundings (Klahr 1976, pg 86). There is a great variation in proficiency level and academic needs to the ESL students.

Some of the ESOL students are current refugees and immigrants, taken to the United States by their families searching for refuge from persecution, political repression or by families looking for economic opportunities like business activities. Other students have acquired limited formal schooling. Some students are members of ethno linguistic clusters that have stayed on the continent for generations, some more extensively than the United States has existed as a nation. Some of the students have had former education, including accuracy in their nature languages.

The primarily concern is with the students in basic and secondary schools who are non-native speakers of English and who are referred to as ESOL learners and students. There have been standards set to describe and specify the language competencies ESOL students in secondary and preliminary schools so as to become fully proficient in English, to have unrestricted admission to grade-appropriate directions in challenging educational subjects, and decisively to lead rich and prolific lives.

The establishment of the standards has been by the effort of other national standard set of groups especially by the foreign language standards and English language arts. The total three language standards schemes share an emphasis on the essence of: assessment that respects cultural and language diversity, the role of ESOL learners’ native language in their general learning development and English language, cognitive, cultural and social processes in academic development and language, language as communication, the societal and individual value of both bi-and multilingualism and also language learning through significance and meaningful use (Braine 1990, pg 121).

For TESOL research to be effective for second learning, its standards have seemed not to work alone. In turn, other professional organizations and firms have devised world-class standards which are developmentally appropriate and useful. These standards provide high levels of success in content education for all scholars, including the ESOL students. But the substance standards do not provide the educators with the strategies and directions they need to help ESOL learners to get these standards because they have an assumptions that, students ability and understanding English to engage with the content.

Most of the substance standards do not recognize the central role of language in the content achievement. Nor do they emphasize the styles of learning and particular assessment and instructional requirements of students who are still developing ability in ability in English. In summary, the substance standards do not add English to the personal home languages, SOESL standards are high required in TESOL learning.

The ESL standards have recognized that besides school entry, the students should acquire extra culture and language and learn the competencies in English that are characteristics of English native speakers at the same age and that are basic to the full English language skills attainment and other content standards. The ESL principals articulate developmental English language requirements of ESOL students and highest special assessments and instructional considerations that must be provided to ESOL students if they are to gain from and get the high principles proposed for other matters.

Therefore, the ESL principles are vital because they; emphasize the main role of language in attaining of other principles, emphasize on the English language development requirements of ESOL students, and also ensure provision of directions to tutors on how to meet the requirements of ESOL learners (Harkla 1999, pg 93).

Several myths have been associated with the second language learning which prevail both among several educational professionals, several lay persons and policy makers. It is perceived that ESOL students learn English quickly and easily due to being exposed to and enclosed by native English speakers. The fact of this matter is that it takes more time for an individual to learn the second language.

It also involves a quite significant effort on the part of the student. It is hard work to learn the second language because even the youngest students do not just simply pick up the language. It is also perceived that when ESOL students can be able to communicate comfortably in English, they have proficiently developed in English language. The fact of this is that it can take a student for ESOL around 6-9 years to attain the same level of proficiency in learning English as a native speaker.

More so the ESOL student taking part in thoughtfully designed programs of sheltered or bilingual content direction remain in school longer and achieve significantly higher academic rates as compared to learners without such advantages. Majority of the people also perceive that, in earlier periods, refuge children learned English rapidly and assimilated quicker in to American life. Contrary to that, most of the refuge students in the early part of this century did not easily learn English quickly or well. Most of them dropped out of education to work in sectors that did need the type of academic attainment and communication skills that substantive career opportunities need today.

Consequently, TESOL came up with a vision of effective learning for all students. The purpose of ESL principal can only be fully recognized in the wider context of learning for ESOL students. Therefore, before presentation of the ESL principles, it is of great importance to outline and explain the over arching vision of effective learning. Some of the TESOL’s vision include: the knowledge of over one culture and language which is of advantageous for all learners, the effective learning also needs comprehensive provision of the first rate services and full acquisition to the services by all learners (Braine 2005, pg 88).

All educational personnel should have an assumption of responsibility for the learning of ESOL learners. At the same time, effective education for ESOL learning comprises of native like levels of ability in English. Last but not the least the effective learning for ESOL students should include the promotion and maintenance of ESOL learner’s native language in community and school context.

Effective learning for ESOL students includes native like stages of proficiency in English. For ESOL learners to be successful in a learning institution and ultimately outside school, they must be in a position to utilize English to accomplish their personal, educational and social goals with the similar proficiency as English native speakers. In school, the ESOL students require to be able to both write and read English so as to demonstrate their learning and achieve academic content.

ESOL students also require to be in a position to follow routine classroom directives provided in English and recognize and utilize appropriate communication models so as to become successful learners in the academic environment. Lastly, ESOL students require using English to have effective function in social settings when outside the school and also in academic performance and assessment principals that differentiate between academic and language achievement are also needed if ESOL learners are to be granted full credit for learning academic content as they acquire English (Braine 2005, pg 114).

For effective learning of ESOL, there should be promotion and maintenance of ESOL students native languages in both community and school contexts. Through definition, the ESOL students already know and utilize other languages. Both the school completion and academic achievement for ESOL learners is enhanced significantly especially when they are able to use their native language facilitates development of the second language. The development and use of ESOL learner’s native language also serves United States national interests since it increases the cultural and linguistic cultural available as the US competes globally in economy.

The achievement of challenging world class educational principles by learners is only possible if all the schools prepare their educational missions with ESOL students as well as others in mind. For comprehensive learning, there should be sharing of responsibilities by and collaboration among all educational professionals working with the ESOL learners (Helbert 1976, pg 155). Professionals should extend their knowledge to encompass aspects of relevance to the learning of ESOL students.

References

Braine G, (1990). Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching. Mahwah.

Braine G, (2005). Teaching English to the World: History, Curriculum, and Practice. Mahwah.

Harkla L, (1999). Generation 1.5 Meets College Composition: Issues in the Teaching of Writing to U.S.-Educated Learners of ESL. Mahwah.

Hiebert E, (2005). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary: Bringing Research to Practice. Mahwah.

Klahr D, (1976). Cognition, Learning, Psychology of Collections. Hills lade.

Ohta A, (2001). Second language acquisition processes in the classroom. Mahwah.

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Human variability is an important component of social science datasets. How do social researchers account for this variability when drawing conclusions from data? Describe two situations in which the basis for these conclusions is undermined.

Introduction

The information contained in social science datasets aims to provide an accurate description of the social world (Byrne, 1998, p. 126). However individuals within any society are inherently highly variable due to human nature.
The idea of humanness is something which Haslam et al. (2009, p. 55) suggest is ascribed to members of our species in a manner which is largely taken for granted. The notion of what defines humanness or human nature is somewhat tricky to define (Schein, 2010, p. 143). One way of simplifying human variability is to understand it in terms of its genetic basis. The human genome is constructed of more than 35 000 genes; with the exception of monozygotic twins, these are unlikely to be identical for any two individuals on the planet (Naylor & Chen, 2010, p. 275). However variability is likely to be further exacerbated by the influence of social factors, as human nature is formed as a combination of these biological and social influences (Kundu, 2009, p. 16).

The concept of human nature and its underlying composition therefore opens up the notion of human variability. A general definition of variability would be “striking deviations from…patterns” where patterns are observed within a given population (Gould, 2004, p. 2). However, it would be argued that this very general definition of variability could be insufficient to describe human variability, as the concept of human nature already discussed would indicate that we are all different to one another, making it difficult to ascribe any general patterns (Gould, 2004, p. 5; Cohen, 2007, p. 71). Even within the cultural model of human nature there is wide variability between individuals (Schein, 2010, p. 143). Instead, human variability would therefore be taken to constitute not only differences from the norm, but differences simply from one another.

It is impossible for any research study to adequately sample all of this variability (OECD, 2000, p. 177), although in order to draw meaningful conclusions from studies in social science it is important that human variability is something which is considered by researchers. This essay discusses the approaches taken by social science researchers to account for this variability, then presents two situations in which the basis for these conclusions may be undermined.

Accounting for Variability

It has been suggested that many of the models which social sciences rely on to explain human social phenomena may present a somewhat limited representation due to their not taking adequate account of human variability (Tanner, 2008, p. 2). However, some have gone so far as to argue that the presence of human variability means that there can be no general principles regarding human life and social interactions (Gould, 2004, p. 5; Cohen, 2007, p. 71). This is based on the observation that the human psyche only becomes organized as a result of external influences. This therefore implies that the human being is plastically variable, making it impossible to apply firm general laws to it (Cohen, 2007, p. 71). It has also been supported by the work of the German statistician Wilhelm Lexis, who found that dispersions of human behaviour from statistical models were much greater than predicted by chance (Gould, 2004, p. 5). Despite the possible validity of this argument, it is still desirable to attempt to construct general rules for the purpose of understanding the impact of different actions on the population, for example health care interventions and social policy.

In attempting to construct such models through analysis of social datasets, human variability may present an issue to social science researchers on two accounts. The first is that within any study population there is likely to be a significant level of variability between members of that population at any one point in time. Secondly, since the variability is on-going and continuous, it means that the conclusions drawn from any piece of research may be inextricably linked to the specific circumstances which existed at the point in time at which the research was conducted (Tanner, 2008, p. 2).

One example of the first of these issues is given by Tanner (2008, p. 132), who discusses the reaction of individuals to religious gatherings. The complexity of human nature means that different values and motivations most likely result in every individual experiencing religious practice in a slightly different way. While this in itself often forms the focus of qualitative research, it may be extremely difficult to take account of this variability in quantitative studies. Another example is discussed by Byrne (1998, p. 126), who suggests that quantitative research conducted within one school is unlikely to be directly applicable within another. They argue that the data collected is unlikely to be transferrable as it is likely to be significantly influenced by the school’s social dynamics, which are unlikely to be identical in any other school. A third useful example is in the study of the placebo effect in medicine, where there has been shown to be marked variation among individuals, making it difficult to derive any general trend (Lyby et al., 2011, p. 2405).

From such studies, it is however possible to see how social science researchers attempt to account for variability when deriving conclusions from the datasets.

One approach to this is to limit the scope of the conclusions which are drawn from a study to a specific subsection of the population, as discussed by Byrne et al. (1998, p. 126). This may involve performing primary research within the specific population for which it is to be applied. For example if there is a need to have evidence on which to base school policy, social science researchers may choose to conduct research specifically within that school. Here, however, there is still likely to be variation within the sample, in spite of shared social characteristics, as this would not account for other factors of human nature, such as genetic or personality differences, both of which may have a significant impact on behaviour and academic performance at school (Furnham et al., 2009, p. 769). Therefore the conclusions could be inappropriately applied to those not fitting the original norm.

A similar situation may also arise due to another approach which is to remove outliers from the data, which are those which vary markedly from the mean (Motulsky & Christopoulos, 2004, p. 23). Although this would appear to limit the usefulness of any study in the larger social science context, it may be necessary to be able to derive any meaningful predictive trends from the quantitative data. Many of the statistical testing methods which are used to analyse social science datasets are disrupted by high levels of variance. For example ANOVA attempts to explain variance in respect to one variable within the population according to the presence or absence of other factors. Yet if these other factors are too variable in nature then the results are likely to be disrupted. Additionally, the variable of interest itself must not vary markedly from the normal distribution, or this too will lead to inaccurate conclusions being drawn from the analysis (Richards, 2009, p. 14). This issue may be overcome in many instances by ensuring that a larger sample size is used, so that there is more probability of outliers lying at the extremes of this normal distribution (Gorard, 2003, p. 62).

An alternative approach is to try and instead actively limit the variation in the data analysed, as this may produce results which are more readily generalizable to the study population (Gorard, 2003, p. 61). One way to achieve this is to attempt to strip individuals within any dataset down to shared basic characteristics and then select participants which match the desired set of characteristics. This involves reducing aspects of culture down to common elements (Shore, 2012, p. 148). For example, in the study by Lyby et al. (2011, p. 2405) participants were selected on the basis of certain shared aspects of their medical history and care, so that the conclusions drawn would be targeted towards this specific subset of the population, and would not be applicable to those varying from these characteristics. This approach may be useful when considering individualized medical interventions, but may be less useful when considering wider social initiatives, where the population will invariably stray from tightly shared characteristics.

Neighbourhoods and Communities

One area in which conclusions drawn from social datasets may be undermined is that of studies involving the study of neighbourhoods and communities for the purposes of policy formation. An example of this is the policy a decade ago regarding the introduction of street wardens to the UK. There have been some studies conducted in individual neighbourhoods in which street wardens were introduced, from which the data showed subsequent reductions in crime and other negative outcomes. The conclusions from these studies attempted to account for variability by suggesting that the results be applied on a limited level (University of Leeds, 2005, p. 5; Sin, 2008, p. 389). However, when these conclusions were applied on a wider level, there were very varied results seen across different neighbourhoods (Sin, 2008, p. 389).

This could be due to similar issues as those discussed by Byrne (1998, p. 126) in the context of schools. It is likely that the characteristics of communities present in different areas of the UK are likely to be highly varied due to individual, local social and environmental factors. Therefore these communities are likely to present very different reactions to one social intervention. Here it would be suggested that the usual approaches taken to account for variation in dataset analysis may not be adequate. For example it would be very difficult to take large sample sizes if considering each community as an individual unit. It would also be difficult to remove outliers, as it would be expected that the different communities would vary so markedly that it would be difficult to establish a norm. Even if this were the case, this would then severely limit the applicability of the analysis when considering national policy. One of the best solutions would be instead to consider collection of data from each individual area and tailor policy on a local level according to these findings.

Drinking Patterns

A second example of an area in which social dataset conclusions may be undermined by human variation is in adult alcohol consumption patterns and its effects (Gould, 2004, p. 7). The nature of alcohol consumption is something which is now understood to be determined by a whole multitude of factors, including genetic factors, environmental factors, social circumstances and personality characteristics (Dick et al., 2011, p. 2512; Kendler et al., 2011, p. 1507). This in itself clearly opens this behaviour up to wide variation between individuals due to the complex interaction of these factors, a consequence of human variability as discussed in the introduction. However, this also means that the precise nature of alcohol consumption may be something which is open to change over time. Many of the shared aspects of humanity within any social group could be considered to be evolutionary in nature (Shore, 2012, p. 149). For example environmental and social variables change; however this evolutionary concept would imply that it is also possible that humans change in their very nature over time too (Gould, 2004, p. 7).

This may be further explained taking the example of a research study by Hingson et al. (2009, p. 783) which examined the influence of age of drinking onset on physical injuries, motor vehicle crashes and physical fights after drinking. The study concluded that drinking at an early age was associated with greater odds of each of these consequences and that delaying the age of drinking onset should be promoted to reduce the risk to the individual. Yet human variability could undermine these conclusions in a number of ways.

For example there is evidence that rates of violence have increased in general over time (Eisner, 2008, online). Although this could in itself be attributed to increasing trends in alcohol consumption, this may be unlikely based on data which indicates a decline in drinking patterns in the US (Kerr et al., 2009, p. 27). However, there have been a number of research studies which have indicated that personality traits possibly linked to violent behaviour have changed over the past few decades (Twenge et al., 2008, p. 875). This therefore indicates that risk of violence is something which is linked to variation in human nature over time and could change in the near future, which was not accounted for when discussing the future implications of this research. Therefore it is entirely possible that the suggested interventions could have little impact on risk of violence.

Conclusions

The very nature of humanity means that individuals vary markedly from each other, due to the influence of different genetic, psychological, social and environmental factors. The overwhelming potential for different combinations of these factors means that within any social setting it is likely that significant variability would exist, even though some common factors may be shared by members of that population. Although this is part of the main source of interest in the study of sociology, it may present a challenge when conducting analysis on quantitative social data sets. This variability may be accounted for when drawing conclusions by ensuring that analysis reduces the variability in the data set or by limiting the application of the conclusions outside of the sample from which it was drawn.

References

Byrne, D.S. (1998) Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences: An Introduction. London: Routledge, p. 126.
Cohen, E. (2007) The Mind Possessed: The Cognition of Spirit Possession in an Afro-Brazilian Religious Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 71.
Dick, D.M., Meyers, J.L., Rose, R.J., Kaprio, J. & Kendler, K.S. (2011) Measures of current alcohol consumption and problems: Two independent twin studies suggest a complex genetic architecture. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(12), 2152-2161.
Eisner, M. (2008) Modernity strikes back? A historical perspective on the latest increase in interpersonal violence (1960-1990). International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 2(2). Available [online] from: http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/viewArticle/41 [Accessed 28/11/2011].
Furnham, A., Monsen, J. & Ahmetoglu, G. (2009) Typical intellectual engagement, Big Five personality traits, approaches to learning and cognitive ability predictors of academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(4), 769-782.
Gorard, S. (2003) Quantitative Methods in Social Science. London: Continuum, pp. 61-62.
Gould, R. (2004) Variability: One statistician’s view. Available [online] from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5013f27n;jsessionid=94421E4A96F2309060D1074A216A2591#page-1 [Accessed 25/11/2011].
Haslam, N., Loughnan, S., Kashima, Y. & Bain, P. (2009) Attributing and denying humanness to others. European Review of Social Psychology, 19(1), 55-85.
Hingson, R.W., Edwards, E.M., Heeren, T. & Rosenbloom, D. (2009) Age of drinking onset and injuries, motor vehicle crashes, and physical fights after drinking and when not drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(5), 783-790.
Kendler, K.S., Gardner, C. & Dick, D.M. (2011) Predicting alcohol consumption in adolescence from alcohol-specific and general externalizing genetic risk factors, key environmental exposures and their interaction. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1507-1516.
Kerr, W.C., Greenfield, T.K., Bond, J., Ye, Y. & Rehm, J. (2009) Age-period-cohort modeling of alcohol volume and heavy drinking days in the US National Alcohol Surveys: Divergence in younger and older adult trends. Addiction, 104(1), 27-37.
Kundu, A. (2009) Social Sciences: Methodology and Perspectives. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley, p. 16.
Lyby, P.S., Aslaksen, P.M. & Flaten, M.A. (2011) Variability in placebo analgesia and the role of fear of pain – an ERP study. Pain, 152(10), 2405-2412.
Motulsky, H. & Christopoulos, A. (2004) Fitting Models to Biological Data Using Linear and Nonlinear Regression. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 23.
Naylor, S. & Chen, J.Y. (2010) Unraveling human complexity and disease with systems biology and personalized medicine. Personalized Medicine, 7(3), 275-289.
OECD (2000) Social Sciences for a Digital World. Paris: OECD, p. 177.
Richards, G. (2009) Psychology: The Key Concepts. Milton Park: Routledge, p. 14.
Schein, E.H. (2010) Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, p. 143.
Shore, B. (2012) Unconsilience: Rethinking the two-cultures conundrum in anthropology. In E. Slingerland & M. Collard (Ed.) Creating Consilience: Integrating the Sciences and the Humanities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 140-160.
Sin, C.H. (2008) The introduction of Street Wardens as a social policy intervention in Britain targeting the regeneration of local communities: Theory and practice. Journal of Urban Regeneration and Renewal, 1(4), 389-400.
Tanner, R.E.S. (2008) Contemporary Social Science Research. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, pp. 2, 132.
Twenge, J.M., Konrath, S., Foster, J.D., Campbell, W.K. & Bushman, B.J. (2008) Egos inflating over time: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality, 76(4), 875-902.
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This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

Using the crime survey of England and Wales, examine how experience of crime affects citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system. What demographic factors influence the relationship between experience of crime and rating of the criminal justice system?

Introduction:

In order to answer the question posed, the following analysis is split in to three sections. Firstly, Section 1 presents an initial inspection of the variables in the dataset. A statistical modelling procedure is then proposed in Section 2 in order to address which variables affect citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system. Appropriate conclusions are then drawn in Section 3.

Section 1: Description of the data
1.1: Variables in the dataset

The crime survey of England and Wales provided data for 35371 individuals. There is a clear problem with missing data in the dataset, which will be investigated in due course and discussed in detail in Section 2. The variables in the dataset can be grouped in to three types for this analysis:

(1) Demographic factors:

Sex: categorical variable

Age: continuous variable

Marital status: categorical variable

Respondent Social Class: categorical variable

Type of area: categorical variable

(2) Variables relating to citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system, such as:

How confident are you that the Criminal Justice System as a whole is effective?

(4 level ordinal categorical variable ranging from “very confident” to “not at all confident”)

(3) Variable relating to citizen’s experience of crime:

Experience of any crime in the previous 12 months? Categorical variable

1.2: Inspection of the data

As a starting point, some initial inspections of the data were conducted by assessing variables on an individual basis.Of the 35371 individuals, there were 16176 males and 19195 females, as shown in Table 1. Hence there were no missing values for the sex variable.

Table 1: Gender frequencies in the crime survey of England and Wales

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Male

16176

45.7

45.7

45.7

Female

19195

54.3

54.3

100.0

Total

35371

100.0

100.0

For the continuous age variable, ages ranged from 16 to 99. There was a small percentage of individuals who did not give their age (0.33%), thus these responses are missing. See Section 2 for more details on missing values.

Only 61 of the 35371 individuals did not provide their marital status (0.17%). Similar to the age variable, this percentage appears to not be meaningful. Table 2 shows the marital status frequencies in each of the 8 categories. The frequencies in the “same-sex civil partnership and living with partner” category and the bottom two categories in Table 2 (all highlighted in bold) are small in comparison to the others.

For the modelling procedure in Section 2, it is of benefit to have sufficiently large counts in each of the categories and to have a smaller number of categories. Consequently, the categories were combined in a relevant way. The “same-sex civil partnership and living with partner” category was combined with the married category. Similarly, the “SPONTANEOUS ONLY separated but legally in same-sex civil partnership” was combined with the separated category. Finally, the “SPONTANEOUS ONLY surviving civil partner” was combined with the widowed category. In other words, categories that relate to civil partnerships had to be combined with the corresponding same-sex partnerships due to small counts. Table 3 gives frequencies for the new marital status variable. Individuals who are either single or married account for nearly 75% of the dataset. This new marital status variable is used in the modelling procedure of Section 2 and is referred to as “MaritalStatusNew” from now on.

The respondent social class categorical variable had a very large number of categories, therefore making interpretations difficult. Clearly there are too many categories for it to be considered as a categorical variable in a statistical model in Section 2. Although an attempt could be made to try and group the categories in to a much smaller number, this was not deemed sensible. This is because results in Section 2 could potentially differ drastically depending on the groupings chosen. In addition, 1765 individuals did not state their social class (4.99%). Given all these points, this variable was not considered further in Section 2.

The type of area variable had no missing values with 27585 individuals (77.99%) stating that they live in an urban area and 7786 (22.01%) individuals stating that they live in a rural area.

Table 2: Marital status frequencies in the crime survey of England and Wales

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Single

10513

29.7

29.8

29.8

Married and living with husband/wife

15657

44.3

44.3

74.1

In a same-sex civil partnership and living with partner

90

.3

.3

74.4

Separated

1273

3.6

3.6

78.0

Divorced

393611.111.189.1
Widowed381810.810.899.9
Separated but legally in same-sex civil partnership18.1.1100.0
Surviving civil partner5.0.0100.0
Total3531099.8100.0
MissingSystem610.2
Total35371100.0

Table 3: Marital status frequencies (with combined categories) in the crime survey of England and Wales

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Single

10513

29.7

29.8

29.8

Married

15747

44.5

44.6

74.4

Separated

1291

3.6

3.7

78.0

Divorced

3936

11.1

11.1

89.2

Widowed

3823

10.8

10.8

100.0

Total

35310

99.8

100.0

Missing

System

61

.2

Total

35371

100.0

The five variables relating to citizens opinions of the criminal justice system (type 2 in Section 1.1) have large proportions of missing values, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Frequencies for citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system

How confident are you that the police are effective at catching criminals?

How confident are you that the Crown Prosecution Service is effective at prosecuting people accused of committing a crime?

How confident are you that prisons are effective at rehabilitating offenders who have been convicted of a crime?

How confident are you that the probation service is effective at preventing criminals from re-offending?

How confident are you that the Criminal Justice System as a whole is effective?

Valid

17727

16892

16145

15193

17452

Missing

17644

18479

19226

20178

17919

Given the nature of the question, attention is focused on the “How confident are you that the Criminal Justice System as a whole is effective?” variable, which will be referred to as “CJSopinion” from now on. This is because interest lies in determining which variables affect citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system generally rather than any specific aspects of it. A more detailed analysis would also focus on the other four variables. The CJSopinion variable will therefore be the dependent variable in Section 2. The consequences of the 17919 missing values (50.66%) are discussed in detail in Section 2.

Table 5: How confident are you that the Criminal Justice System as a whole is effective (CJSopinion)?

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Very confident

573

1.6

3.3

3.3

Fairly confident

7556

21.4

43.3

46.6

Not very confident

7164

20.3

41.0

87.6

Not at all confident

2159

6.1

12.4

100.0

Total

17452

49.3

100.0

Refusal

2

.0

Don’t know

779

2.2

System

17138

48.5

Total

17919

50.7

Total

35371

100.0

The final variable to consider is the variable relating to individuals experience of crime. This variable had no missing values with 29819 individuals (84.30%) stating that they had not been a victim of crime in the last 12 months. This variable will be referred to as “ExperienceOfCrime” from now on.

Section 2: Modelling the data
2.1: Potential approaches

Based on Section 1.2, CJSopinion is chosen as the dependent variable with sex, age, MaritalStatusNew, type of area and experience of crime as the independent variables. The continuous variable age is mean centered to aid interpretability. There are a number of modelling based methods that one may consider in order to determine which of the independent variables significantly affect citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system. For example:

(1) Linear regression with CJSopinion as the dependent variable and sex, age, MaritalStatusNew, type of area and experience of crime as the independent variables.

(2) Multinomial logistic regression with CJSopinion as the dependent variable and the same independent variables as (1).

(3) Ordinal logistic regression with CJSopinion as the dependent variable and the same independent variables as (1).

Approach (1) relies upon the assumption that the dependent variable is truly continuous and the intervals between consecutive values are equal, both of which are questionable for this case. Approach (2) is an acceptable approach but it does not exploit the fact that the dependent variable in this case is ordinal. Approach (3) is the preferred approach since it exploits the fact that the dependent variable is truly ordinal. In contrast to traditional logistic regression approaches, the ordinal approach in SPSS is based upon the logit of the cumulative probabilities. SPSS uses the proportional odds form of this model. The reader is referred to Agresti (2013, chapter 8.2) for more details.

2.2 Missing data and checking the adequacy of the model

As detailed in Section 1.2, the dataset contains missing values on both the dependent and the marital status independent variable. The problem is of more concern for the dependent variable since 50.66% of the values were missing. The ordinal regression procedure in SPSS only allows for the listwise deletion method of dealing with missing data. The listwise deletion method deletes all the observations for any individual who has any missing values on either the independent or dependent variables. Despite this, listwise deletion still leaves 17427 individuals who have no missing values on any of the dependent or independent variables. However, listwise deletion is a strong assumption that relies on the missingness being random. The assumption was deemed to be acceptable for this dataset, the details of which are given in Section. More details on missing data are given in Agresti (2013, p. 471) and Little and Rubin (2002).

Prior to running the ordinal regression model in SPSS it is important to make sure that there are no low cell counts for combinations of the dependent variable with each of the categorical independent variables in the dataset (for the individuals with no missing values). Crosstabs of the dependent variable against each of sex, MaritalStatusNew, type of area and experience of crime were assessed. All the counts were sufficiently large, thus the model was deemed acceptable to be run in SPSS.

The proportional odds model also assumes a proportional odds assumption. This means that the model assumes the same regression effects for each cumulative logit (Agresti, 2013). This can be assessed in SPPS, as detailed in Section 2.3.

2.3 Ordinal logistic regression in SPSS

In order to address the first part of the research question: “Examine how experience of crime affects citizen’s opinions of the criminal justice system”, an ordinal logistic regression was run in SPSS with the dependent variable CJSopinion and independent variable experience of crime. For the dependent variable, “not at all confident” is treated as the baseline and for experience of crime, “not a victim of crime” is treated as the baseline. Ordinal logistic regression can be performed in SPSS by selecting the Analyze tab then Regression and then ordinal, as shown below.

CJSopinion is then entered as the dependent variable and experience of crime as the single independent variable in the factor(s) box. In order to test the proportional odds assumption, the test of parallel lines tick box should be checked on the output tab, as shown below:

The key part of the SPSS output is the parameter estimates. These are shown in the table below.

Table 6: Parameter estimates for the proportional odds model (no demographic variables)

Estimate

Std. Error

Wald

df

Sig.

[CJSopinion = very confident=1]

-3.341

.043

6092.466

1

.000

[CJSopinion = fairly confident=2]

-.090

.016

30.468

1

.000

[CJSopinion = not very confident=3]

2.010

.024

6975.842

1

.000

[ExperienceOfCrime=victim of crime=1]

.301

.039

59.541

1

.000

[ExperienceOfCrime = not a victim of crime=0]

0^a..0.

The model has three intercept parameters (one for each cumulative logit) and these are labelled thresholds in the parameter estimates. These parameters are not usually of interest unless interest lies in calculating response probabilities (Agresti, 2013). Attention is therefore focused on the location part of the parameter estimates.

The experience of crime variable is statistically significant since the p value in the Sig column is <0.001. In order to interpret the coefficient, we can say that the odds of being less than or equal to a given value of the dependent variable are exp(0.301)=1.35 times greater for those who have been a victim of crime than those who are not a victim of crime. For example, for the lowest category of the dependent variable, the odds of being very confident in the criminal justice system are 1.35 times greater for those have been a victim of crime than those who have not been a victim of crime.

The proportional odds assumption was found to be satisfied since the p-value in the sig column is not less than 0.05 (at the 5% significance level). The SPSS output is shown below.

Table 7: Test of Parallel Lines^a

Model

-2 Log Likelihood

Chi-Square

df

Sig.

Null Hypothesis

49.120

General

49.032

.087

2

.957

The next stage is to add the demographic variables in to the model. The table below shows the parameter estimates for this case.

Table 8: Parameter estimates for the proportional odds model (with demographic variables)

Estimate

Std. Error

Wald

df

Sig.

[cjsovb1 = 1]

-3.323

.060

3099.016

1

.000

[cjsovb1 = 2]

-.063

.045

1.967

1

.161

[cjsovb1 = 3]

2.051

.048

1808.076

1

.000

AgeMeanCentered

.008

.001

66.790

1

.000

[sex=Male]

-.009

.029

.102

1

.749

[sex=Female]

0^a

.

.

0

.

[Type of area=urban

-.028

.035

.667

1

.414

[Type of area=rural]

0^a

.

.

0

.

[MaritalStatusNew=Widowed]

-.296

.065

20.602

1

.000

[MaritalStatusNew=Divorced]

.230

.054

17.951

1

.000

[MaritalStatusNew=Separated]

.080

.081

.975

1

.323

[MaritalStatusNew=Married]

.110

.038

8.198

1

.004

[MaritalStatusNew=Single]

0^a

.

.

0

.

[ExperienceOfCrime=victim of crime=1]

.357

.040

81.390

1

.000

[ExperienceOfCrime = not a victim of crime=0]

0^a

.

.

0

.

The experience of crime variable remains significant after the inclusion of the demographic variables with similar conclusions to before. The continuous variable age is significant. In order to interpret this variable, we can say that for a one unit increase in age, the odds of being very confident are exp(0.008)=1.008 times greater (holding other variables constant).

For marital status, the odds of being very confident in the criminal justice system are exp(0.296)=1.34 times greater for those who are single than those who are widowed (holding other variables constant). In addition, the odds of being very confident in the criminal justice system are exp(0.230)=1.26 times greater for those who are divorced than those who are single(holding other variables constant). Similarly, the odds of being very confident in the criminal justice system are exp(0.110)=1.12 times greater for those who are married than those who are single (holding other variables constant). Type of area and sex were non-significant.

The proportional odds assumption was found to not be satisfied for this model since the p-value was less than 0.05. Rather than rejecting the model outright, Agresti (2013, page 307) recommends performing separate binary logistic regressions (by collapsing over the levels of the ordinal response) and comparing the parameter estimates obtained to those from the original proportional odds model. For this model, the estimates were not found to differ drastically so the assumption was deemed to be viable.

2.4 Assessing the listwise deletion of missing values

SPSS only allows for listwise deletion of missing values when conducting ordinal regression. However, traditional linear regression techniques in SPSS allow for alternative methods for dealing with missing values. It is acknowledged that the use of traditional regression methods for an ordinal response is more questionable and open to debate. However, the same conclusions with regards to which variables are significant are obtained by treating the response as continuous as opposed to ordinal.

Table 9: Parameter estimates for the linear regression model (with demographic variables)

Parameter

B

Std. Error

t

Sig.

Intercept

2.595

.017

149.591

.000

[sex=Male]

-.003

.011

-.258

.796

[sex=Female]

0^a

.

.

.

[Type of area=urban

-.013

.014

-.933

.351

[Type of area=rural]

0^a

.

.

.

[MaritalStatusNew=Widowed]

-.114

.025

-4.499

.000

[MaritalStatusNew=Divorced]

.092

.021

4.304

.000

[MaritalStatusNew=Separated]

.029

.032

.920

.357

[MaritalStatusNew=Married]

.044

.015

2.958

.003

[MaritalStatusNew=Single]

0^a

.

.

.

[ExperienceOfCrime=victim of crime=1]

.139

.015

8.982

.000

AgeMeanCentered

.003

.000

8.191

.000

The same conclusions were also obtained when alternative methods were chosen for dealing with the missing values (pairwise deletion and mean substitution) thus giving more confidence in the results obtained for the original proportional odds regression model in Table 8.

3 Conclusions

To conclude, the results of Section 2.3 indicate that experience of crime significantly affects citizen’s overall opinion of the criminal justice system. This was true before and after accounting for other relevant demographic variables. After accounting for other variables, the odds of being very confident in the criminal justice system were 1.43 times greater for those who have been a victim of crime than those who had not. Age and marital status were also found to significantly affect citizen’s overall opinions of the criminal justice system. Gender and whether the area was urban or rural were not found to affect citizen’s overall opinion of the criminal justice system.

References:

Agresti, A. (2013). Categorical Data Analysis, 3rd edition. New Jersey : John Wiley and Sons, Inc,

Little, R. J. and Rubin, D.B. (2002). Statistical Analysis with Missing Data, 2^nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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Since the beginning of civilization, it has been in the nature of humans to compete with one another. In ancient Greece, the citizens trained in gymnasiums or “naked places” perfect their wrestling or boxing technique (Sweet, 1987). “Athletics were more important to the Greeks than us today” according to Sweet, like the current American society, cheating was looked down upon in ancient times. Cheating was looked at as sacrilegious; a disgrace to Zeus (Sweet, 1987).

Today cheating is not looked at as a sacrilegious act to a god, but as a shameful act of cheating. Luckily, (or unluckily whichever side the athlete) there are entities in place that all athletes have the same competitive advantage. The act of managing sport can level a playing field, negotiate a salary, relocate an athlete, advise an organization, run a facility, or teach others the topics in sport management in a college setting.

The modem field of sport management is a fairly young field that is constantly adapting to the demands required. The curriculum of sport management also adheres to the same principles of business, but is even younger than the practice of sport management. Through history, sport and sport management has shown its progressive tendencies, ideals that were ahead of common American society at the time. This leads to the five significant events and the influential minds behind the events in sport management, which are the topic of this paper. They are certainly not all the people and events that had significant contribution, but simply the top five that are deemed worthy for this assignment.

Thoroughbred Racing

Since history is usually placed in chronological order, the trend continues today. Thoroughbred horse racing was a very popular sport in eighteenth century England; along with baseball, cricket, and field hockey (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005). Positions of Albert Spalding to Earle Ziegler 3 political and social power were appointed to men with wealth; most of those positions being horse owners, track or club owners, and other various supervision roles.

Each club in the given area had its own set of rules, which were created by the owner; sometimes even to work in his own favour. Complications often arose when a rider from one track would race at another as rules varied (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005). And by the 1830’s with the innovation of railroads, horse owners wanted to compete nationally to increase profits, and breed with new horses to create faster horses.

Naturally a new management style was needed but this was only the first complication of two. The second was gambling. Gambling was a very popular event amongst the upper and lower classes at the track. The lower class was then able to wager bets at the track with the upper class because club/track owners did not charge admission to the event. The track was a social setting in which a diverse group of people intermingled for a common purpose here as a member of the upper and lower class would hardly be seen in the same place, sharing a common purpose (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005).

The gambling itself took place during the race, which was a four-mile course broken up into three legs. The winner would have to win at least two out of the three races. If the fans of the race suspected the jockey of throwing a race, the jockey would often be physically abused by the fans (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005).

It was not very common for unethical behaviour to take place when bets were made, but they did occur and were dealt with promptly. Sometime after the 1830’s, there became a standardized management system in horse racing which forced club/track owners to standardized lengths of the course, forced the track to time the events, and even spawned a new style of horse racing:

Thoroughbred racing with weights added to the horses (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums,Albert Spalding to Earle Ziegler2005).

In gambling, a standardized system was also adopted as club owners started handicapping the races, ran a sweepstakes race and even started to offer tip sheets to the customers at the events. These strategical changes are viewed as the first managerial changes in club sport; while also being viewed as the successful model for club sports, which ruled the eighteenth century in the forms of boxing, cricket, rugby and soccer (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005).

The club sport system still exists today, although it does not thrive as it once did in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. But these clubs set a precedent that would contribute to the next innovator in the sport management profession.

William Hulbert and the National League

As stated in the previous section, club teams were the dominate structure for athletic teams in the nineteenth century. Baseball was no different. Most teams were around and had a small fan base, but most teams were never able to play a whole season. or keep fan interest for a whole season because of lack of funding. It was not uncommon for teams to just quit halfway through the season.

The most popular team of the 1860’s was the Cincinatti Red Stockings who toured the east to play teams and because of their fan base, were able to pay for travel expenses and earn a profit while playing on the road (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005). On a road trip at the end of 1870 season the Red Stocking lost the three games of the season, and because of that were no longer considered the champions of baseball.

The fan base for the club fell drastically and the team disbanded before the beginning of the following season (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005). In 1871, after such hard times, remaining teams formed a union; a new league called the National Association of Professional Baseball Players. Unfortunately, the beginning results were no different than that of their predecessors in the club system as teams would form, stop playing halfway through the season, and perhaps start operations the next season. After years of trying to gain credibility and reach stability in the league, an entrepreneur by the name of William Hulbert purchased the National League of Professional Baseball Players in 1876 and was often referred to as the Nazl League from then on (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2005).

Hulbert made sure that all business aspects were in the open and not conducted behind closed doors as to ensure honest means of doing business. He also set guidelines for the eight teams to follow: e was going to make sure that the league would not crumble because of one team’s financial irresponsibility. All teams were accountable for each other, or the league wccl:

fail. Hulbert made many decisions for the league. On one occasion, Hulbert canceie final series between Philadelphia and New York as both teams were struggling and their outcome would not have affected league standings (Crosset & Hums, 20O5jl By doing this, he allowed the teams to shut down the operations so the team would save money for the next season and not hinder future operations.

Ethics and citizenship were staple points in Hulbert’s National League as well, forcing teams to set curfews for the athletes and enforcing strict policies that meant banning players for life if they were gambling, for example. Hulbert’s precedent still stands today, as over 100 years later, Pete Rose was banned from ever stepping foot into a baseball park because of gambling allegations.

He also made sure that the fans were proper citizens as well; raising ticket prices to keep rowdier, lower-class fans out and not allowing alcohol to be sold in the ball park. However, the “revolutionary idea,” according to Crosset and Hums, was the implementation of a pennant race at the end of the season. The two top teams at the end of the season would play a series for the pennant, better known as the National League Championship.

Hulbert also protected teams from losing their players, as players under contract were not allowed to negotiate or be bought out by other teams without both parties being aware of it. The “player’s reservation” system was a precedent in sport management, and is still a foundation in modem sport management. After some success with the league, local newspapers started to cover the games; giving updates on injuries, interviewing players, keeping track of statistics and reporting other coaching strategies to keep the fans interested.

This also opened a new element for sports as fans 11i could not afford to attend games and only followed by word of mouth. The sports coverage allowed fans to follow keep track of the games played and re-enact the game through the written stories. The precedents set by Hulbert were truly astronomical; building foundations that still stand in baseball today.

His demands for class and integrity are considered sacred to the game of baseball and were followed for years; which is why steroids have been such a paramount concern in baseball for the past couple of years. For his actions he was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1995 as a pioneer of the game.

Albert Spalding

While William Hulbert was a great innovator himself, accomplishing many feats, he was not alone in the formation of the new National League. Albert Spalding was a pitcher for the Boston Red Stockings, who subsequently were members of the National League of Professional Baseball Players. Spalding was a major celebrity of the game, winning 241 games, and losing only 60 between 1871 and 1876 (Lampster, 2006). An innovator himself, Spalding pitched with his own signature designed baseball. After leading the Red Stockings to the first National League Championship in 1876, he decided to create his own company named simply after himself.

That same year, Spalding was the official baseball of the National League, and baseballs were sold to the general public: therefore, becoming the first sporting good company in America (Lampster, 2006). The year 1877 proved to be Spalding’s last season as a professional ballplayer. He then focused solely on managing his company and the Chicago White Stockings as their team president. After managing, he became an international promoter of baseball. spreading the game around the world in 1888.

In 1887, he created and manufactured the first American football. And in 1894, he created the first basketball. Spalding was a We innovator and strived to set precedent like Hulbert. Spalding and Hulbert fed off of each others innovations and cleverly marketed each other through each others company (Lampert, 2006).

Sport Management as an Academic Field

Almost 100 years has passed since the wrinkle in time that was the beginning professional baseball. The time was the 1960’s, Major League Baseball was a prevae: organization, Albert Spalding had already been inducted into the baseball hail of and the “sports industry was thriving’ (Crosset & Hums, 2005 According to Cc sse: and Hums, two men discussed the idea of a sport management curriculum in 1 95 a physical educator from the University of Miami, James G. Mason, and owner of the then Brooklyn Dodgers, George O’Malley.

O’Malley is most recognized as the chief legal counsel for Jacky Robinson when he broke the color barrier in 1947 and for moving the Brooklyn Dodgers to Los Angeles The two decided that to keep up with the demand in the sports industry a professional degree needed to be started to accommodate. In 1966, O’Malley and Mason started the first Sport Management graduate program at Ohio

University in Athens, Ohio. The idea of a sport management degree caught on soon thereafter as Biscayne College and St. John’s University founded the first undergraduate programs in the United States (Crosset & Hums, 2005). The University of Massachusetts-Amherst followed in Ohio’s footsteps, offering the second graduate program in the U.S. in 1971. As the field grew, unions of teachers started to form; mos:

of which were short lived. Today’s dominant sport management scholarly union is the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM). Sport Management is one c the most highly sought after degrees by incomi1 freshman (Mahoney, 2008). With massive growth however, teachers are in high demand and there are not enough people: teach the high volume of students and conduct new research to progress the field in a brand new direction. The next paragraph focuses on a man who changed the field of sport management forever. This dual citizen of the U.S. and Canada implemented his own curriculum; his name is Dr. Earle F. Ziegler.

According to the official Earle F. Ziegler website, Ziegler got his start in education at Yale University where he taught physical education and coached football and wrestling from 1943 to 1949. He began working for the University of Western Ontario in 1949 as a part-time German instructor.

Shortly thereafter, he became the department head for Physical, Health, & Recreation for the university. At the University of Michigan, Ziegler began his research for physical education and how to manage it effectively. He then conducted research at the University of Illinois, and then went back to the University of Western Ontario. After years of solely researching in the field of physical education, Ziegler intertwined physical education with other topics such as

Albert Spalding to Earie Z:-philosophy and administrative theory. In 1975, the year Ziegler returned to Western Ontario, he released six publications on various topics branching physical education out. An acquired copy of “Management Competency Development in Sport and Physical Education ” written by Dr. Ziegler in 1983 is an interesting read. Ziegler explains throughout the opening chapter the different types and amounts of research he did to write his book, He opened the book with four chapters about management theories and the emerging field of study.

He then presented a strategic plan on how to implement management into sport. It is hard to comprehend that this had never been done before. Dr. Ziegler was in the field conducting research on different topics and drawing parallels between the two. There were degree programs before this at universities around the country, but Ziegler created an entirely new school of thought with the publications that he wrote; inspiring young professionals to think proactively and engage themselves in theory.

Most of the topics discussed today in sport management courses are based off of his research and those who followed in his footsteps. Ideals that a person would just take for granted now/ere accomplished for the first time 25 years ago by an old man from New York City. Ziegler, in fact, was the first president of NASSM, and because of his contributions to the field was honoured with an award in his name in 1988. This award is given out annually to the educator in the sport management field making positive contributions in research and education sport management. :

Conclusion

As clearly shown throughout the paper, the field of sport management shares a rich history like other fields of academia, even at its young existence. The models of conformity in club horse racing would open the door for the brand new league system created by William Hulbert. And without the newly renovated National League, Spalding would not have marketed his new product, as well with Hulbert.

As the field slowly grew and innovation lay dormant for sometime, that opened the door for O’Mallev and Mason to create a brand new field of study to feed their vision of enhancing the field of sport management. And finally without Earle Ziegler, sport management would not be flourishing the way it is today without his teachings and theories. Again, he opened a new doorway for students to walk through. Teaching his knowledge and inspiring students then, who are the administrators of today.

The interesting thing throughout the paper is the progressiveness of society through sporting events in history: The intermingling of upper and lower classes at horse tracks, the introduction of baseball throughout the world, and O’Malley breaking down the colour barrier by signing Jacky Robinson to the Brooklyn Dodgers.

Although there may have been some differences between some, athletics has set a standard for breaking down sociological barriers between class and colour. These are the five significant events and the influential minds behind the events in sport management; they are certainly not all the people and events that had significant contribution for today’s sport management, but simply the catalysts for change and progression.

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Is it correct to suggest that young people’s identities today are more ‘Individualised’ than in earlier generations?

How people define themselves in relationship to society is an ongoing concern of sociology. This essay examines the question of whether young people’s identities are more individualised today than they were in earlier generations. The question itself is an interesting one because it implies that identity is discrete and unique. That notion is in itself modern, so it becomes axiomatic to say that identities are more “individualised” because by the framing of the question it is already presumed that identity is individual. However, as all individuals operate within the framework of society it is reasonable to examine how and to what extent the relationship has changed between earlier generations and now. To this end this essay will examine the facets of people’s lives including work, leisure, education, and entertainment, that are associated with creating identity and discuss the ways they lead to greater individualisation, and also the ways in which people create community.

Sociologists and historians are aware of the strong trends that have changed culture since the industrial revolution, and especially since World War II, as traditional divisions of class and solidarity have broken down (Chisholm, 1990, p. 134). This took place in the industrial revolution because it caused a mass movement towards urbanisation, which resulted in the breakdown of older community structures. After World War II improved communications and transport lead to globalisation and individualisation as youth were removed further from national or class-based identification (Livingstone & Bovill, 2001, p. 329). Along with this it is clear to see the lack of religious identification in modern culture, as well as increasing mobility, both of which disrupt older social organisations. Johnson, et al argues that youth culture expanded in the post-war world, to the point of excluding the aged (2005). The main concern of his argument is for the marginalising of the aged, but there is a reverse effect too: the alienation of youth from the support of traditional structures. The freedom to be individuals, and defining youth in opposition to older generations, means that young people cannot rely as much on the support and wisdom of older adults.

The term generation gap is used to discuss this break between older and younger. Generations form a type of social organisation, and Johnson notes they are the organising force behind relationships involving: “children, economic resources, political power, and cultural hegemony… generations are a basic unit of social reproduction and social change” (2005, p. 518). However the influence of generational divides is changing in modern culture as “the individual has become important and influential both in politics and working life” (Leccardi & Ruspini, 2006, p. 63). Whereas before relationships fit into more traditional patterns – parents, children, grandparents – now with the loss of community and the extended family, and with the greater emphasis on personal development rather than fitting in within a group, the result is enhanced individualisation. Young people no longer necessarily see themselves first as children, or members of a clan, but as individuals. This perception can have both positive and negative effects. Warner Weil et al note the importance of “social capital” (2005, p. 206) that is to say, a sense of belonging to a group, that helps individuals cope with the insecurities of daily life. As culture becomes more individualised young people might feel cut off from the support they need. However, other sociologists note that anti-social behaviour can be transmitted from one generation to the next, through association and environment (Lerner & Steinberg, 2009, p. 700). Therefore individualism can be beneficial if it helps youth break out of negative group behaviour patterns, and overcome problems within their family or community.

Part of the change is that individualism is breaking down old class differences, and leading to a more consumer/market orientated economy. While the positive effect is noted in reducing class prejudice, the danger of extreme individualism is that social inequality is re-envisioned not as the result of pre-existing social divisions but as “a consequence of individual failure in coping with societal conditions” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 25). Individualism raises the notion that young people who fail to thrive are to blame for not adapting to society, which can lead to feelings of failure and low self-esteem. This is not productive, and does not encourage personal growth. The other challenge of integrating individualism and society is that in order to maintain cohesion society may openly or subtly influence individuals (Leccardi & Ruspini, 2006, p. 65). This can be harmless, but it can also be coercive, for example using advertising to promote certain lifestyles as social norms, which can leave some young people feeling left out. For example, our culture is very heterosexual, and the majority of media and advertising focuses on romantic love as between a man and a woman. This excludes gays and lesbians, and anyone who does not identify as totally hoterosexual. Because of individualism these people are able to live as they choose, and create alternative communities, however there is still a powerful message that they are not “normal”. This is one way that through advertising consumption is used to create a social order (Warner Weil, 2005, p. 151).

Modern education plays a key role in individualisation, as from the end of the 18th century it began to construct the notion of youth and “individualisation followed education, and education both followed class lines and attacked them” (Leccardi & Ruspini, 2006, p. 63). Therefore as more people were educated to a roughly equal level there was greater opportunity for social mobility. Education has continued to grow in importance as society has become more technologically sophisticated, with annual debates about the values of A-levels, the importance of university funding, promoting education for low-income children and so forth. Today, education is perceived as the “the most important means for individual success or failure” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 25) and governments spend a large quantity of time and energy trying to improve and tailor the education system. There is a paradox in the importance of education, however, because the expansion of schooling, education “intended as a means of escape has resulted in the extension of dependence and restrictions on autonomy in youth… it acts as a restraint” (Jones, 2009, p. 165). While young people would have gone out to work much younger, in previous generations, and therefore had the individualising experience of personal responsibility and self-reliance, modern education keeps them closer to their parents, which creates a push-pull where education is teaching them to think for themselves, but they are still dependent on others.

Currently in society work is the greatest single factor in individualisation. Since the industrial revolution the labour market has been the principle cause of individualisation, through competition and occupational and geographic mobility (Chisholm, 1990, p. 135). People often spend more time at work than at home, and Jones notes the two are now separated (2009). Work even becomes the dominant way of forming peer groups, with work colleagues becoming friends and romantic partners. Individualisation through work has some liberating effects, with people being defined by their skills and abilities, rather than by origin or class status, as they would have been in previous generations. However, the danger is that the dominance of work rather than the personal, and the emphasis on individual achievement can lead to alienation when youth do not have an opportunity to exercise their skills. Because work is important as a basis for identity, because it forms a primary part of a person’s role in society, it is noted that: “when young people do not have a job that suits their education and skills, or an adequate salary, there are always social and psychological disorders” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 126). The many possibilities of working life pose a major challenge too – it is no longer enough to be good at doing a job, people have to be able to navigate a wide range of possibilities and social situations, and constantly adjust to a changing labour market, and this can “paralyse the search for work as a source of meaning” (Warner Weil, et al, 2005, p. 106)

Since work is not a complete, or always satisfactory, source of identity, most young people focus on leisure activities such as music as a way to demonstrate power and form a discrete social identity (Jones, 2009, p. 46). Jones notes there is a dual role to the dynamic of individualisation through leisure, though. Young people’s increased leisure opportunities can actually keep them in their parents’ house because they spend their money on entertainment, rather than setting up an independent home (2009, p. 107). This is a situation that has only been possible since the end of World War II, with changes in technology and increased opportunities for leisure. The creation of pop culture – music, movies, fashion, television – was possible because of mass communication, and it gives young people a way to create individual identities and have a social life based on leisure and consumption that relates to their sub-cultural identities (Leccardi & Ruspini, 2006, p. 57). This is easy to see in any school, or group of young people, where they identify themselves by their clothing and accessories, as being into hip hop, or indie rock, or skateboarding, or sport.

It is a dry run for adulthood, only instead of work, leisure is the focus. Adults identify based on their jobs, but for many young people who they are is what they do for fun. Therefore entertainment is very important in allowing individualisation. Chisholm notes that thanks to technology and housing arrangements more youth can choose their own entertainment, e.g. TVs, games consoles, DVD players, and enjoy them separately from the rest of the family (1990). Johnson argues that youth culture started “to acquire a history with the inauguration of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame” (Johnson, et al, 2005, p. 158). Entertainment allows individualisation outside of the traditional class, family or generational groupings. It also encourages social identification between individuals to form new kinds of groups. Livingstone and Bovill note that young people pursue their interests across multiple media, creating global subcultures (2001, p. 329), which has the effect of enhancing individualisation within their immediate community but opens the possibility of wider networks. Social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook, and the hundreds of thousands of sites devoted to every imaginable interest from sport, to music, to fashion, to hobbies, show that there is a definite impulse to form communities, even if the basis is individualism. Because of this entertainment plays a “key role in young people’s identity formation” (Livingstone & Bovill, 2001, p. 8).

This association between entertainment, leisure and individualism is promoted by capitalism, and used to encourage individualism through consumption. Individual image becomes important, as seen by the huge celebrity culture in the UK, and bodies and looks become part of young people’s identity and how they present themselves (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 23). The importance of not just being an individual but looking like an individual has made people more aware of, and dependent on how they look (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 25). This causes a paradox situation though, because it is individualism based on able-bodiedness. As noted previously society uses powerful images to help maintain coherence in spite of individualism, and the emphasis on certain bodies and behaviours as normal raises the danger of alienating and excluding young people. In the past, within traditional communities, disabled young people would have likely been cared for by family and integrated into the community, but it is much harder to integrate into an individualised society. Despite this risk of exclusion, and the loss of group support, people want more control over their lives – not less – and education and work are increasingly focused on competition and individual success (Chisholm, 1990, p. 135). There is no doubt, examining these facets of modern society, that young people have far more “individual” identities than they did in the past.

Politically, this is identified as freedom, and Western culture defines freedom as “individual choice and responsibility” (Johnson et al, 2005, p. 159). The drive towards greater individualism is seen over the past few decades, especially with Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s, where welfare institutions were broken down and the message was that everyone should be self-sufficient. Today, it is generally accepted that children are “born as individuals with individual rights” and they are entitled to be treated as such from birth (Leccardi & Ruspini, 2006, p. 65). This lays the groundwork for individualisation from a very early age. Balancing this, however, is the fact that individuals are not free from the influence of their families or social groups. This can be relatively benign, as with young people identifying through music or taste in movies, or it can be negative, as noted by Lerner & Steinberg who say the risk of developing depression or other pathologies is related to parenting, and environment (2009, p. 562).

The conclusion is that it is clear young people’s lives are more individualised than in previous generations, thanks in large part to mass communication and developments in technology. The primary force for change has been education, leading to work as a focus for creating identity. However, young people also identify heavily based on entertainment and leisure activities. Despite all the opportunities for individualism there is still a fundamental need for social cohesion and inclusion. Unfortunately some of the ways society tries to promote cohesion, such as through messages in advertising and defining normal behaviour, actually serve to exclude individuals who do not fit the stereotype. Against this trend, however, the self-selection into groups by young people with common interests, or needs, is possible through the internet, which creates a new form of social grouping based on – rather than opposed to – individualisation. It seems certain that as humanity and technology evolve there will continue to be enhancements in individualism, as well as new types of social organisation to compensate for the loss of traditional social structures based on class identity, geographical location or extended family.

Bibliography

Chisholm, L., (1990) Childhood, Youth and Social Change: A Comparative Perspective, London: RoutledgeFalmer

Council of Europe (ed.), (2001) Youth Research in Europe: the next generation, Strasbourg: Council of Europe,

Johnson, M. L., Bengtson, V. L., Coleman, P. G., & Kirkwood, T. B. L., (2005) The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Aging, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Jones, G., (2009) Youth, Cambridge: Polity Press

Leccardi, C., & Ruspini, E., (2006) A New Youth? Young People, Generations and Family Live, Aldershot: Ashgate

Lerner, R. M., & Steinberg, L. (2009) Handbook of Adolescent Psychology: Individual Basis of Adolescent Development, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons

Livingstone, S. M., & Bovill, M. (2001), Children and their Changing Media Environment a European Comparative Study, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates

Warner Weil, S., Wildemeersch, D., & Jansen, T., (2005) Unemployed Youth and Social Exclusion in Europe: Learning for Inclusion?, Aldershot: Ashgate

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Do the urban and rural spheres remain socially distinct in any ways? Discuss with relevant ideas from urban and rural sociology.

Sharma (1997 p. 74) states that rural and urban communities form the ‘end points in the continuum of development of human habitats’. However, it has also been suggested that the social, cultural and technological developments in the United Kingdom (UK) have resulted in a country wide urban society, with limited sociological distinctions between the two geographical locations, through a process of urbanisation. The remit of this assignment is to discuss this further, and will refer to various theoretical contributions to support or contradict this argument. Furthermore, specific reference will be made to the concept of communities and the essay will also explore social relations from both the urban and rural perspective.

If sociology is the study of society and its social problems, rural sociology focuses predominantly upon the existence of these within rural environments, often focusing on the countryside (Karalay 2005 p. 3). Peggs (2012 p. 89) proposes that in Britain we often perceive the countryside as being a ‘rural idyll’, a view which is premised upon the lower crime rates, perceived continued existence of community and kinship ties and a lower population density. However, Pugh and Cheers (2010 p. viii) suggest that such perceptions often result in clear generalisations and a failure to acknowledge the diversity amongst villages, suggesting that the definition of rurality itself is often flawed due to its presumption that each area holds homogenous characteristics. This stereotypical view of rural society being harmonious has also resulted in a failure to recognise the impact of industrialisation upon the sociology of agriculture, and the isolation often experienced by adults in remote rural areas (Scott 2014 p. 656). The former refers to the impact that technological advancements have had upon the practice of agriculture, or the Agricultural Revolution. Whilst this has significantly increased the abilities of farmers to support a larger number of people and created a surplus of the availability of food, specifically in Western areas, it has also impacted upon climate change and employment rates in rural areas (Volti 2011 p. 6).

Whereas, urban sociology is mostly associated with the structure of a city or town as well as the social interaction between the people that live there (Peggs 2012 p. 90) and it has been suggested that cities are the ‘physical embodiment of political and economic relationships; thus, an exponential focus has been placed upon urban societies by sociologists and the government (Flanagan 2010 p. 3). Browne (2005 p. 389) defines urbanization as the ‘process of the movement’ of people from rural areas across to urban areas with cities becoming the major centres of population. Whilst it is often associated with being exemplary of the modern world post the Industrial Revolution, Wagner (2008 p. 6) notes that is has also caused a number of ‘new’ problems; including pollution and the negative impact that it has had upon the environment, health issues particularly within lower socio-economic groups, and country wide inequality. Although urban communities are fundamentally developed from rural habitats, there is a number of ‘glaring differences in every aspect of life’ (Sharma 1997 p. 74). For example, the distinctive characteristics of an urban society is noted as being the ‘substitution of secondary for primary contacts’; the weakening of kinship; decline in the role of the family; lack of neighbourhood and community; and an ‘undermining of the traditional basis of social solidarity’ (Lin and Mele 2012 p. 39). For example, Flanagan (2010 p. 175) argues that one of the main reasons for migration to rural areas has always been, and remains to be, economic incentive and Sharma (1997 p. 76) proposes that urban societies have become more meritocratic, offering its citizens the chance to reach their full potential, suggesting that rural areas are premised upon a traditional value system which offers little room for change.

Louis Wirth (1938) perceived the defining characteristics of a city as being population size and density as well as social diversity; proposing that the combination of thus have resulted in a ‘distinctive urban way of life’ (Fulcher and Scott 2011 p. 475). Wirth’s theory has been noted to be a seminal piece discussing urbanisation, proposing that he perceived this to be something which would spread to all areas; fearing that it was a ‘socially disruptive’ process, a threat to the moral values of citizens, that would result in a lack of community and ‘underlying consensus’ (Slattery 2002 p. 303). Additionally, he perceived urbanism as being separate from accounts of capitalism, industrialism or modernity and failed to acknowledge how such concepts are intertwined and dependent of each other (Magnusson 2013 p. 55).

Tonnie’s (1957) analysis of the impact of the industrial revolution suggested that the disruption caused by people moving to the city led to an increase in ‘large-scale, impersonal, calculative and contractual relationships’; at the expense of community (Hillyard 2007 p. 7). His theory consisted of a comparison between gemeinschaftlich, communal solidarity, and gesellschaftlich including relations of calculative and contractual natures, and is often critiqued due to his depiction of historical communities to be romantic and ideal (Scott 2007 p. 780). Similarly, Simmel (1903) proposed that there were significant differences within human interaction in city life in comparison to rural areas, suggesting that people are more likely to be emotionally reserved and individualistic, proposing that the development of such skills allows them to ‘cope with the multiple demands of urban life’ (Stolley 2005 p. 169). He suggested that urban life leaves citizens ‘bombarded’ with ‘images, impressions, sensations and activities’ resulted in them becoming blase and disinterested with others, exacerbating the emotional distance between themselves and others (Giddens 2006 p. 896). This is further discussed by Furedi (2013 p. 319) that the ‘veiled hatred and contempt’ for the modern industrial society resulted in Tonnies work often being disputed due to its generalised nature.

This change in the socially cohesive nature of pre-industrial society was also discussed by Emilie Durkheim (1897), however, his work was not solely from a pessimistic perspective and he argued that this was just a change in the social bonds and relationships (Hillyard 2007 p.10). He argued that urban-adults are more likely to become less tied to the ‘common concern’ and develop an interdependence premised upon an organic solidarity; in which, ‘social ties are based on differences’ (Stolley 2005 p. 169). He felt that modern society was based upon ‘the ideals of modern individualism’, with concerns as to whether this could provide a sufficient foundation for society, however, felt that communities could be re-established on different grounds (Challenger 1994 p. 211).

Community is a multi-dimensional term that may refer to a physical place in which people live together but also to ‘groups of people whose interaction is not based on physical proximity but shared interests’ (Robinson and Green 2011 p. 13). The concept of community is often compared within the urban-rural continuum, with Mann (2003 p. 190) supporting the theoretical perspective that urbanisation has resulted in a loss of community, and the values that are associated with it. Furthermore, Fulcher and Scott (2011 p. 475) proposed that the weakening of relationships in city life is one of the key reasons why urban-adults are significantly more likely to have mental health issues, commit suicide or become victims of crime. Yet Browne (2005 p. 393) argues that the close knit community in rural areas can actually be very ‘narrow minded and oppressive’; proposing that people who are different to the majority, or even do not have family ties with the area, are likely to be excluded. This is further supported by Lister (2010 p. 203) who notes that whilst any community can provide security for some, this is often done so on the basis of the exclusion of others; reiterating that it cannot be viewed as an ‘organic homogenous entity’. However, Abrahamson (2013 p. 55) argues that one of the key reasons for the focus upon urban development is community planning, attempting to alleviate the issues associated with the lack of community in urban areas by attempting to adjust the structure, provision and resources to enforce these.

Lin and Mele (2012 p. 39) state that the adult urban population are significantly less likely to be unemployed due to the number of jobs available, also suggesting that city life itself ‘discourages’ unemployment due to the lack of support and focus upon individualism. Yet Ferrante (2013 p. 252) argues that problems with the rural areas of a country are often under exaggerated or ignored: for example, she notes that a large percentage of children that live in poverty live in rural areas; noting the effects of economic restructuring, decline of farming and traditional industries and the lack of sufficient support in these areas. This is further discussed by Pugh and Cheers (2010 p. xvi) who note that assumptions premised upon the idealised nature of the rural lead to a ‘comparative invisibility’ of some of the social issues which are just as likely to occur here as in urban societies, such as poverty, domestic violence and substance misuse; proposing that often the needs of rural-adults are largely ignored by state provision. Additionally, Betti and Lemmi (2013 p. 36) argue that whilst statistical evidence may indicate that rates of poverty are significantly higher in cities and towns, they explain this by the significantly higher population density, a higher cost of living in such areas, and the exponential costs of owning or renting accommodation in the centre of a city. Furthermore, whilst poverty is often perceived as being an inner city problem, it is found widely in rural areas with farm workers being amongst the lowest paid in society with a loss of their job also potentially resulting in homelessness and eviction (Browne 2005 p. 393).

Paddison (2001 p. 12) argues that there has become a decentralisation, with the intertwining of town and country, resulting in a country wide urban society and a rural sociology becoming less relevant in modern times. This is further maintained by Fulcher and Scott (2011 p. 471) who note that the differences between the two communities have ‘largely disappeared’ due to both of them now being ‘shaped by the dynamics of consumer capitalism’. Although Browne (2005 p. 389) argues that since the 1960’s the UK has reversed some of the changes made during the industrial period, with increasing numbers of people choosing to live in the countryside. This is particularly relevant within areas which are within commutable distance to major cities, due to high costs of living in the cities as well as the perception that rural areas are significantly better for raising children. Furthermore, Pugh and Cheers (2010 p. 6) argue that technological advancements, such as the internet, have further perpetuated the decentralisation of urban life, with communication significantly improving in even the most remote areas; allowing people to have ‘easier and more reliable access to information and services’. However, Flanagan (2010 p. 176) reports that there has been a failure to develop rural areas sufficiently, causing high urbanization rates resulting in unemployment and housing shortages in large cities; questioning whether the rate of urbanization has been ‘beneficial or detrimental to economic growth’.

The lack of community life in urban environments is often cited as being one of the key distinctions between rural and urban sociology, and would denounce the claim that that rurality lacks relevance in a post-modern society. However, technological advancements, including information communication technology and transport amongst others, have led to more people choosing to live in rural environments and commuting to their employment on a daily basis. This assignment has discussed both sides of the argument, with reference to a number of theoretical contributions, including Wirth, Durkheim, Tonnies, and Simmel; each of which focus on the impact upon social relations in the city. However, it has also highlighted a number of the social problems which are indiscriminately impacted upon by location. The assignment has clearly supported the perception that there has been a decline in the relevance of rural sociology since the Industrial Revolution, however, it has yet to lose all credibility regardless of the developments made in a postmodern society.

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