Author: Andre Coleman

Quality assurance systems in the upscale hotel sector

1. Introduction

Quality assurance systems are an important element of any business strategy. As Porter (1985 and 2004) suggests, quality is now seen as a major force for gaining competitive advantage, particularly with the consumer. There is no commercial activity where this is more important than in the hotel sector. As Yavas et al (1995) state, “the question is no longer whether to have quality assurance programmes, but rather how to make these programmes work,” within this sector of hospitality.

It can be argued that in terms of quality assurance systems delivery the hotel sector is in a distinctive position, particularly when it is related to service satisfaction (Parasuraman 1997, Schiffman and Kanuk 2000). Unlike most other industries, where customer contact and engagement during a visit might be fleeting, as happens in retail shop environment, a hotel’s interaction with customers can last from a few hours to several days. Furthermore, as Kandampully et al (2001, p.28) the quality of the hotel product also has to take into account the “customer-to-customer interactions.”

Following a brief literature review, the intention of this essay is to examine quality assurance systems and evaluate the effect that these systems have upon service quality and customer satisfaction within the upscale Hotel market.

2. Literature Review

Quality assurance and management within the hotel environment is focused upon satisfying the customer. Therefore, this review concentrates on the existing literature relating to customer satisfaction and the various methods and frameworks of service quality related to this focus.

2.1 Customer satisfaction

Academic literature relating to customer satisfaction falls within two main categories, these being the psychological perceptions of the customer and the practical ways in which customer satisfaction can be implemented to help a business achieve its objectives. In the hotel sector, this objective is “to try and engender a high level of customer satisfaction in order to positively influence our customers’ repurchasing and communicative behaviour” (Hennig-Thurau and Hassen (2000, p.62).

However, to achieve this aim the business has to understand what drives customer satisfaction. Christopher (1984), Holbrook (1999), Schiffmand and Kanuk 2000 and Brennen (2003) all agree that satisfaction is related to the consumer’s perception or judgement of a product experience and value when set against their expectations and the payment made. Zeithaml’s (1998, p.14) describes it as follows, being that “Perceived value is the consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given … value represents a trade-off of the salient give and get components,” in other words the cost paid is measured against the value expected . Therefore, it can be suggested that the greater the service quality the higher the satisfaction (Kandampully et al. 2001, p.8) and, conversely, the higher the price the greater the perception of value.

Bostepe (2007) further identifies that, within a service environment such as a hotel, consumer satisfaction does not simply rely upon the quality of service satisfaction received from business employees, although this is an essential element. The physical environment, for example the decor, bedrooms and other facilities offered, are also elements of the consumer’s perceived value and service satisfaction. If any of these are deemed as sub-standard, particularly when related to the price paid, this will reduce the customer’s enjoyment and levels of satisfaction.

It follows therefore that only by concentration upon providing quality within all of these areas of the product will the business be able to assure satisfaction and encourage customer loyalty (Holbrook 1999, p.121), which Porter (1998), Parasuraman (1997) Agrawal (2000) and Harrison (2003) all agree is essential to competitive advantage.

2.2 Methods used to measure customer satisfaction and service quality

There are numerous “quality assurance” measurement systems and standards available for use within the business environment. Customer feedback is one such measurement. Client feedback can be achieved by two methods. The first way is to provide questionnaires that hotel guests are asked to complete before the end of their stay. The second is to rely upon externally conducted questionnaires, interviews and polls, which can be conducted on a continuous basis.

However, whilst comments and responses provided by customers may act as a good testimonial for the business (Porter 1998, p.1478), these systems have their drawbacks. In addition to the fact that not all customers might respond, the design of the process itself is often flawed (Kandampully et al 2001) and can therefore be misinterpreted. For example, a simple complaints procedure would not necessarily identify areas of quality success. Secondly, these feedback processes tend to lack definition. Their use may therefore be inhibited by the fact that they do not provide management with sufficient detail to be able to locate and resolve the specific areas of the business where deficiency of service quality is occurring. Furthermore, a system of continuous surveys adds to the business administration costs and, in addition, raises the inherent issue of sampling (Visit Britain 2008 b). Evidence of these limitations can be seen in a recent survey conducted by Visit Britain (2008 a) (see figure 1).

Whilst it is clearly apparent from these results that customer satisfaction in related to encouraging loyalty and retention, as well as being inherently useful in turning existing customers into promotional tools for the hotel, this does not provide management with a detailed analysis of the areas where satisfaction has been achieved or denote what areas were not satisfying.

To provide detailed quality service observations therefore, a more robust quality assurance system is required and most of these are based upon variations of the “Total Quality Management” (TQM) system (Dotchin and Oakland 1994 and Ziethaml et al 2000). These methods are designed to assess and monitor the level of quality being maintained throughout all areas of the business process and its supply chain, from an internal as well as external viewpoint. One such variation, particularly applicable to the hotel industry, is the SERVQUAL method, which originated from the works of Parasuraman et al (1991).

3 SERVQUAL Measurement

Kandampully et al (2001, p.68) observe that many academics and practical studies have used SERVQUAL as a “true measure of customer service” and that it has been “extensively applied” (Shahin 2005, p.4) in service based organisations. Amongst these service industries will be included the hospitality and hotel sector of the tourism industry.

Despite the fact that recent researches have sought to extend the elements of quality measurement with the SERVQUAL model, fundamentally it is still based upon the level of quality assurance to be measured and gained within five key sectors of the business processes, which are: –

Tangibles – Physical facilities, equipment and appearance of personnel.
Reliability – Ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately.
Responsiveness – Willingness to help customers and provide prompt service.
Assurance – (including competence, courtesy, credibility and security). Knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence.
Empathy – (including access, communication, understanding the customer). Caring and individualized attention that the firm provides to its customers.

Source: Sahney et al 2004

The SERVQUAL measurement can be used internally, through measurement against preset quality assurance standards such as the ISO 9001 Quality certification process (BSI 2008) and the “Star Rating system” operated by Visit Britain (2008) in conjunction with the Automobile Association. In this case the hotel services and processes are measured against pre-determined sets of quality criterion and monitored at least annually by those who regulate these standards. The internal quality assurance programme is also complemented by external consumer questionnaires and interview surveys.

The SERVQUAL quality assurance method has been in existence for some years and is “tried and tested” (Shahin 2005, p.5), making it a firm favourite within the hotel service industry, where managers are comfortable and confident with the outcomes of these measurements. An element of SERVQUAL that is considered particularly important in this respect is the fact that the system and its measurements are monitored and updated on a regular basis (Holbrook (1999), Sahney et al (2004) and Boztepe (2007)), for example annually (Shahin 2005, p.6). Both ISO 9001 and the “Star Rating” systems conform to these determinants.

4 Quality assurance in Upscale Hotels

As will be seen from the following analysis, the “quality assurance” systems applied to the hotel in terms of both the internal industry “Star Rating” and external SERVQUAL systems are virtually synonymous in terms of the standards and factors they rely upon for measurement. To maintain their perception as upscale or “5 star” hotels, in each of these cases the hotel will have to achieve much higher levels of standards.

4.1 Star Rating system

Although the Star Rating system is formatted in a slightly different way to SERVQUAL, the quality elements of this process are still graded in a similar manner. The main difference is the fact that there are minimum quality requirements before the hotel will even be considered for a rating. However, even these equate to the tangible element of the SERVQUAL system (figure 2).

Once the minimum entry requirements have been met, to assess which star level is applicable to the establishment independent inspectors will monitor five quality bands and award a quality percentage to each. These percentages determine what rating the establishment has achieved (figure 3).

Figure 3 Quality bands for star rating

Star rating

Bands

One star

30-46%

Two stars

47-54%

Three stars

55-69%

Four Stars

70-84%

Five Stars

85-100%

Source: Visit Britain (2005, p.6)

Furthermore, this standard of quality has to be achieved across a range of five product elements, which include cleanliness, service, food quality, bedrooms and bathrooms. Simply complying in one of the areas is not sufficient to earn the highest star. Therefore, if the hotel fails to achieve the required 85-100% standards during an annual monitoring it risks its rating being downgraded to four stars or a lower standard. For instance, in the example shown below (figure 4), despite the fact that the hotel being monitored has achieved the five star requirements in three of the five bands, its failures in the other two would demote it to a four star hotel.

Figure 4 Quality bank achievement

Level

Standard

1

2

3

4

5

Cleanliness

X

Service

X

Food quality

X

Bedrooms

X

Bathrooms

X

Source: adapted from Visit Britain (2005, p.7)

4.2 SERVQUAL system

When using the SERVQUAL system, which is largely based largely upon the results of customer satisfaction surveys, although all hotels would be looking to achieve the maximum “service quality” satisfaction level of 100% in terms of the overall scoring, there is a significant difference in the way this would be achieved when related to the different standard of establishments. To provide an example of how this equates in practice, the following is a comparison between the SERVQUAL requirements of a 5 star hotel against lower rated hotel, such as the budget Travelodge hotel chain (figure 5).

Figure 5 SERVQUAL comparisons

SERVQUAL criterion

5-star hotel

Travelodge

Tangibility

20%

20%

Reliability

20%

30%

Responsiveness

20%

15%

Assurance

20%

25%

Empathy

20%

10%

Total

100%

100%

It is apparent from the above comparison that the 5-star establishment requires their quality of service to be more balanced, in other words no one area of their product should be delivering a lower quality of service than any other. However, with the budget chain, which operates on a low cost strategy that eliminates much of the human resources and food elements, these specific areas are shown to have less importance to the business, but need to be compensated by increased levels of satisfaction in other areas of quality if the business is to remain successful.

4.3 Findings

What is immediately apparent from the analysis of the two quality assurance systems identified above as being used within the hotel sector is their compatibility. This not only applies to the systems per se, but also to the measurement of the results. In both cases an upscale hotel would need to achieve a balanced score with high ratings in all of the quality determinants if it is to maintain its market position and be perceived by the potential customer as a quality (5 star) hotel. Conversely, the lower quality hotels pay less attention to those areas of the standards that are more directly related to the quality of service provided by their human resources, relying instead upon other elements to satisfy customer quality perception, such as low cost (Porter 2004).

Whilst it could therefore be stated in simple terms that quality assurance is related to the price being paid for the product, what research such as that conducted by Shahin (2006), Ziethaml et al (1990) and Holbrook (1999), and the fact that all hotels, irrespective of their standards, operate quality assurance systems, shows is that price is simply one element required to fulfill customer satisfaction needs.

Whatever price is being charged for the hotel product the customer will still weigh the experience received against the value they expect from the product enjoyed at that price (Zeithaml 1988 and Parasuraman et at 1994). A customer who decides to spend a greater amount of his or her disposable income on arranging to stay in a 5-star hotel will have a much greater value expectation than one who chooses a budget hotel stay. The former will expect the service quality to exist in all aspects of the hotel product. This includes the decor and the ambiance of the environment, the facilities that are being offered, including meals and room service, and the performance of the hotel’s human resources. If these quality expectations are not met that customer will perceive that they have not received value for money and therefore will view the experience as less than satisfactory. Therefore, they will be unlikely to promote the hotel in a positive manner to others or re-use it.

5 Conclusion

It is apparent that in the case of an upscale or5-star hotel the combination of the industry “Star Rating” and “SERVQUAL” quality assurance systems will have a significant impact upon their service quality and the level of customer satisfaction achieved from using the product.

In terms of the “Star Rating” system, the higher the star rating the greater the expectation of the customer in terms of their perception of the quality that will be found in this establishment. Therefore, the five star establishments are likely to attract customers who wish to avail themselves of the higher quality experience.

With regard to the external “SERVQUAL” system of measurement, because these are results from customer experiences, the greater the levels of quality achieved in the areas measured, the more likely it is that customers will be retained and act as recommenders to other potential customers.

In both cases therefore, it can be concluded that the quality assurance system is designed to achieve competitive advantage by attracting additional market share, thus improving the hotel’s revenue and profitability levels.

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The need of qualified employees in hospitality industry, their commitment to service quality and to what extent it impacts customer satisfaction is not any more a matter of question; it is an important issue that concerns not only hospitality management education in Bulgaria but it is recognized all over the world. The industry suffers from high turnover (Mehra, 2006) which directly reflects to the product and service quality offered (Pizam and Thornburg, 2000) and respectively to low revenues and profits (Tracey and Hinkin, 2008).Furthermore, problems occur in graduates’ perception of future career in hospitality industry due to disappointment of the work experience they gain during their mandatory practices in this industry which decrease their willingness for further professional development in this field (Waryszak, 1999; Jenkins, 2001).The gabs in hospitality management education system is an important issue of serious concern and represents a huge interest among researchers and academics. According Mr. Ilian Ilchev a manager of Vocational Training Center (VTC) – Bourgas who is responsible of the training of cadres in hospitality industry, Bulgarian tourism sector faces serious problems finding qualified employees in this field. Most of the students in Bulgarian universities and colleges offer low quality of education. There is no interaction between the practice in tourism sector and the higher education offered in Bulgarian schools. Moreover, after graduation students are not attracted from the low payment in this sector, and the inability to start career on managerial level is from great disappointment for them.

As far as the education of hospitality management is concerned, there is a need to classify the supply side of the Bulgarian education. The institutions that provide tertiary education in Bulgaria are separated into two types: universities with duration of study from four to six year, depending on the object of study which offer bachelor and master degree, and colleges with duration of study three years offering professional bachelor degree. There is existence of Private Professional Colleges (PPC) with duration of study two years offering certificate for professional qualification which are 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th degree (National Statistic Institute) and so called Vocational Training Centers (VTC) which are working at the same principle as PPC and offer the same levels of professional qualification. The difference between them is that PPC give opportunity for the student to continue their education for professional bachelor/bachelor degree in its partner Bulgarian university or college but VTC on the other hand is considered to be not only for students but for everyone that wants to acquire craft knowledge in particular field. There is small percentage of private colleges which are part from any statistic that offer courses based on educational programmes similar to foreign colleges that suits the students needs in particular industry. The period of study in these colleges is from two to three years and after completing the course, student can continue their education in university abroad. Most of the courses are franchised and validated by the foreign college or university and the majority of them are based in Nederland, Great Britain, Norway etc. However, the degree awarded by their Bulgarian college or university partner is not acknowledged by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education. Here comes the question how effective is the education offered from these institutions connected with hospitality industry and how many of them produce qualified employees and leaders that could suits the needs of this industry? According to Jenner, 1992 and Sneed & Heiman, 1995 the concern for a good quality of education in tourism sector should be equally high for both government and hospitality and tourism industry. Bulgarian government does not subsidize the colleges that offer higher education in hospitality management and very few hotels do have clear structured training system. The limitation of Master and doctoral programs in this field in Bulgarian universities with specialization in hospitality is an obstacle for development of further academic resources and researches which could be in favor for the progress of these programs. Furthermore, courses such as Entrepreneurship, Strategic Management, Marketing Management, Corporate Finance etc. which are essential for the hospitality education do not exist in Bulgarian State universities. Such courses are recognized in the Bulgarian colleges which are affiliated by foreign universities but from financial point of view, not every student can afford it. Unfortunately, such gaps in the hospitality education are not rare phenomena in other countries such as India that faces the same problems (Jauhari V.2006).

A serious issue of concern in Bulgaria is connected with the jobs opportunities that the Bulgarian students have after graduation. It is generally known that the aim of the higher education is to prepare qualified cadres which are able to find a realization on the labor market. The quality of education is a leading factor that influences students’ opportunities of finding the most suitable job placement according to the acquired qualification (Georgieva Y., Kalinov K. 2005).Unfortunately, in Bulgaria it is a well known fact that the students find difficulties to find job in the sphere of their higher education and most of them start working something which is totally different or similar to what they have studied in the university, mostly at minimum wage rates.Moreover,the number of graduates in hospitality industry exceed the number of available managerial positions on the labor market, something that happens in India as well and that leads to :

“aˆ¦mismatch of supply and demand of certain skills in hospitality industry”

(Jauhari V.2006).

According to Zhang and Wu (2004), China faces the same difficulties in hospitality industry, namely:

“aˆ¦lack of qualified staff at both operational and managerial level, high staff turnover rates, unwillingness of university graduates to enter industry, gap between what is taught in school and college and realities of the industry itself”

In most cases, it leads to job dissatisfaction, low productivity and respectively to low quality of service. Researchers have found that there is absence of positive and strong interaction between job satisfaction and education (Gordon, 1975; Weaver, 1978). One of the assumptions is that the students with higher education expect their work during the years to be rewarded and when their expectations are not met it easily leads to dissatisfaction of the job position (Wright and Hamilton, 1979).However, a recent statistic shows that the number of people who mostly leave the country are young people between 25-29 years old (NSI). This means that higher educated or not, young people in Bulgaria prefer to work and to look for a better career opportunities abroad instead of develop their skills at home which directly reflects on the different branches of the Bulgarian economy, namely to operate with young and qualified cadres. It is a reasonable explanation why Bulgarian hospitality industry desperately has a need of qualified employees and managers who can offer good quality of service and ability to compete with other popular hospitality industries such as Turkey, Greece, Malta etc.

The good quality of higher education in hospitality management plays crucial role of providing the tourism market with well trained, skilled and educated managers, but on the other side, frontline employees are those who has direct contact with the customers, and the quality of service provided by them is essential for the success of any organization within the hospitality industry (Chang, 2006).Customer service is viewed as customer perception of what he/she had experienced and remembered (Beaujean, Davidson, and Madge, 2006; Bymes,(2005). Most of the time, when a customer leaves a hotel or a restaurant dissatisfied from the received service, it forms immediately a negative perception (Bymes, 2005).That’s why, it is essential and not fully recognized in Bulgarian hospitality industry that the successful organizations are those that perceive customer service as:

“aˆ¦the starting point and ending point for any effective account relationship” in which “the key to success is clear thinking about what it feels like to walk in the customer’s shoes”

(Bymes, J., 2005).

Employees’ commitment to service quality is also an important factor that contributes for a strong organizational performance. Organizations with high commitment among subordinates could only benefit from it with lower turnover and comparatively higher motivated employees. It is important for every company to know how to motivate its employees and to create better relation between customers and frontline employees. It is considered as a step ahead of creating a sustainable customer service (Cadwallader, S., Jarvis, C, Bitner, M., and Ostrom, A., 2009; Spector and McCarthy, 1996).

It is also assumed that committed employees are more likely to provide customers with better quality of service (Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry, 1990).According to Kini and Hobson (2002) the good quality of service entirely depends on:

“aˆ¦employee’s commitment, satisfaction, involvement, and morale”.

In hospitality industry in Bulgaria is very difficult to be found such employees. Frontline employees are “aˆ¦typically underpaid, undertrained, overworked and highly stressed “(Hartline and Ferrell, 1993), a statement which apply pretty much to the Bulgarian hospitality employees’ working environment. It concerns mostly the seasonal workforce in Bulgarian winter and summer resorts where people work almost at minimum wage, in most cases relying on tips or small percentage of their daily profit. Hotel and restaurant employees are occupied ten-twelve hours per day, sometimes even more, depends on how busy is within the organization. Furthermore, a common practice is working without days off which easily contribute for stressful working environment, a topical issue that contributes to low quality of service (Ross F. G 1995).All these factors reflect negatively on employee satisfaction, productivity and loyalty to the organization and respectively to customer satisfaction and profitability. The link between frontline employees’ satisfaction, loyalty, productivity, customer satisfaction and company’s profitability is well depicted in so called Service profit chain (Heskett, Sasser & Schlesinger, 1997); illustrated in Figure.1.According to Crowford, A. and Hubbard, S. (2007), in the Service profit chain:

“aˆ¦there is a link between employee satisfaction and the service concept, directly impacting customer satisfaction. This impact affects customer loyalty, which in turn influences revenue growth. Lastly, revenue growth extends back to the beginning influencing the internal service of the organization. Understanding an employee’s level of satisfaction, commitment, involvement, and self-esteem gives managers and strategists means to create a favorable environment where the links in the service profit chain work to the advantage of the service provider”.

Employees’ satisfaction and commitment as a starting point in Service profit chain, impacting the delivery of good quality of service and company’s profitability, are major components that absence in many Bulgarian hospitality organizations. The results are higher turnover among frontline employees and managers due to the lack of quality of work life (QWL), a topical issue of great interest among researchers and academics. The delivery of good service highly depends on QWL provided by the hospitality organization, mainly when employees’ needs and expectations are met, so that they are motivated to work in company’s favor (Kanungo, 1982 and Efraty & Sirgy, 1990) or in other words through better QWL there is a significant improvement of employees productivity, performance and service quality (Havlovic, 1991).A recent research made to investigate employees’ expectations of QWL (Kandasamy,I, I. & Sreekumar, A., 2009) indicates that during a conversation with the employees from three different hotels, they show willingness to participate, when provided, in company’s service training programs which could be a good chance for them to enhance their skills. According to Rousseau (1995), in most cases, employees even expect their company to provide training programs as an opportunity for further career development:

“aˆ¦in exchange for the employee’s time, effort, and skill”

Tourism industry in Bulgaria supported by the government and orientated in the mainstream of “mass “tourism, entirely depends on its seasonal workforce. Practices such as service training almost do not exist in Bulgarian winter and summer resorts because of its seasonality, where the percentage of five and four stars hotels grow dramatically in the last couple of years. As Mr.Lubomir Popiordanov, Chair of the Bulgarian Association for Alternative Tourism (BAAT) pointed out “Bulgarian “mass” tourism is mainly connected with quantity instead of quality and it lacks in added value “(Sofia News Agency).Most of the hotel owners are mainly focused finding ways to be fully booked during the whole season instead of improving the quality of service through training programs. It is not yet recognized that through such programs frontline employees could work much more effectively when dealing with customers’ complaints which on the other side makes feel them satisfied with their job (Babakus et al., 2003; Schneider & Bowen, 1995; Tax & Brown, 1998).Some other research papers support the thesis that organizations that invest money in service training programs are more capable to keep its employees within the company, makes them feel happy at the workplace and committed to the firm’s values(Babakus et al., 2003; Lee, Park, & Yoo, 1999; Sweetman,2001; Tsui, Pearce, Porter, & Tripoli, 1997).

Other approach of keeping frontline employees committed to the organization, providing better quality of service is through company’s reward system. George and Gronroos (1989) also suggest that rewarding service employees periodically ensure their commitment to service quality. Similar to the training programs, reward systems and policies are very important for motivating employees when dealing with customers complaints. The fact that company’s reward structure contributes for employees’ satisfaction at the workplace and impacts their organizational commitment is so far supported by many service literature studies (Bowen, Gilliland, & Folger, 1999; Brown & Peterson, 1993; Farrell & Rusbult, 1981; Heskett, Jones, Loveman, Sasser, & Schlesinger, 1994; Lawler, 2000).For the Bulgarian hospitality industry a clear structured reward system could be in favor of reducing employees’ turnover and to encourage more qualified cadres to enter this sector.

Most industry researchers agreed that employees’ commitment to service quality is highly influenced by managers’ commitment to service quality and the way they demonstrate it (Bowen and Schneider 1985; Hartline and Ferrell 1996; Mohr-Jackson 1993; Babakus et al. 2003). As it was mentioned before the higher education is from significant importance in hospitality industry in order to generate leaders capable to show their subordinates motivation, skills, confidence and flexibility which could positively affect employees’ behavior towards the delivering of a better quality of service. Managerial coaching is considered as an appropriate tool of providing employees with support mainly connected with their knowledge, skills and performance within the organization. This method embrace approximately the same goals concerning employees’ further skill development at the workplace as training ,but coaching is presented in more informal way. It represents the ability of the managers to create sustainable correlation between employees and supervisors so that their everyday activities and experiences are synchronized and able to became an object of learning (Phillips 1994).Coaches is design to demonstrate employees the best way of doing their job when dealing with customers. It gives employees an idea of their opportunities, and how to perform better using new and different approaches.Furthermore, through coaches employees are provided with regular feedback which aims to get the best of its employees and to show them that their work is appreciated.

Bulgarian hospitality industry has a lot to learn concerning the education provided, aiming to attract qualified cadres to work in this field and their ability to be committed to service quality. It is so far recognized internationally that qualified employees who are satisfied with their job are more committed to the service quality which directly affect customer satisfaction of the received service attitude. Having in mind that today’s world economy is 70 percent service based, more and more academics and people working in this sphere are looking for a way to design companies that are able to provide the best service to its clients (Schneider & White, 2004). The importance of improving the quality of service is the main driver for company’s successful retention of customers (Gustafsson, A., Johnson, M., Roos, I., 2005).At operational level service employees are those who creates the connection between the customers and the organization and most importantly through them and their personal contribution to deliver proper service, managers are aiming to attract and impress customers (Chase, 1981; Heskett et al., 1994; Oliva and Sterman, 2001), and respectively to satisfy them. Thus, managers’ commitment to service quality has indirect impact on customer’s satisfaction (Subroto, B. & Natalisa, D., 2003).Even that managers also contributes for the delivering of excellent service, frontline employees are from great importance when the target is better productivity performance and gratifying customers’ needs (Yee,R., Yeung,A., Cheng,T.C,2008).

Service quality in the modern hospitality industry is a crucial factor in creating long-term relationship between organizations and customers and to make them feel satisfied (Martin, 1986; Croby et al., 1990; Tornow and Wiley, 1991; Tsa, 1994).Many researchers have argued that there is significant correlation between customer satisfaction and service quality (Roth and Van Der Velde, 1991; Roth and Jackson, 1995).Other studies in service marketing have suggested that customer satisfaction is in emotional reply of a particular experience connected with provided service( Westbrook and Reilly (1983).According to Yoon and Suh (2003), the excellent service highly depends on employees because when they are satisfied with their job and motivated, it is more likely to deliver better services and to give more from themselves. Other research papers prove that loyalty among employees contributes for higher levels of service delivering (Loveman, 1998; Silvestro and Cross, 2000).Employees which are able to provide service quality are considered much more capable to solve problems easily and in proper manner which positively affects customer’s perception of the provided service.

Bulgarian hospitality industry needs serious improvements connected with the service attitude toward customers and radical changes in employees’ working environment, in order to work in full capacity. Successful tourism or hospitality business could not operate without satisfied guests and subordinates (Gursoy and Swanger, 2007). As pointed out in The Service Profit Chain:

“aˆ¦providing employees with a superior internal working environment is likely to lead to satisfied employees who are both loyal to the organization and able to provide the customer with an excellent service experience. Customers will recognize and value the outstanding service offered to them.”

(Heskett et al., 1994, 1997).

However, several studies indicate that employees’ satisfaction plays crucial role in achieving company’s financial aims (Koys, 2003), which means that when a company make an affords to take care for its employees, they will do the same in return for company’s customers. This care could be express through better payment, reward practiced, training and managerial coaching and not at the end, through company’s ability to make feel its employees secure (Gursoy and Swanger, 2007; Koys, 2003; Schneider, 1991).

Customers’ loyalty and satisfaction are supposed to be contributory factor for customer profitability. The relationship between customer satisfaction and profitability is considered as fundamental marketing concept which means that the company’s goal is to pursue customer’s needs, wants and wishes (Helgesen.O, 2006).When all this consumers’ factors are met, customers are satisfied from what they receive, the company is pleased having a long-term financial returns on business. Customers who are highly satisfied are considered to use one and the same products and services more frequently and respectively to stay loyal to the company that provides them (Anderson et al., 1994; Gronholdt et al., 2000).Customers loyalty is an important factor in hospitality industry that contributes for consumer’ reuse of a certain product or service which positively increase company’s profitability. Moreover, satisfied customers are much less price sensitive and they are willing to pay even at high price (Anderson et al., 1994) which directly affects company’s economic performance. Satisfaction among customers reflects in positive way on organization’s overall reputation which on the other side could be a premise of creating strong relationship with important distributors and suppliers. From what was mentioned so far it becomes obvious that:

“aˆ¦customer satisfaction generates more future sales, reduces price elasticity, and increases the reputation of the firm.”

(Yee, R., Yeung, A., Cheng, T.C, 2008).

All of the mentioned sources and publications speak of the aspects that Bulgarian hospitality needs to focus in order to function successfully, to develop and to be competitive on the market.

Push / Pull factor in Tourism
Introduction

Modern tourism has become one of the strongest and most remarkable phenomena of the time. To discover its true nature, one must attempt to understand how the various components are connected to each other, and what are the causes and effects, the conjectures and the realities. One must first grasp the workings of the mechanism before he can determine the means of controlling, changing, and improving it. But the connections are discernible if one limits himself to a narrow, sector-based view (Krippendorf, 1987).

The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one work, “Escape”, escape from the dull, daily routine; escape from the familiar, the common place, the ordinary; escape from the job, the boss, the customer, the commuting, the house the lawn, the leaky faucets.

The benefits of tourism can be wide ranging, extending to benefits to the economy, social life for people living in destinations as well as personal benefits to tourist (UNWTO 1999; Bureau International du Tourisme Sociale (BITS) 2006). These tourism benefits have been found to include: rest and recuperation from work; provision of new experiences lading to a broadening of horizons and the opportunity for learning and intercultural communication; promotion of peace and understanding; personal and social development; visiting friends and relatives; religious pilgrimage and health (Dann, 1977).

Push / Pull Factor

Although a universally agree-upon conceptualization of the tourist motivation construct is still lacking (Fodness, 1994), the push/pull model is accepted by many researchers (Dann, 1977; 1981; Crompton, 1979; Zhang and Lam, 1999; Jang and Cai, 2002; Hsu and Lam, 2003). Push factors are defined as internal motives or forces that cause tourists to seek activities to reduce their needs, while pull factors are destination generated forces and the knowledge that tourists hold about a destination (Gnoth, 1997). Most push factors are instrinsic motivators, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure and social interaction. Pull factors emerge due to the attractiveness of a destination, including beaches, recreation facilities and cultural attractions (Uysal and Jurowski, 1994). Traditionally, push factors are considered important in initiating travel desire, while pull factors are considered more decisive in explaining destination choice (Crompton, 1979, Bello and Etzel, 1985).

Crompton (1979) identifies two clusters of motives among pleasure vacationers, namely socio-psychological motives and cultural motives. Nine motives were generated based on an analysis of 39 unstructured interviews. the seven socio-psychological motives are; escape from a perceived mundane environment, exploration and evaluation of self, relaxation, prestige, regression, enhancement of kinship relationships and facilitation of social interaction; those classified as cultural motives are novelty and education. Although not explicit, Crompton hopes to link these motives to push and pull factors by arguing that push factors for a vacation are socio-psychological motives, while pull factors are cultural motives.

Similarly, Dann (1977) builds his theory based on two conceptualizations: anomie and eo-enhancement. By taking a sociological approach to tourist motivation, Dann identifies anomie and ego-enhancement as two important travel motives. He further argues that both motives are ‘push’ factors. Anomie represents the desire to transcend the feeling of isolation obtained in everyday life, where the tourist simply wishes to ‘get away from it all’. On the other hand, ego-enhancement derives from the level of personal needs. Just as in the need for social interaction people wish to be recognized. The need to have one’s ego enhanced or boosted is analogous to the desire for a ‘bodily tune-up’.

Dann (1977) distinguishes the characteristics of anomic tourists and ego-enhancement tourists. The anomic tourists are typically young, married, male, above-average socio-economic status, from small towns and rural areas, and repeat visitors. Ego-enhancement tourists represent the opposite end of spectrum. This group is more likely female, first-time visitors, from lower socio-economic strata and older than anomic tourists.

Dann favours ‘push’ factors, and argues that an examination of ‘push’ factors is logically, and often temporally, an antecedent to ‘pull’ factors. Moreover, he argues that the question of ‘what makes tourists travel’ can only relate to the ‘push’ factors, as this question is devoid of destination or value content requirements of ‘pull’ factors. While Dann admits that both the anomie and ego-enhancement concepts stem from ‘push’ factors, he does not regard the relationship between these two concepts as dichotomous. Instead, he constructs his theoretical framework as a continuum, with anomie and ego-enhancement as the polar coordinates.

The pull factors are active sports environment, unique natural environment, safety, sunshine, inexpensiveness, cultural activities, entertainment, sightseeing, local culture, different culture and cuisine and uniqueness of small towns/villages/mountains.

From the above descriptions of anomie and ego-enhancement, it should be clear that not only does travel represent the fulfilment of certain basic needs in the potential tourists, but that in so doing it offers him an alternative world to that in which he daily lives. It can be argued, for instance, that in the monotony of suburbia, the faceless city or the public village, life only becomes tolerable with the thought that there are chances of periodic escape from such an existence, and that travel provides the ideal outlets.

Tourist Motivation

Human society, once so sedentary, has begun to move. Today a hurried mobility has obsessed most of the inhabitants of the industrialized nations. One seizes every opportunity to free oneself. To escape the boredom of everyday life as often as possible: short jaunts during the week or week-end, long trips during vacations. Nobody wants anything more fervently for their old age than a secondary residence. Above all, one does not want to stay home but to get away at any price (Krippendorf, 1987).

The subject of tourist motivation involves questions about why people travel. However, identifying clearly the relationships between an individual’s motivations and selection of a destination is a difficult task. Krippendorf (1987), for instance, identified a number of tourist motivations, including:

Recuperation and regeneration;
Compensation and social integration;
Escape;
Communication;
Broadening the mind;
Freedom and self-determination;
Self-realisation;
Happiness.

Collectively, these motivations reflect that ‘the traveller is a mixture of many characteristics that cannot be simply assigned into this category or that one’ (Krippendorf, 1987: 28). He furthers states that, man spends part of his leisure time in mobile leisure activities, that is in travel, which opens a window to the world of the ordinary. This departure or escape is typified and conditioned by specific influences, motivations, and expectations. The purposes of travel constitute the polar opposite of daily life: they represent the non-ordinary. In this context, it is especially interesting to examine the behaviour and experiences of travellers, the circumstances and environment of the people visited (the hosts), and the encounters between travellers and other travellers, especially between travellers and hosts.

The system of work – habitat – leisure – travel is enclosed in a large framework and influenced by the force which governs it. One can distinguish four major domains of these forces, which are connected to each other by numerous interactions: society with its value system (sociocultural subsystem); the economy and its structure (economic subsystem); the environment and its resources (ecological subsystem); the government and its policies (political subsystem) (Rotach, Mauch, and Gueller 1982: 35ff).

Krippendorf believes that the main motive for tourism is to escape from something that we feel is wrong in our daily lives. In today’s highly technological world we feel trapped in routines and commitments over which we have no control, says Krippendorf.

Nowadays, the need to travel is above all created by society and marked by the ordinary. People leave because they no longer feel at ease where they are, where they work, and where they live. They feel an urgent need to rid themselves temporarily of the burdens imposed by the everyday work, home and leisure scenes, in order to be in a fit state, to pick the burden up again. Their work is more and more mechanized, bureaucratized, and determined without regard to their wishes. Deep inside, they feel the monotony of the ordinary, the cold rationality of factories, offices, apartment buildings, and the highway infrastructure, the impoverishment of human contact, the repression of feelings, the degradation of nature, and the loss of nature (Krippendorf, 1987).

Kripendorf highlights, besides the motivation, the society has simultaneously furnished to its members the means of carrying out this escape: money, in the form of higher income; and time, thanks to more and more limited work schedules. But most important of all, industry has developed the true prime mover of mobile society. The car and, to a lesser extent, the airplane have ushered in the mobile leisure revolution and have brought it to today’s state in scarcely two decades and at an amazing speed.

The society makes available the recreation industry, which plays in a sense the role of friend and advisor. This industry has taken over free time. It provides not only various kinds of gratification, but also creates, if necessary, the corresponding wishes and desires (Traitler 1971: 28). Many works to a large extent, in order to be able to take vacations, and he needs vacations to be able to go back to work (Krippendorf, 1987).

The work ethic has allowed many achievements: especially the much hoped for material well-being, the elimination (or nearly so) of poverty, and the reduced work week. But next to this undeniable progress, the ethic has also brought major problems which weigh more and more heavily in the scales and which are felt by a growing number of people: the loss of meaning in one’s job (as a consequence of mass production and of the extreme division of labour), an ever diminishing satisfaction with work and with life (Yankelovich, 1978; Noelle-Neumann 1983), the rigid and immutable organization of time, the phenomena of stress and boredom and the growing “medicalization” of lives (Isopublic 1982; Opaschowski, 1983), and most especially, the increase in unemployment (Kenward, 1983).

Social Tourism

The benefits of participation have prompted many governments to promote access to leisure travel as positive social and economic activities. However, government provisions to ensure equality of access to tourism are not universal ranging from tacit support to direct investment in the provision of services in the form of social tourism (European Commission 2001). In Europe active support for social tourism can be traced back to the Christian movement in France and Switzerland, the early youth movements in Germany and workers educational collectives. However, there are political, cultural and moral dimensions to the debates based on different perspectives on the ideological and fundamental role of the state in the provision of holiday services that has resulted in diverse provision of holiday services that has resulted in diverse provision of access to tourism opportunities.

In the UK for example, the European model has not been followed and there is concern about an ‘over-work’ culture (Bunting 2004). Similarly, the US has witnessed both long-term erosion in leisure time and a propensity for shorter holidays (Schor, 1991) whilst in Japan, holiday time has traditionally been even more scaring (Richards 1999). Therefore cultural attitudes towards holidaymaking could affect political support for social tourism as a policy tool.

Social tourism can be described as “the relationships and phenomena in the field of tourism resulting from participation in travel by economically weak or otherwise disadvantaged elements of society” (Hunzinger, “Social tourism, its nature and problems,” quoted in ETB and TUC 1976, 5). It involves the provision of vacations for people who can afford them only with the aid of a third party. Although the aim of social tourism is Unitarian in philosophy-to extend the benefits of vacations to a broader segment of society-it is expressed in a variety of forms.

Trade unions in industrialized nations have long sought and won paid vacation time for their members, and by example, have won similar rights for most industrial and service workers. In Europe and Japan some companies help, pay for a substantial portion of vacation costs. Most workers in West Germany receive Urlaubsgeld (holiday money), a bonus that cna equal 45 per cent of their regular vacation pay. In France, the state-owned Renault Company contributes to the operation of thirty family vacation villages for its workers (Time 1981).

Social agencies such as the YMCA, Boy scouts, and church groups support many summer camps which offer subsidized vacations to the young, poor or handicapped. In the United States there is evidence of “social tourism” with a twist, according to Lundberg (1976, 170). He notes that social tourism is designed to subsidize vacations or facilities for the working class, but points out that recent resort development in certain state parks is really social tourism for the middle class. These resort park projects offer country club quality and settings at a subsidized price, and have proved to be very popular attractions.

In recent years there has been a re-emergence of research on issues related to social justice and welfare issues in tourism (Higgins-Desboilles 2006; Hall and Brown 1996, 2006) including the concpt of social tourism. Haulot (1982) defines social tourism as a ‘the totality of relations and phenomena deriving from the participation of those social group with modest incomes-participation which is made possible or facilitated by measures of a well-defined social character’ (40). Although there are diverse interpretations of what constitutes social tourism and how it can be implemented, Minnaert, Maitland and Miller (2007) differentiate between visitor-and host-related forms of social tourism.

The literature linking social tourism to social welfare issues from a social policy perspective is limited (Minnaert, Maitland and Miller 2009). Social tourism in the UK is largely dependent on the charities sector, although there are a few studies on the structure and organization of support (Local Government Association 2001). The social policy literature has given limited consideration to the issue of tourisms role in current debates despite a one-wee holiday being included in the indicators of exclusion for some time (Hazel 2005) and tourism being increasingly perceived as a social ‘right’ (Richards 1998). The UK has not adopted the European model of policy provision on social tourism such as the World Tourism Organization (1980).

In the UK the largest factor for non-participation in a holiday was affordability (Corlyon and La Placa, 2006). In 2006-07 there were 2.9 million children living in income poverty in the UK, a figure which rose by 100,000 for the second year running (Department for work and Pensions 2008; see also Palmer, Carr and Kenway 2005). The main social groups who are most at risk from social exclusion from tourism include those who are: disabled; ill; older; at fear of persecution or other risk factors; suffering from poverty; lack time due to work or caring commitments, ethnic minority groups. Further, it is not clear how non-participation in tourism may impact upon the costs of health and social care provision (ODPM 2005).

According to McCabe, holiday space does not contain referents to family problems, and it is free of negative associations, stress and barriers to novel experiences. The holiday offers people a chance to live differently, individually and as a family, allowing a change in routines, to try new activities and experiences, for children to experience freedom, and to live at a different pace of life. Furthermore, holidays provided opportunities for positive and active behaviours in relation to sport and exercise, positive recreation as opposed to passive leisure forms, and issues which has been highlighted by Roberts in relation to leisure consumption and social exclusion (2004).

Further McCabe states, that, analysis of the application forms indicates that people are very often aware of the problems and issues which they face in their lives which can often lead to a sense of guilt. Given the opportunity of time and space away from the home environment, people have the chance to actively solve their own issues without the intervention from others. They have a chance to build or heal relationships and recover from past difficulties and an opportunity to reassess issue and face the future in a positive way.

Conclusion

Travel motivation studies attempt to answer the question ‘why people travel’ or ‘why people visit a particular destination’ because the underlying assumption is that motivation is one of the driving forces of behaviour. Understanding specific tourist motivations and/or the nature of travel motivation can help destination managers and marketers do a better job of product/service planning, marketing communication and visitor attraction and retention.

Travel motivation is a psychological construct which holds a multidimensional underlying structure. People travel to various places to meet different needs. Individuals travel motivations are influenced by their culture, background and previous experience. Of the motivational forces, pull factors are destination attributes, which are under a great deal of control of the destinations.

All the three authors talk about the push / pull factor of tourism but in different concept, Dann focuses on anomie and ego-enhancement, whereas Krippendorf talks about working class people needing to take holiday, with McCabe it is about social tourism for the people who are excluded from the society and cannot afford holiday. Each author explains the same in different ways and logic.

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Public transport faces severe problems in almost all countries although the situation varies from one country to another and even from one city to another. The referred study pertains to Sydney in Australia. Sydney is Australia’s only truly global city, the world’s most culturally diverse cities and one of the world’s great metropolises. Public Transport is an integral part of the fabric of society and is a right, not a privilege. Transportation along with Health and Education are basic building block of any community. The public sees public transport as a core state responsibility. Sydney has the highest level of public transport accessibility to any city in Australia. The different type of facilities available is Airport Link, Buses, Trains, Ferries, Light Rail, Monorail, Taxis, Sydney & Bondi Explorer and City Hopper.

Based on the report Sydney by 2036, State Plan and the 2005 Metropolitan Strategy (City of Cities: A Plan for Sydney’s Future) set out the long-term growth management plan for Sydney. According to this by 2036 Sydney will need to accommodate 6 million people. Nearly 70% of Sydney’s population growth will be driven by natural increase. Migration will account for just over 30% of the population increase. Sydney’s population is expected to reach 6 million by 2036 – an increase of 1.7 million since the last Census in 2006. That means 760,000 more jobs and 770,000 more homes than in 2006. This growth brings with it significant implications for transport and infrastructure, so it’s vital we get the planning right to ensure we build on our advantages.

Executive Summary

Sydney is Australia’s largest city with an approximate population of 4.4 million. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) forecasts that by 2036, the City is expected to have population of approximately. One of the critical issues facing the City is the continuing failure to invest in public transport infrastructure to meet the needs of its growing population. Public Transport System in Sydney has not improved due to various reasons. There has been so many different plans made by different political parties but majority of these plans remain as paper document and were not implemented. The history of failure to implement public transport plans and infrastructure promises is matter of concern with different authorities and public at large.

One of the major reasons of failure of implementation is the lack of long term funding arrangements. Though privatisation has been allowed in Ferry and bus business but the improvement in overall transportation system is not as per standards the other major Cities of Australia have achieved. This has caused Sydney falling behind other Australian and world cities in its public transport performance.

Current Situation

The public at large who uses public transport in Sydney face the problems. Public using the public transport in Sydney whether buses, ferries or trains know that the system is groaning under the pressure of the regular infusion of funds. Not because Sydney is growing rapidly (although it is) but because the state government has refused to invest in bringing an ageing system up to scratch. It is felt by the public that Public transport networks, designed in the 1940s, are straining to service growing cities. In Sydney alone, patronage of the City Rail network increased by more than 8 million journeys in 2008/09. As demand for public transport has risen, modest rises in services have not kept pace. The pressure of overcrowding has led transport authorities to design more “realistic” timetables: bus and train trips now take longer than in past years. In the outer suburbs of Australian cities, public transport is simply non-existent or woefully inadequate. Since last two decades, NSW governments declares number of plans and documents about improvement in public transport system, however, non implementation of the declared plans is indication of deferment denial of the need for the government to lead the development of public transport services and infrastructure in Sydney. The past slow developments indicate that since the opening of the Eastern Suburbs Railway in 1979 only three segments have been added to the suburban rail network, and one of these, the Airport line, relied on private sector construction and operation of its stations, leading to excessive fares and thus preventing the city from making the best use of this important infrastructure.

All these factors conclude the public transport infrastructure deficit which has placed Sydney well behind comparable cities in Europe, Asia and in some cases even North America. The situation in Brisbane where the bus way network and Perth’s new Mandurah rail line in Australia proves that Sydney is comparatively behind these metro areas. The solution to this problem is not easy and can be resolved immediately with Government support especially in implementation of planning of building public transport infrastructure.

NSW Transport and Infrastructure has been established as the lead public transport agency of the NSW Government. NSW Transport and Infrastructure is responsible for transport coordination, policy and planning, transport service and infrastructure. It will also manage budget allocation for rail, bus, ferry and taxi services and related infrastructure in NSW. (Ref: Transport & Infrastructure, http://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/aboutus).

One of the debateable issues is the privatisation of the transport system. For example the Walker Report inquiring into Sydney Ferries mentions that there is a real threat regarding Sydney Ferries could be sold off by the NSW State Government. This means higher prices and reduction in services for a profit driven private owner as opposed to a government service offered to the people. Sydney Ferries give people modal choice and are considered to be a cheaper way for the government to move people then cars on roads so it just doesn’t make sense. Mr Walker recommended the government to form a public-private partnership to operate and manage the service while also is calling for the entire current ferry fleet to be replaced. The report is critical of the current performance of Sydney Ferries, saying it is less than satisfactory and beset by cultural problems. Premier Morris Iemma said the Walker report would be the “road map for change” within Sydney Ferries and supported the call for a new fleet of ferries.

An independent Public enquiry was conducted to look into Long Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney which published the Preliminary Report dated February 05, 2010. The Sydney Morning Herald is right to say that Sydney needs a long term plan that guides the way in which services and infrastructure are planned and delivered. That work is well underway, and builds on the infrastructure, and planning that this Government has already delivered.

Historical facts, figures and scenario

Public transport operators in NSW carry over 2 million passengers each weekday on rail, bus, ferry and taxi services. Around 72% of trips to the Sydney CBD each weekday are made using public transport. The transport sector employs about 20,000 people across. NSW Government has looked into major areas of the transport sector, implementation of the projects for improvement in customer service.

Manly has had both a conventional and a high speed ferry service to the city since January 1965. The Hydrofoil service became more regular with the entry to service of the second larger 140 seat Fairlight. The Manly Hydrofoil service became difficult and costly to run following the introduction of two larger and slightly faster Hydrofoils in September 1984 and July 1985. It finds that there have been a number of considerations and attempts to withdraw the Jetcat service from Manly since 1996 and the recent withdrawal was simply the final and successful attempt. Manly Jetcats have been poorly managed by Sydney Ferries due to progressive Jetcat service degradation and associated failure to properly manage maintenance of the vessels. There were incidents of failure to organise sufficient crew to run both the Manly Ferry and Jetcat services.

The incidents of transport plans are announced and then re-announced. New rail lines are proposed but then abandoned and governments claim increasing costs and global financial problems.

Abandoning the proposed light rail service to the North-West & postponing indefinitely the proposed heavy rail service to the South-West are examples of wrong priorities, inadequacy of funds and inefficiency of the existing transport system which could have added more profits. South West Rail Link has recently been re-announced by the State Government, the future of the North West link is yet to be confirmed. What is implicit in the interim report is the real danger that if the government does proceed with prioritising the construction of an expensive metro network, no further infrastructure is likely to be provided in Western Sydney beyond the South West Rail Link and the Western Metro for many decades to come – if ever.

News regarding introducing an (unsuccessful) ‘congestion tax’ tolling system on the Harbour Bridge and Harbour Tunnel appeared in media. The Government view was that it is introduced to prompt some people to change their travel times or take public transport for trips during peak hours. It was to encourage commuters who can take their journey outside of the peak period. The Government wanted to reduce congestion on Australia’s busiest road corridor. Some were of the view that it is unsuccessful as congestion could not be reduced.

In the Ministerial enquiry into sustainable transport in New South Wales during December 2003, it emerged that Govt. cannot continue with the current arrangements for providing and funding transport services as they are not delivering the satisfactory services to meet the needs of the community. It was suggested that public transport operators (especially CityRail) must overhaul their management and workplace practices to deliver better, safer services, and reduce their operating costs. For passengers the report has suggested that must pay a fairer share of the costs of the system, particularly to help fund improvements. The report recommended that the Government must make amendments to provide concessions for senior citizens, school students and other groups and examine how specific road use pricing could be used to encourage more people to use public transport instead of private cars.

Ref: Ministerial inquiry into sustainable transport in New South Wales dated December 2003.

Based on this report the expenses needed to operate public transport services in NSW are expected to increase substantially over the next seven years. Based on estimates provided by SRA and STA the total costs to maintain existing CityRail, Sydney Buses, Newcastle Buses and Ferries, and Sydney Ferries services (and to allow for some growth in patronage due to population growth) will be nearly $2.7 billion per year over the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. Assuming that passenger fares and government contributions do not increase in real terms, the total revenue for these public transport operators is expected to be nearly $2.3 billion per year. This means there will be a gap of some $400 million per year between the money that they spend and the money they receive. If CityRail and STA were to expand or improve their services significantly, the gap would be even greater.

Total average annual expenditure needs of NSW government public transport operators, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs

$m

Operating

2 043

Capital

620

Total
2 663
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

884

Government contributions

1 377

Total
2 261
Funding gap
402

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by SRA and STA, 2003.

It was estimated that CityRail will need to spend nearly $2.1 billion per annum from 2003-04 to 2010-11 to maintain existing services, and make some service improvements. This estimate includes the additional invest­ment needed to implement the rail clearways plan, which should result in improved service levels across the network. It represents an increase of 17 per cent over CityRail’s 2001-02 expenditure. CityRail’s total revenues per annum are expected to be more than $1.7 billion, including more than $600 million from fares and other revenue, and $1.1 billion from government contributions. This means there will be a funding gap of $332 million per annum if there are no real fare increases or increases in government funding.

Forecast average annual expenditure for CityRail, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs

$m

Operating

1 527

Capital

553

Total
2 080
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

614

Government contributions

1 134

Total
1 748
Funding gap
332

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by SRA, 2003.

Sydney’s Buses forecast needs:

The report estimates that Sydney Buses requires about $437 million per annum to maintain its network of services over the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. The forecast includes the cost of replacement of old buses with new air-conditioned, low floor buses. The forecast expenditure represents an increase of 18 per cent (or $66 million per annum in real terms) over Sydney Buses’ 2001-02 expenditure. The report estimates that Sydney Buses total revenues over the period will be $410 million per annum. This means there will be a funding gap of $27 million per annum.

Forecast average annual expenditure for Sydney Buses, 2003-04 to 2010-11
Costs
$m

Operating

378

Capital

59

Total
437
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

221

Government contributions

189

Total
410
Funding gap
27

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The report also indicate the estimates that Newcastle Buses and Ferries requires approximately $50 million per annum to maintain existing services for the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. This represents an increase of 38 per cent (or $14 million per annum in real terms) compared with 2001-02 expenditures. Total revenues are estimated to be $30 million per annum over this period, resulting in a funding gap of $19 million per annum. Forecast average annual expenditure for Newcastle Buses and Ferries, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs
$m

Operating

46

Capital

3

Total
49
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

8

Government contributions

22

Total
30
Funding gap
19

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The report has forecasted that Sydney Ferries requires $97 million per annum from 2003-04 to 2010-11 to maintain its existing services. This is a decrease of four per cent, or $4 million per annum in real terms, compared with 2001aˆ‘02.

Forecast average annual expenditure for Sydney Ferries, 2003-04 to 2010-11
Costs
$m

Operating

92

Capital

5

Total
97
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

41

Government contributions

32

Total
73
Funding gap
24

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The total costs include $5 million per annum for capital expenditure. This relatively low level of capital expenditure follows a large capital program totalling $65 million over the previous three years. Expected increases in operating costs of 23 per cent on 2001-02 levels will be offset by this lower level of capital expenditure resulting in an overall decrease in costs.

The report pointed out that there is considerable scope for operators to reduce the funding gap by improving efficiency. The operational efficiency will deliver more value from the public funds they receive. The efficiency will lead to higher profitability and low funding requirements in future.

Future scenario, Aims, Objectives and Strategy

The past history reveal that planning for improvement of the Public Transport System was made by the ruling Government on periodical basis but the proper implementation was not done in most of the plans. There was an independent Public inquiry in the Lon term Public Transport Plan for Sydney which has been published in February 2010 which includes two of these future plans as supporting documents. It is also reported from the survey that there have been number of plans both before the inquiry was initiated. The fact that plans were made but not executed indicate that the crisis in transport in Sydney needs to be addressed by much more than just a plan if the Government really wish to achieve an efficient transport system. The emphasis should be more as Sydney is a worthy of a world-class city and capable of meeting the massive population and employment growth, social, environmental, energy and global warming challenges of the future. If the improvement does not commensurate with the time there will be slow growth in revenue as compared to other metros like Melbourne where the systems have been improved in short span of time.

The immediate steps required are to introduce a system of underground electric railways for city and suburban passenger traffic, serving the North Shore, the Eastern Suburbs, and Balmain and adjoining suburbs. In the past there has been a heavy investment in radial freeways and toll roads as governments sought to meet the increasing demand. The tram network was closed down and dismantled. Majority of the public is of the view that there is need for the long term commitment rather than the short term political gains. The general public view is to have efficient and competitive public transport system in spite of the fact that public will be required to pay extra for the improvements.

Recently, there has been improvement in the efficiency of bus based systems for Sydney, including two bus ways in western Sydney; provision of bus lanes and bus priority measures; use of articulated buses; and introduction of pre-paid only buses and Metro buses. These initiatives need to continue. Sydney’s ferry system could be enhanced by provision of bike parking facilities at ferry terminals, while taxi services could be improved by the use of multi-hiring at peak times, which will increase productivity and reduce costs.

Ref: Thirty Years Public Transport Plan for Sydney

Aim: The aim is to streamline transport structure. The improvement is Public Transport System will deliver integrated transport planning and service delivery, and consolidation of like-functions to reduce costs and provide additional funds for front-line staff and services. This aim is defined by NSW Transport and Infrastructure which is the lead public transport agency of the NSW Government, with primary responsibility for transport policy, planning and coordination functions as well as oversight of infrastructure delivery and asset management. NSW will encourage the collaboration with other transport agencies as key service initiatives to deliver a more capable, safe and reliable transport network across metropolitan, regional and rural NSW.

Ref. Transport & Infrastructure: http://www.transport.nsw.gov.au

Impact from Population and Environment

Sydney’s population would grow by 1.1 million to 5.3 million by 2031, necessitating 640,000 new dwellings and 500,000 new jobs. The population is expected to grow by up to 35% over the next thirty years, while energy use; oil use and greenhouse gas emissions would all rise with adverse impacts on health. There is another contributor to growth in population is increase in life expectancies. Australians live longer as such Sydney will need to adapt to meet the needs of older residents, especially those in heavily car-dependent areas with limited public transport. Public transport infrastructure should take into consideration the aged and people with mobility impairments or disabilities.

The transport systems in Sydney is heavily oil dependent, and latest data suggests that global oil production flattened out from 2005 and is now likely to go into decline. This could lead to further serious economic consequences (Hamilton, 2009), particularly for those cities which are most reliant on automobiles. Key thirty years objectives and strategies for Sydney were established for passenger transport in Sydney:

Reduce Overall Greenhouse Gas emissions by at least 50%

Reduce Overall Oil use by at least 50%

Improve Health by increasing active transport (walking and cycling), reducing air pollution and traffic accidents

The strategies to be followed are:

Limit population growth

Reduce per capita travel through travel demand measures

Increase energy and greenhouse efficiency

As no single specific strategy will enable to meet the aim & objectives combination of the strategies are required to meet the key objective.

Forecasting and Trends

Forecasting furnished below has been taken from the published report: Independent Public Inquiry Long Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney. The figures have been accepted based on the assumptions and the assumptions of three scenarios:

The first is European Scenario which assumes significant and employment growth so as to accommodate six million people by 2040. It also assumes continuation of 2005 Metropolitan strategies which see Sydney to develop as City of Cities.

The second is East Asian scenario assumes the same overall additional population and employment growth but focuses more heavily on the traditional city centre and inner areas of Sydney, with very strong employment growth (higher than under the “European” scenario) in the City of Sydney and high levels of residential development along major new metro lines.

A third scenario, a “US” scenario, which would involve much lower density residential development with more urban sprawl, more dispersed employment locations and a heavy focus on road development, with only half of its funding being directed to public transport.

Ref. Independent Public Inquiry Long-Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney-Preliminary Report dated February 2010

Recommendations

From the past records it is felt that the problem in Public Transport System in Sydney continues in spite of change in ruling political party. One of the major issues is the funding arrangement by the Government. It is recommended that the Government should allow privatisation to some extent and the rates should be semi controlled by the ruling Government. Like in Melbourne privatization can be allowed in Sydney as a form of

Public-Private Partnership.

NSW Transport and Infrastructure should develop its Corporate Plan which must be implemented without deviation. Short plans, if required, should be implemented but if these are linked to major plan should only be implemented along with other linked projects. Doing half way is a loss to the Government and also the tax payer’s money is not utilised properly.

Government has already got published the independent studies wherein different long term plans have been suggested and especially the long term strategy for next 30 years is published for public opinion and suggestions. It is recommended that Government should implement the strategy which provides subsidised or concession travel to a wide range of people within specified target groups. The Ministry of Transport’s role is to provide advice to Government on concession policy issues and administer the contractual arrangements for transport concessions on regulated bus, train and ferry services.

Conclusion

In collaboration with other transport agencies, NSW Transport and Infrastructure is progressively implementing key service initiatives to deliver a more capable, safe and reliable transport network across metropolitan, regional and rural NSW.

All transport infrastructure projects must be compared and evaluated using rigorous cost benefit analysis which takes full account of economic, social and environmental costs and benefits.

Chapter 1

Infrastructure is a broad concept linked to every facet of the economy and human life. Accordingly, the list of associated issues is long. For any purposeful analysis of issues in infrastructure development to lead to an action-oriented way forward, it is necessary to narrow down the definition of infrastructure and associated issues. The term infrastructure has been used since 1927 to refer collectively to the roads, bridges, rail lines and similar public works that are required for an industrial economy to function. Transportation, communication, sewage, water and electric systems are all a part of infrastructure. These systems tend to be high-cost investments. In general, infrastructure is location-specific and cannot be moved from place to place (www.unescap.org).

Transportation infrastructure cannot operate without transportation and transportation cannot run without transportation infrastructure. Different transportations have their own infrastructure to support each other. For air transportation, their infrastructure will be the airport. Port will be the infrastructure for water transportation while infrastructure for land transportation such as public bus will be the bus terminal or bus stop.

Transport infrastructure development in East and South-East Asia has played a key part in the phenomenal growth of world trade. The infrastructure backbone for international trade has been the container shipping network and increasingly the airfreight network. World container port traffic, which expanded by 9.2 per cent to 266 million TEUs in 2003, is dominated by Asian countries. They accounted for 46 per cent of container ship operations, 62 per cent of container port throughput, and 83 per cent of container ship building. Twelve major South and East Asian exporters together account for half of the world’s containerized exports (www.unescap.org).

Bus terminal or known as bus station is one of the most important transportation infrastructure where buses stop to pick up and drop off passengers. It may be intended as a terminal or station for a number of routes or as a transfer station where the routes continue. It is larger than bus stop where bus stop is usually built at the road side for the bus to stop for a while but not to wait for passengers.

Tel Aviv’s new central bus station was officially inaugurated recently, after 26 years of off-and-on construction, legal and financial disputes (Encyclopedia.com). A majority of the Dan and Egged Tel Aviv-area buses are now based at the new station; 5,000 buses pass through the station daily, carrying some 150,000 passengers. The station is the largest bus station in the world, encompassing 197,600 square meters indoors, and 34,400 square meters outdoors (Encyclopedia.com). The largest underground bus station in Europe is Kamppi Center of Helsinki, Finland completed in 2006. The terminal cost 100 million Euro to complete and took 3 years to design and build. Today, the bus terminal, which covers 25,000 square meters, is the busiest bus terminal in Finland. Every day, the terminal has around 700 bus departures, transporting some 170,000 passengers (www.webcitation.org).

Since bus station play a vital role in strengthening the volume of traffic as well as in providing better services to the passenger, the bus service undertakings, specially in the public sector, should come up and encourage the emergence of the bus station management as an independent discipline in the field of traffic management. (Kulshrestha, 1993, p.9)

Penang, as most of us may already know, is one of Malaysia’s most popular destinations for travelers coming from the local or the international communities (Talk Malaysia 2010). One of the main reasons for Penang to have so many travelers coming and going out annually is partly because there are a lot of interesting places to visit in Penang. Most of the interesting places in Penang are located at mainly around Georgetown and Seberang Perai (www.talkmalaysia.com).

Therefore, transport infrastructure especially bus terminal or station in Georgetown play an important role in order to pick up and drop off passengers from a destination to another destination. This is because Penang has traffic problem, therefore public transport are used.

Komtar Bus Terminal is the hub of bus services in George Town. All the bus routes of Penang radiates from this terminal. To be exact, Komtar Bus Terminal is not a “terminal” proper, but rather a bus station, because buses do not actually start from here, but rather, from the Weld Quay Bus Terminal. Nevertheless, most people will know it by that name. At the Komtar Bus Terminal, you can catch buses going to the north, central, south and west parts of Penang Island, as well as some buses that go to the mainland. Among the bus companies that use the terminal includes Rapid Penang, Milan, Transit Link and KGN-Hin. The terminal is located along Lebuh Tek Soon, although buses approach it via Jalan Ria and they emerge from the terminal into Jalan Ria once more (www.penang-traveltips.com).

As a bus stop user, not satisfied with bus terminal in Georgetown. Some of the same complaint had been made by locals and tourists too. This is because they have the difficulties in determine which bus to ride in order to reach their destination. Therefore, this study is to find out what are the factors which make the tourists satisfied and not satisfied with the bus terminals in Penang. This study also includes, to identify the present condition of transport infrastructure, the cleanliness in the bus terminals and the safety and security in the bus terminals. From these factors, this study is able to conclude what are their expectations towards bus stop in order to let the government make improvement.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Transport and traffic management have always been a bone of contention for Penang. Many feel that rapid economic development has not been met with an equal amount of attention given to proper traffic management and planning. There are about 1.4 million vehicles (motorcycles, cars and other vehicles) for a population of about 1.4 million people in Penang. This is about double the number of vehicles in 1999 (Sympologic, 2008).

For the above reason, public transportation had played a very important role to reduce the traffic in Penang. But without a good infrastructure, public transportation will not be able to run smoothly. There are 2 main transport infrastructures for bus in Georgetown which are Komtar Bus Terminal and Weld Quay Bus Terminal. But, locals and tourists are not satisfied with the bus terminals in Georgetown. This is because there are no proper route information and bus timetable. It is difficult especially for tourists to identify which bus to ride in order to reach their destination. Tourists always have to ask the bus driver one by one to ask for the destination. This had slow down the traffic also. Besides, from the observation, the bus terminals are not well-maintained in term of cleanliness and safety.

1.3 Goal & Objectives

The goal of this research is to study tourists’ satisfactions and expectations towards bus terminals in Penang.

In order to achieve the above goal, there are some objectives need to be done.

To examine tourists’ satisfactions towards bus terminals

To examine tourists’ expectations towards the bus terminals

To examine the present condition of bus terminals

To identify the cleanliness in the bus terminals

To identify the safety and security in the bus terminals

1.4 Hypothesis

From the objectives above, the below are the hypotheses which had concluded:

Locals and tourists are not satisfied with the bus terminals.

Locals and tourists have high expectations on the bus terminals in term of cleanliness and security.

There is no proper route information or sign board in the bus terminals.

The bus terminals are not clean.

The bus terminals are not secure.

The above hypotheses are made based on my own experiences and observation.

Significance of the Study

This research is able to let the government and private sector to make improvement on the bus terminals in order to let them become truly efficient. From the questionnaires which will be distribute and collected, they able to tell us the satisfaction level and expectation of locals and tourists towards the bus terminals. From their expectation, the improvement can be made. For example by putting up the route information and sign board, locals and tourists able to know which bus to ride to reach their destination. Besides, clean the bus terminals daily so that locals and tourists will feel comfortable and assign more security to secure the bus terminals. When the improvements have made, the locals and tourists will have the chance to use better bus terminals. All these will make the business of the bus increase too.

1.6 Scopes and Limitations of the Study

The scopes for my research are Penangites and tourists in Penang. Penangites and tourists who are the user of bus terminals are targeted. 80% Penangites and 20% tourists are chosen to carry out this research. In order to complete this research, distribution of questionnaires will be made to these 2 groups of people mentioned above. Besides, observation in the bus terminals will be done by my own selves too.

The bus terminals in Georgetown which would like to research on are Komtar Bus Terminal and Weld Quay Bus Terminal. These are the two popular bus terminals in Georgetown which crowded by people every day. This is because these are the two main stops which the bus will pick and drop passenger.

There are also limitations for this research. The first limitation is resources. There is very few information on books, journals or articles about transportation infrastructure. The next limitation will be the time. Only 5 months to complete this research. Last but not least, the limitation is the manpower. I am the only one who doing this research.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Transport and Tourism

Page (2005) said that transport act as one of the important that contributed to the international development of tourism.

According to Page (2007), the mode of transport can be one of the main motivations for the tourists to travel. He also said that in the growth of domestic and international tourism, transport is the most critical element in the promotion. He continued said that transport links the tourist from the origin area with the destination area. Therefore it enables the holidaymaker, business traveler and other categories of traveler to purchase the products and experience what they have purchased. He added that transport may be an attraction in its own right. Tourists who travel by road may use public transport or private transport to experience a variety of destinations.

2.2 Transport and Tourism in Penang, Malaysia

A combination of East and West, Penang continues to grow in modernity but at the same time holding its traditions and old charm. Recently, because of the harmony of multiracial in Penang and the heritage buildings which are well preserved, these make the Georgetown being accorded a listing as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site. Penang, long regarded as the food capital of Malaysia, it also attracts tourists with its beautiful beaches and delicious cuisines (www.tourismpenang.net.my).

Transportation in Penang is convenient. You can travel in or out of Penang by the well-connected of road, rail, sea and air. Not only the air and train service is good in Penang but the seaways also offer good transportation. Ferry and seaports are there to create convenient to the people in Penang and Buttterworth. Penang ferry is provided by the Penang Ferry Service that connects George Town, Penang and Butterworth. There are four terminals, one on Penang Island (Swettenham Pier) and three on the mainland. Next, railway act as one of the transportation in Penang, but they are not popular due to their low speed. Besides, international flights are available in Penang International Airport which situated in the Bayan Lepas area of Penang, Malaysia (www.asiarooms.com).

Goh (2010) said that traffic jams in Penang especially the major roads including Jalan Burma, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, Jalan Jelutong and Jalan Mesjid Negeria re common although the population is small. Outside the city, jams are found even in Bayan Lepas and Telok Kimbar. He added that although the Jelutong Express Way had provided some relief to Jalan Jelutong and Jalan Mesjid Negeri, but the costs to Penangnites have yet to be calculated, although the highway is touted to be “free”. He suggested that Penang should follow the example of Crutiba. Crutiba is a city where the people rely on buses to avoid traffic jam. Recently, Rapid Penang buses are introduced for those who do not have car or have chosen not to use their cars.

2.2 Public Transportation

Zegeer (2002) said that good public transportation is an important to the quality of a community as good roads. According Ramanathan and Parikh (1999, cited in Ramanathan, 2001; Banister and Berechman, 2001; Ramanathan and Parikh, 1999; Eisner, 1991), transport is a vital element for the modern society now and key to sustained economic growth.

But, Ortuzar and Willumsen (2001) argued that the world of transport still face many problems of the past such as congestion, pollution, accidents, financial deficits and so on. They continued said that these problems will not get away until the traffic management improved.

Figure 1 Car and Public-transport vicious circle

Car and Public-transport vicious circle cited in Ortuzar, J.d.D., Willumsen, L.G., 2001, p. 8

They continue said that the transport problems have spread widely in both industrialized and developing countries. According to them, fuel shortages which are temporarily not a problem, but the increase in road traffic and transport demand has resulted in congestion, delays, accidents and environmental problems well beyond what has been considered acceptable so far. These problems have not been controlled to roads and car traffic alone. They added that economic growth seems to have generated levels of demand exceeding the capacity of most transport facilities. They continue argued that these problems are not likely to disappear in the near future. They suggested that it is necessary to ensure that a major effort in improving most forms of transport, in urban and inter-urban contexts.

With respect to the quality of prices and services, transport services have been traditionally been subject to tight economic regulation with respect to entering and exciting the market. In many countries, road and rail networks and airport and port systems are traditionally designed, built, and operated by the public sector itself, which is the ultimate form of regulation. This type of government intervention has resulted in excessive costs that are not matched by prices or quality, therefore creating an outcome that reflects the interests of the sector’s civil servants of contractors, unions, and other interests groups more than preferences of users and taxpayers (Estache and Rus, 2000).

According to UITP (2004), government and public transport share a same goal to make sure the public transport is accessible to all especially the traffic environments have to be well-designed and managed to let the people to reach and use public transport safely and with confidence. UITP suggested that government and the public transport community to work together to reduce not only the physical but also the psychological barriers such as cognitive, information, fear and discrimination to travel safely in cities.

UITP continues said that at any one time, an average of 25% of the population may have a degree of reduced mobility due to a physical or mental disability, impaired sight or hearing, or through having to carry heavy bags or travel with small children. UITP added, physical and sensory disabilities are often related to age and, as is well known, the proportion of the elderly population in western countries is growing and will continue to do so well into the 21st century. These are clear of the importance of improving accessibility to transport systems. According to UITP, benefits from improvements in transport accessibility are accrued not just to the disabled and ageing communities, but to all clients of the transport system.

2.3 Transport infrastructure

Traditionally, building extra capacity has been addressed due to the blockages in transport infrastructure. But the possibility is small for the further expansion of infrastructure in many urban areas where the demand for transport is highest. Furthermore, a number of reports have found that the construction of new roads and airports to relieve congestion is ineffective because it only serves to induce new traffic. On the other hand, a study undertaken by a Norwegian research organization, the SINTEF Group claims that infrastructure capacity increases are directly linked to decreases in polluting emissions from motor vehicles. Using a traffic micro-simulation, it showed, for example, that upgrading narrow, winding roads or adding a lane to a congested motorway can yield decreases of up to 38% in CO2 emissions, 67% in CO emissions and 75% in NOx emissions, without generating substantially more car trips (EurActiv.com, 2008).

According to Carcamo-Diaz and Goddard (2007, cited in IADB, 2000), Infrastructure, defined as the set of engineering structures, equipment and facilities with a long-term, useful life employed by households and the different productive sectors of the economy, is essential for economic growth (cited in Easterly and Serven, 2003) and integration. As pointed out by IADB (2002), there is a positive relationship across countries between income levels and the quality of infrastructure. According to Tanzi (2005), the implicit assumption about the direction of causation goes from infrastructure to growth, although this issue is still debated in the literature.

In many cases, the objective of transport infrastructure investment is to improve the accessibility of a given region by reducing travel time or increasing the potential to travel. Accessibility can be measured as the quantity of economic or social activities that can be reached using the transport labor, leading to increased competition and centralization. On the other hand, the impact for region concerned could be both positive and negative, depending on its initial level competitiveness (OECD, 2002).

According to ITF and OECD (2008), there are some features of surface transport infrastructure that make its provision distinct from many other areas of the economy and which will likely have to be accounted for when different models are being considered. They claimed that transport system does not exist for their own sake but rather to serve other economic and social activity, this is because transport is a ‘derived demand’. This means that the possible wider implications of capacity shortages in, and overall standard of, the transport system, must be taken into consideration in the design if any model for providing transport infrastructure.

2.4 Transport Infrastructure in Different Countries
2.4.1 Luxembourg

The pressure of congestion, excessive strain on transport infrastructure and environmental have led to a challenge due to a large and increasing number of commuters (OECD, 2008c). These pressures stem from both resident and cross-border commutes, which are broadly similar in number. High and increasing number of commutes among residents is reflected in Europe’s highest car ownership rate and one of the highest annual distances covered by automobile per capita. For cross-border commutes, 85% are made in passenger cars without use of public transport. These patterns lead to alarming levels of congestion on the main road transport corridors and there are now severe bottlenecks at the entrance to urban areas, notably in the city of Luxembourg. This results in wasted time, unsafe driving conditions, noise and high levels of emission and local air pollution (OECD, 2010).

2.4.2 France

According to Willis (2010), the transport infrastructure in France is one of the most modernized to be found anywhere in Europe and this makes international freight movements streamlined and effective. In the area of modern tramways, France is a world leader in railway technology. Rail transport is therefore always a best option for shipping companies and freight forwarders operating in France. The transport network is built as a web, with Paris at the center. There is a total of nearly 32,000 kilometers of track in France, most of which is operated by the French railway company, SNCF. Over the last twenty years, a set of high speed LGV (lignes a grande vitesse) have been constructed to connect most parts of France with Paris. There are same gauge rail links to adjacent countries of Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and Sweden, as well as the Channel Tunnel link with the UK. The TGV, the French high speed train has broken world speed records is a sign of the way that France is a true global leader in rail transport. For freight transport, rail is a model in France.

2.4.3 Germany

According to Willis (2009), Germany has a transport infrastructure that is the envy of the world and this has helped enable the development of a highly effective freight services industry. The phrase ‘Germanic’ is often used as a byword for efficiency and with good reason, if the freight services industry in Germany is seen as a measure. He continued said that when consider that it is less than twenty years since the Berlin Wall came down and East Germany started its process of integration within Germany, the efficiency of the transport network throughout the country is all the more remarkable. There is a very efficient network of waterways, railways and motorways that make internal connections fast and straightforward and also connect Germany with other countries throughout the world.

2.4.4 Middle East

Timon Singh (2010) claimed that the Middle East and North Africa region has invested heavily in its transport infrastructure and for the likes of the UAE in particular over the past few years. He continued claimed that the money has gone into planes and trains in order to better improve between states, but to turn the region into both a business and tourist hub. Air traffic in the Middle East is the fastest growing in the world, and in order to cater for the increasing number of passengers at their various airports and thus improving their general transport infrastructure, the UAE has been implementing various aviation projects.

According to him, rail is another part of the region’s transport infrastructure that has gathered support in the Middle East from Dubai’s Metro System to plans for an expansive network connecting the GCC states. Qatar and Bahrain have one of the most ambitious projects, combining both rail and metro lines, which is set to transform the emirate into a major transport hub. The project, which is rumored to be costing over US$36.6 billion (QR133.5 billion) and estimated to take six years, is expected to be finished in phases over the next six years, with three major sections being the focus of the scheme – the metro network within Greater Doha, the over-ground railways covering the whole of Qatar and then, linking it to the rest of the GCC region and cargo trains.

2.4.5 London, United Kingdom

McDougall (2010) asked how do cities meet the needs of a growing population, promote diverse and healthy communities, improve the environment and tackle climate change. The answer is it’s a tall order and one that London is tackling head on with their aptly named “London Plan”. He said that the London Plan sets out to ensure that London’s transport is easy, safe and convenient and encourages cycling, walking and electric vehicles. The ambitious plan sets out the overall strategic direction for an integrated economic, environmental, transport and social framework for the development of London over the next 20-25 years.

He continues said that the London Plan identifies what are termed “Opportunity Areas” in and around London’s major reservoirs of brown-field land. These areas are characterized by their potential to accommodate new housing, commercial and other development linked to existing or potential improvements to public transport accessibility. It is important to make sure that they can be developed without undue additional pressure on London’s already-crowded public transport, or on the limited funds available for anything beyond committed transport improvements.

2.4.6 India

According to Pradhan (2010), transport is a key infrastructure in the present study, as causes energy consumption as well as economic growth in India. Therefore, he suggested that increasing transport facility along with energy consumption will lead to more economic growth in India. The achievement of higher economic growth through transport infrastructure and energy consumption could be due to its various direct and indirect benefits in the economy. But he claimed that the level of transport infrastructure is not so good, both in quantity and quality, in contrast to developed countries in the world. He suggested that if there is sufficient transport infrastructure in the economy, the result would be much better. He continued suggested that a suitable transport policy should be required urgently to boost economic growth and to maintain sustainable economic development in the country since transport infrastructure is a big deal to economic growth.

2.4.7 Malaysia

The greatest advantage to manufacturers in Malaysia has been the nation’s persistent drive to develop and upgrade its infrastructure. Over the years, these investments have paid off and serious bottlenecks have been avoided. Today, Malaysia can boast of having one of the well-developed infrastructures among the newly industrializing countries of Asia (www.mida.gov.my).

The latest development of Kuala Lumpur Sentral has become a futuristic self-contained city, providing the perfect live, work and play environment. A modern transportation hub integrating all major rail transport networks, including the Express Rail Link to the KLIA and Putrajaya, the government’s new administrative center. Besides, the Peninsular Malaysia’s network of well-maintained highways is a gain to industries. These highways link major growth centers to seaports and airports throughout the peninsula and provide an efficient means of transportation for goods. (www.mida.gov.my).

Malaysia’s central location in the Asia Pacific region makes her an ideal gateway to Asia. Air cargo facilities are well-developed in the five international airports – the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), Penang International Airport and Langkawi International Airport in Peninsular Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu International Airport in Sabah, and Kuching International Airport in Sarawak. Malaysia’s biggest airport, the KLIA, surrounded by four main cities of Kuala Lumpur, Shah Alam, Seremban and Melaka has a capacity of handling 25 million passengers and up to 8 million tons of cargo per year. Cargo import and export procedures are fully automated at the KLIA to cut down delivery time (www.mida.gov.my).

Recently, Rapid Penang has introduced a state-of-the-art Intelligent Commuter Information System (ICIS), which provides real-time information on the arrival times of buses at terminals in Penang. The ICIS system, the first of its kind used by stage bus companies in the country, would enable some 75,000 commuters who use Rapid Penang buses daily to plan their journey more efficiently. It proved to be a success and has since been expanded for usage at the Komtar bus terminal, which sees the highest number of people boarding buses daily. A total of 200 buses operate from the Komtar bus terminal on a daily basis. The ICIS display system uses global positioning system (GPS) to map out the movement of all Rapid Penang buses and calculate the exact time of arrival of each bus at the Komtar bus terminal. The ICIS display system will later be extended to other strategic areas throughout the state including the possibility of having it installed in shopping complexes (newstraitstimes, 2010).

2.5 Bus Stop and Bus Terminal

There are bus stops all over the Penang and there are three main bus terminals for buses in Penang, Malaysia. They are Weld Quay Terminal, Komtar Bus Terminal and Sungai Nibong Terminal. According to Zegeer (2002), a well-designed transit routes a reachable stops are essential to usable system. He continues said that bus stops should be located at intervals that are convenient for passengers for safety purpose and should be comfortable places for people to wait.

UITP (2004 cited in Grenoble, 2004) argued that if the related infrastructure is inaccessible or inappropriately designed, much of the accessible vehicles will lost. Grenoble has carried out extensive research and development work to design tram and bus stops, starting some 20 years ago. The principle adopted by Grenoble was that the bus services should be made as accessible as the tram. According to Grenoble, the design standards found to be most effective for accessible bus stops were 14m(standard bus) and 20m(articulated bus) for overall length of bus boarding platform, 2.1m(minimum) and 2.6m(if a shelter is provided) for overall breadth of boarding platform, 3% for gradient of access ramp at end of platform, 21cm for height of boarding area, 60cm back from front edge of boarding area for safety line and 1.1m(minimum) and 1.3m(preferred) for clear space between front end of bus shelter and front edge of boarding area.

Zegeer (2002) said that besides the bus stop signing, a bus shelter with seating, trash receptacles, and bicycle parking are also desirable features. He suggested that bus stops should be highly visible locations where pedestrian can reach them easily by means of accessible travel routes. Therefore, a complete sidewalks system is essential to support a public transportation system. Convenient crossings are also important.

He continued suggested that proper placement of bus stops is key to user safety. For example, placing the bus stops on the near side of intersections or crosswalk may block pedestrians’ view of approaching traffic, and approaching drivers’ view of pedestrians. Approaching motorists may be unable to stop in time when a pedestrian steps from in front of a stopped bus into the traffic lanes at the intersection. Far-side bus stops generally encourage pedestrians to cross behind the bus. Reallocating the bus stop to the far side of the intersection can improve pedestrian safely since it climates the sight-distance restriction caused by the bus. Placing bus stops at the far aside of intersections can also improve motored vehicle operation.

Besides, he also suggested that the bus stops should be fully accessible to pedestrians in wheelchairs, should have paved connections to sidewalks where landscape buffers exist, and should not block pedestrian travel on the sidewalk. Adequate room should exist to operate wheelchair lift. Yet, it is also useful to install curb ramps at bus stops so that a passenger can board from the street if bus-lift deployment is blocked.

According to Iles (2005), problem may arise at bus stations which are used as intermediate stops for buses passing through the town or city when services are operated to schedule. Iles gave an example on when a full bus with a few passengers drop enter the station, they have the capacity to pick up same number

This chapter aims to outline the present public bus planning system and actors model in Johor Bahru City context. Through illustration, it could help to realize differences between the existing system and the ideal public bus planning system which has been developed in Section 2.5.

3.2 Transport Planning in Johor Bahru City

In essence, Johor Bahru City does have a transportation plan. The idea for the plan are formulated from national planning.and translated into the Johor Strucure Plan and subsequently into more detailed plans as presented in the district local plans. However, to what extend does these plans show how the planning system for public bus service in Johor Bahru? It is therefore necessary to understand Malaysian planning system and to see how transport policy and planning is translated from the top to bottom level.

3.2.1 National Planning (Five-year Plan)

Malaysia has been following a federal type parliamentary form of democracy in respect of government and administration since independence. In terms of planning for national development, centralised planning has become the tradition of the country. Particularly since the inception of New Economic Plan, centralised national planning is taken very seriously by the federal government. For this purpose “Five-year Plan” system has been followed very consistently. This “Five-year Plan” is the top level of planning in Malaysia and involved numerous agencies (Figure 3.1). At the top of the hierarchy of planning agencies are Parliament and Cabinet where the broad socio-economic goals and strategies are formulated. The next in the planning hierarchy is National Development Planning Committee (NDPC) which is responsible for guiding the production of the five-year plans. Under the guidance and directions of NDPC, various central government agencies participate in the plan preparation. They are Treasury, Economic Planning Unit (EPU), Implementation and Co-ordination Unit (ICU), Socio-Economic Research Unit (SERU), Federal Ministries and Departments, a range of autonomous or semi-autonomous agencies and statutory bodies. Inputs from the States for the preparation of the five-year plans come mainly from State Economic Planning Units (SEPUs) and State Economic Development Corporations (SEDCs).

In Malaysia, the preparation for a new five-year plan begins during the last year of the previous plan period (for an example: preparation for the 2001-2005 Plan will begin in 2000). In the beginning stage, EPU will send out broad guidelines to all State governments asking them to submit development project for their respective states for the next plan period within three to four months. The State authorities in turn send out directions to all District Officers in their respective states to prepare and submit development project proposals for the individual districts. At the district level, there is a District Development Committee which operates under District Action Committee and is chaired by the District Officer. This Committee consists of all the district level heads of the various government departments as well as the peoples representatives. This committee is responsible to prepare and submit departmental project proposals to District Action Committee. After scrutinising the proposals, the District Action Committee will then forwards the combined district plan to the State authority.

Figure 3.1: Major Bodies and Agencies Involved in the National Planning and Development Evaluation Process

Source: www.epu.gov.my (2010)

At the State level, there is also the State Action Committee. The committee which consists of all the State Director of the various government and peoples representatives is chaired by Chief Minister. The committee together with SEPUs are responsible to further scrutinise and assess the proposals. The final proposals will then be submitted to the Treasury and ICU of the federal government. The Federal Ministries then based on the proposals submitted will have to prepare their development programs in order to forward it to EPU. All the proposals are then arranged sector by sector through EPU and the financial allocation for each sector will be assessed by the Inter Agency Planning Group, so that priorities can be determined and strategies of optimal utilisation of public fund can be ascertained. After the plan is adjusted, it will be submitted to NDPC for reviewing and co-ordinating proposals and policies. The plan will then be forwarded to National Action aCouncil (NAC) which is chaired by Prime Minister. NAC is responsible to undertake an economic and social evaluation of the combined plans, programs and projects. It also has the power and prerogative in respect of issuing policy directives and priority determination before and during the preparation of plan. The Five-year Plan thus prepared is then submitted to the cabinet and the Parliament respectively for approval and official adoption. The process for producing the National development plan has been established since 1961 and is a two-way process involving “top-down” and “bottom-up” flows of planning inputs (Quazi, 1986). Broad strategies which are formulated for transport sector in national level are shown as following:

Supply-driven approach will form the basis for the expansion of infrastructure capacities taking into consideration long-term demand, development projects and economic growth in order to ensure the availability of supply upon demand. This approach will be applied particularly to large infrastructure projects that are indivisible and require long lead time;

Long-term integrated planning that incorporate a total approach will be adopted in infrastructure planning to enhance co-ordination and ensure a more orderly, systematic and comprehensive development and implementation of infrastructure;

The promotion of multimodalism in the transport sector will be actively pursued to enhance the interfacing of all modes of transport as well as related services in order to increase the efficiency of infrastructure facilities and supporting services;

Further expansion of infrastructure facilities to rural areas in order to enhance accessibility in line with a more balanced and equitable distributive policy; and

Continuous review and stricter enforcement of performance standards and technical specifications for infrastructure projects in order to enhance productivity, efficiency and quality of life (Malaysia Government, 1996a).

These broad strategies will then provide a general guidance for state governments to formulate their transport sector-base study in the structural plan.

3.2.2 Structure Plan

In the state level of planning hierarchy, the State Department of Town and Country Planning is given the responsibility to prepare the developments plan (structure plan and local plan).

Normally, the plan should have a time horizon of 5 to 20 years and contain a key diagram rather than a map and cover the non-metropolitan area. The objectives of structure plan are:

to ensure that the provision for development is realistic and consistent with national and regional policy;

to provide the strategic policy framework for planning and development control locally;

to secure consistency between local plans for neighboring areas;

to set the broad framework for planning at the local level; and

to determine the location of action area plans.

The process of preparation of the structure plan is similar to the rational comprehensive planning system (Figure 3.2). State Department of Town and Country Planning will first determine the study area. Secondly, they will translate the general proposals and broad policies established in the National Planning (Five-year Plans) into detailed sector-based studies which includes the transportation sector. Primary and secondary data based on sector-based studies will then be collected and analyzed. After analysis stage, planning department will prepare the draft technical report. The completed draft technical report will be exhibited to the public, and the public is allowed to give their comments and opinions. The planning department will compile the comments given by the public. However, the compilation has been done in the manner to merely fulfill the requirements of the structure plan.

After the exhibition period, the department has to prepare a draft structure plan. The completed draft structure plan again has to be published in local newspaper and exhibited to the public. The public is allowed to express their opinions during the exhibition of the draft structure plan. However, it is only done in an administrative manner. The department has no commitment to be accountable and responsive to public opinions. That means, the public are treated only as consultative bodies with no power to influence the decision. After the plan is adjusted, it will be forwarded to State Planning Committee for approval. This committee is chaired by Chief Minister of Johor State which is responsible to determine the criteria regarding the conservation, uses and development of land in Johor State that should be based on national policy; acts as an advisor to state government and helps in the publishing of the plan. Normally, if there is no other amendments, the plan will then be approved and forwarded to State Government. Finally, State Government will gazette the plan as statutory plan in order to guide state development and planning.

Figure 3.2 Structure Plan Preparation Procedures

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Source: Johor State Structure Plan 2020

Normally, after structure plan has been prepared, it will translate into more detailed level in local plan. The local plan will then be used as a guidance for producing a more comprehensive public transport plan, and again this plan will be transformed into operational plans such as public bus plan.

3.2.3 The Local Plan

In the context of Johor Bahru City, the first ever local plan for the district was gazetted in 2002. Therefore, this detailed plan has been used to assist public bus plan in Johor Bahru City and is being used to guide of the most day-to-day planning decisions.

The process of preparation of the local plan is similar to that of the structure plan as there are also the preparation of draft as well as exhibition period to encourage the public to participate in the process (refer to Figure 3.2.1). Unlike the structure plan, there is a more technical aspect to the report as it is more detail oriented and involves the preparation of the technical report. The local plan recognizes the outlines provided in the structure plan and its statutory nature and translates it into a more physical detail layout to assist the planning process. This is particular important as it acts as a comprehensive guide especially in the context of public bus planning as it proposes the provision of routes as well as all the infrastructures related to bus services such as bus stations.

Figure 3.2 1 Structure Plan Preparation Procedures

Source: Johor Bahru Districl Local Plan 2002- 2020

In general, local plan provides a guide for transport planners in the formation of a public bus transportation plan as well as assisting the bus bus operators in the in their daily operational plan. The preparation of public bus plan in Johor Bahru City will be described in the next section.

3.3 Public bus Planning Process in Johor Bahru City

In Johor Bahru City, short-term public bus plan is carried out by bus operators themselves. This short-term public bus plan will determine daily operation tactics for bus operators to provide bus services within the area of Johor Bahru City. Normally, bus operators will base on the Johor Bahru District Local Plan to formulate their short-term public bus plan. This short-term plan has the objectives to provide new bus route services, to improve the level of service, etc. within a period of three years (personal interview with En. Che Joha, 2010).

In Johor Bahru City, the departments which are related to public transport planning are very unclear. Although there is a Road Transport Act, 1987 (Act 333) and Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board Act, 1987 (Act 334), they do not state clearly which department is responsible to prepare the public transport plan and how public transport plan should be carried out (Wahab, 1991). At the same time, Johor Bahru City still does not have a single transport department to deal with public bus planning. Currently, there are three departments involved in the system which are Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council, Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board and Road Work Department. Normally, Road Work Department is responsible for the planning, design, construction, management and maintenance of road in Johor Bahru City. If there is a new road provided by Road Work Department to link the central business district with new housing estates, bus operator (their appropriate staff members, planners, engineers, schedulers, etc.) first has to prepare the short-term public bus plan in order to submit to Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council for approval. This short-term public bus plan should include the proposed new bus routes, schedule of frequencies, hours of operation, fare changes, etc. Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council will then scrutinise, assess and evaluate whether the proposed services is suitable for improving the quality of public transportation services in Johor Bahru City. If the proposal is in line with the public transport policy stated in structure plan and the routes proposed comply with the existing local plan, it will be approved by Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council.

Notwithstanding, the submission has to be forwarded to Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board for their final decision. The Board has the following responsibilities (Ab. Rahman, 1987):

to consider all applications for licences for public transport services;

to attach conditions to licences and licence holders, such as fare rates, route schedules, stops, number of passengers for public transportation services, etc.;

to cancel and revoke of licences issued if the conditions attached to the licences are not adhered to, or when licences are not use for the purpose under which it was issued;

to fix the period of licences;

to make changes to the conditions attached to licences such as names, operational area, etc.; vi. to renew of licences;

to consider application for additional passengers and replacement of vehicles; and

to formulate proposals for the improvement of the transportation system, from time to time.

Normally, the Board may attach conditions [1] to any licence granted if they think fit. If the contents of short-term public bus plan are complied with the requirements given by the Board, bus operator will obtained the Licensing Permit to operate in that new area. On the contrary, if the plan could not fulfil the conditions imposed, the application may be refused by the Board. However, the applicant may submit their appeal to Minister. If the appeal is approved by the Minister, the applicant may obtain the licence, otherwise the applicant has to resubmit the application if the appeal is not approved. After applicant has obtained the Licensing Permit, he will operate and implement the new system. Thereafter, road transport officers and police are responsible to investigate and monitor the services provided. If bus operators fail to comply with any of the conditions attached to the licence, the holder of the licence shall be guilty of an offence [2] . Moreover, if the licence holder could not provide an efficient transport service in accordance with the terms and conditions of the licence, the Board has the power to refuse for renewal of licence (Act 334, Section 21 (3), p. 145).

The applicant for the grant or renewal of a licence who is aggrieved by the decision or any conditions imposed by the Board, may appeal [3] to the Minister. The Minister then may appoint a committee of two or more persons to consider an appeal. There shall be no oral hearing of the appeal and the committee will only based on the basis of the documents relating to the appeal to do the judgement. The decision of the Minister shall be binding and shall be final and conclusive (Act 334, Section 29 (3), p. 148). It is the general process of making public bus plan in Johor Bahru City (Figure 3.3).

In the context of public bus service planning process in Johor Bahru City, the national and structure plans are available for reference and the local plan serves as a tool for guiding transport operators to prepare their daily operational plans. However, the role of the Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board as the final decision maker is somewhat debatable and grant the whole process of planning irrelevant.

Figure 3.3: The General Public bus Plan-Making Process in Johor Bahru City

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Source: Modification from personal interview with En. Che Joha (2010)

3.4 The Actors Model in Johor Bahru City Context

Base on the previous section, various players are involved in the city’s public bus planning process. They are technical actors, community actors, political actors, private operators and users.

3.4.1 Technical Actors

In Johor Bahru City, technical actors who involve in the formulation of public bus plan comprise two categories. They are salaried civil servants and transport experts in foreign consulting firms. Since transport plans are formulated through two tier levels of plans, again the salaried civil servants can be divided into two categories. In local levels, they are the government officials in the Traffic Unit of Johor Bahru City Council. They are responsible for the planning and provision of public transportation facilities such as bus and taxi stands, terminals and other related facilities; the planning and organisation of bus routes within the city and the surrounding residential areas to improve the public transportation services; and all activities for improving the quality of public transportation services to achieve a `modal split’ suitable for Johor Bahru City (Ab. Rahman, 1987). Whilst, in national level, they are the government officials in EPU and Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department. In EPU, they are responsible for co-ordinating the programs and activities of the ministries, looking at the overall development in the country, distribution of resources as well as monitoring progress and achievement in light of the broad National Policies (Ab. Rahman, 1987). They are responsible also for setting the direction and policy for the government on the transport aspect and accountable to the government not the public. In Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department, technical actors act an advisor to both the federal and state administrations who do not have the staff or capability. These technical actors would use their scientific approaches to prepare the plans in order to facilitate the politicians. However, they work within a closed system because they believe that public interest can be found easily through correct scientific procedures.

Another type of technical actors are transport experts in foreign consulting firms. They are responsible to help government officials in EPU and Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department to prepare the plans. In Malaysia, most of the plans have been prepared by foreign consulting firms on contract to international development institutions. These plans have been criticised as “consultant plans” which do not explicitly adopt government policy (World Bank quoted in Malcolm, 1976, p. 107).

3.4.2 Community Actors

There are different citizen or community organizations that are interested in government policies especially those that affect their interests. As long as a certain transport policy arouses their interests, these groups will submit views to the government to take some lobbying strategies. In Johor Bahru City, there is a community actor or pressure group: Johor Bus Operator Association (JBOA) (Figure 3.4) which has already been set up since the 1950s. It acts as a representative channel for bus operators to express their business interests and to provide information to government during plan-making process (personal interview with En. Che Joha, 2010).

Notwithstanding, it is not very well organised and since the association only concerns with their business interests, it is therefore JBOA could not act as a proper channel to help users or the public to express their voice. Hence, Johor Bahru City still does not have any pressure groups to assist users to voice out their interests.

Figure 3.4: Organisation of Johor Bus Operator Association (JBOA)

Source: Personal Interview with En. Che Joha (2010)

3.4.3 Political Actors

In the state context, political actors are headed by a Chief Minister with a State Executive Council comprising not more than nine members appointed from among the government members of the State Assembly, and three ex-officio members (State Secretary, State Financial Officer and State Legal Adviser) (Rani, 1979). These political actors are the highest policy decision-making body at the state level. During the plan-making process, the State Chief Minister will play a leadership role as chairman of the State Action Committee comprising of both State Security and Development Committees with the State Development Officer as its secretary. The inclusion of all the State Executive Council members in the State Action Committee, members of parliament and State assemblymen in a District Action Committee is designed to enable local politicians to be officially and directly involved in the plan-making process. They are expected to oversee, participate in discussion, contribute towards resolving problems, co-ordinate their efforts as representatives of the people with those of government departments, and ensure the smooth implementation of development programs and projects in accordance with state and national planning objectives (Rani, 1979). In Johor Bahru City context, even though significant issues can be better identified through the involvement of amenity groups and the general public in the plan-making process, political actors are more willingly to bring in the inputs and comments given by consultants instead of by the public throughout the whole process. This is because most of the political actors have not much expertise or knowledge on transport service and therefore they have always relied upon the consultancy system for giving them advice.

3.4.4 Private Operators

In Johor Bahru City, private operators play an important role in short-term public bus planning. They would provide the input and information to technicians during the plan preparation process. They would also propose some recommendations, for an example: new bus route is proposed by transport operators for submission to Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council for obtaining the approval. Normally, Unit Traffic would consider their views and interests in order to maintain stable and continuous transport services provision. After the submission is approved by Unit Traffic, it will be passed to Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board. The purpose is for obtaining the Licensing Permit in order for them to operate the new service. Now, there are five main private bus companies operated in Johor Bahru City which provide 58 bus routes in the city and around 62% of the bus routes are served in the area of Johor Bahru City Council. They are Handal Indah Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan Maju Berhad, Transit Link Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan S&S Sdn Bhd. and Triton Sdn Bhd.

3.4.5 Users

In Johor Bahru City, although there is a statutory requirement for public participation prior to or during the formation of draft plan, the public are involved at the very last stage of the plan-making process when all the major decisions have been made. That means, the public only could voice out their views during the exhibition of the draft plans. This is because the centralized government is willing to withhold information from the public and they have always relied upon the consultancy system for giving them advice. This will lead to ineffectiveness in information dissemination. As a result, the public do not have any opportunity to participate in the early stage of the plan-making process.

Nevertheless, critics and comments could be submitted to government during the exhibition of the draft plans. It is criticized that although the public could submit their opinions and interests to planning department, there is no obligation for them to explain to the public why the opinions and interests are not accepted. Thus, the public are only treated as a consultative body, but not decision forming partners. The public still cannot play an active role in every stages in plan-making process and do not have power to bargain and negotiate with the power holders (Table 3.1). If the planning process does not consider the public or users’ interests, the suggested policies will not reflect the actual interests of the whole society. This will further decrease the quality of the public bus services provided and cause users to suffer.

Table 3.1: Comparison of Actors Model in United Kingdom And Malaysia (Johor Bahru)

Actors Model – Grant (1977)

Actors Model – Johor Bahru Context

Technical Actors – salaried officers in the planning department

Technical Actors – salaried civil servants, transport experts in foreign consulting firm and transport professionals

Community Actors – local organizations, businessmen or pressure groups in affected areas

Community Actors – members of citizen groups or business organization, Johor Bus Operator Association

Political Actors – political parties members in council

Political Actors – Chief Minister with a State Executive Council comprising not more than nine members appointed from among thegovernment members of the State Assembly, and three ex-officio members, etc.

Private Operators aa‚¬” Handal Indah Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan Maju Berhad, Syarikat Kenderaan S&S Sdn Bhd, Transit Link, Triton Sdn Bhd and City Link Sdn Bhd.

Users – cannot play an active role in the every stages in plan-making process and do not have power to bargain and negotiate with the powerholders

3.4.6 The Interaction Among Major Actors in Public bus Planning in Johor Bahru City

Among these major actors who are involved in public bus planning system in Johor Bahru City, political actors and technical actors are the most important actors. These actors involve in the planning and monitoring stages in the public bus system. However, their relationship are not so closed since technical actors always use their scientific approaches to defend the plans and unwilling to change their policies. Conflict might take place between these actors especially when the decision is determined base on political actors’ interests. The second most important actors in the system are the bus operators. Since bus operators have the responsibility to provide bus services to the public, they have to work closely with technical actors and political actors in order to obtain the licensing permit. Their relationship is close, even sometimes they have some controversial issues in terms of business interests. This is because all public bus services in Johor Bahru City are operated by private bus companies which their main interest is viability. That means a private bus company’s income must exceed operating costs and that sufficient funds have to be made available to permit any future investment.

Like bus operators, JBOA, the only community actors in Johor Bahru City also has interaction with technical actors and political actors. The association also has a close and maximum relationship with bus operators since their common interests are to protect business interests. They will join forces to fight for the common goal, if it is affected. The association is formed for the purposes of exchanging views and perspectives among the private bus companies on a general public transport policy matters as well as sharing experience in public bus planning, operation and management. They will consolidate their position on public transport issues before have a discussion with the political actors.

Notwithstanding, since the association has the characteristic which is only concerned with bus operators business interests, therefore Johor Bahru City still does not have any representative channels to help the public to express their views. In addition, political actors are dependent upon consultancy system to give them advice throughout the whole process. The public will just play a passive role during the preparation of plans. They do not have any opportunity to involve themselves in the early stage in plan-making process. They are also the most unorganized group and do not have the power to bargain and negotiate with the power holders. The relationship between the public and others actors is minimal and in conflict since interaction is limited among these major actors. Consequently, what have been made and recommended in the public bus plan could not reflect the actual interests of the whole community and will decrease the quality of the plan.

3.5 Conclusion

After the discussion of the public bus planning system in Johor Bahru City, we find that the appearances and characteristics of the present system are somewhat different from the ideal case. This gives us some hints that the present system might have some problems, and these problems might possibly affect the quality of the public bus services provided. However, judgement on whether the present system is ineffective or inefficient shall not be given until we also look at the users’ opinions on the public bus services provided. In Chapter Four, the current public bus performance level in Johor Bahru City will be investigated.

Wildlife and environment is an integral part of life. Protection of Wildlife and Environment has been present from the pre-colonial and the colonial times. During the 3rd century, Asoka, king of Magadha, passed a law for the protection of wildlife and environment. During colonial times, the British enacted India’s first codified law Wild Birds Protection Act, 1887 and the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912. The parliament passed legislation on 9th September, 1972 and is known as Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. This act was enacted under the Article 252. This is an Act “to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants] and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.” Wildlife is defined in the act under section 2(37).

The wildlife was under the state list according to the constitution but by the 42nd amendment it was transferred to the concurrent list in 1976. By 1991 the act was applicable to whole of India (except Jammu and Kashmir). This has helped the central government to increase its role in developing the national wildlife policy. This act provides protection of wildlife and preservation of the environment regardless of its location. The protection is based on two approaches – species approach and the ecosystem approach. The National Wildlife Board was legislated in the 2002 amendment.

Environmental protection is every citizen’s right according to Article 51A (g).The protection of forests, wildlife animals and birds where shifted from the state list to concurrent list. These were entries 17 A and 17 B respectively.

PROTECTED AREAS
INTRODUCTION

Certain areas are protected for the conservation of wildlife. These areas are known as Protected Areas. Protected areas are designated based on their level of protection and the laws binding the country. These areas are protected based on the environmental and cultural values.

According to IUCN, a protected area is, “A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” Marine protected areas also are included in the list of protected areas.

Under the WLPA, the state government can declare an area of flush or adequate ‘ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance’ a sanctuary or a national park. Public entry is banned in a protected area and the destruction of the habitat along with its wildlife is prohibited and can result in serious consequences.

Protected areas are necessary for conservation of biodiversity and also the preservation of the existing environment. These areas help in balancing ecological cycles and other processes in the environment. This results in protection of watersheds, soils and protects humans from natural disasters.

Many of these areas are vital for the survival for indigenous or local people whose life depends on the sustainable use of resources of that area. They serve as backbone for the local communities. These areas are a physical gateway to hectic work schedule and help attain calm and peace. Certain protected areas are important for research and education and also apply to sustainable land use. The most important aspect of these areas is the tourism, which contributes to the economy.

The importance and the significance of protected areas are realized in the Convention of Biodiversity (CBD) (Article 8). Recently protected areas are facing threats because of climate change and pollution. One of the main reasons that have lead to the degradation of these areas is lack of political support and inadequate financing. The only body that has been actively involved in the protection of these areas is the WCPA.

IUCN PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT CATEGORIES

WCU, founded in 1948 is one of the 6 commissions of IUCN. There are certain guidelines that offer help in classifying the protected areas management categories. The original intent was to provide an understanding of protected areas both within and outside the country.

It has categorized certain regions as protected based on the management objective and has classified protected areas into 8 distinct categories:

a. Strict Nature Reserve – scientific use

b. Wilderness Area – wilderness protection

National Parks – ecosystem protection and recreation

Natural Monument – conservation of specific natural features

Habitat/species Management – maintained for conservation through management intervention

Protected Landscape/Seascape – landscape/seascape protection and recreation

Managed Resource Protected Area – sustainable use of natural ecosystem

According to the IUCN survey, 30,000 protected areas around the world covers 13,250,000 sq.km by 2000. Barely 1% of world’s seas are protected.

PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA

The protected areas in India cover 156,700sq.km which implies that approximately 4.95% of the total surface area. It has been estimated that there are nearly 5000 villages in protected areas (Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, 2001).In India protected areas have been present from 1935. India has the following as protected areas based on the IUCN classification:

National Parks

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Biosphere Reserves

Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve

Village Forests and Panchayat

Private Protected Areas

Tiger Reserves

The country’s wilderness has been under threat due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. The number of protected areas has increased over the years. In 1988 there were 54 national parks and 372 sanctuaries covering about 3.34% of the country’s geographical area. In 2002, India has a total of 578 wildlife protected areas which accounts to about 4.70% of the country’s geographical area (wildlife institute of India).

The WII has recommended the government to increase the number of wildlife protected areas to 870 which includes 163 national parks and 707 wildlife sanctuaries and the approximate geographical area used will to about 5.74%(Rodgers, Panwar and Mathur, WII)(fig.1). Certain areas in India have very high percentage of protected areas. This is due to the conditions that are available for declaration of a protected area. (Table 1 and Table 2).

NATIONAL PARKS

A National park is a reserve of natural lands that is declared by government. It is declared and created for recreation purposes and protection and preservation of nature. National parks are declared under category II type of protected areas by IUCN. There are 7000 national parks worldwide. The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park. National parks are declared under section 35, 38 (2) and 66 (3). For an area to be declared as a national park it has to undergo a series of stages:

Intention notification

Determination of rights

Proclamation notification

Inquiry

Acquisition of rights

Final notification

The above procedure need not be followed if the rights of the land have extinguished and if the land is under the state government. India’s first national park was Hailey National Park, later renamed as Jim Corbett National Park. This park was established in 1935. There are 96 national parks as of April 2007 in India. National parks hold a higher authority and a high degree of protection than sanctuaries. The rules and regulations that bind national parks are stricter. A national park can be set up within or around a sanctuary.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Wildlife sanctuaries are areas declared for the protection and restoration of wildlife (endangered species). It is created through government regulations. A sanctuary is actually set up by the central government under the section 38. Only when the state government passes power of authority to the central government can a sanctuary be set up. A sanctuary cannot be created within an existing sanctuary. These areas are declared under Section 26A, 38(1) and 66(3). There are certain conditions that are required for setting up a sanctuary (section 18). These come under IUCN category IV. The main objective is to maintain and conserve species in a habitat.

There are about 489 wildlife sanctuaries covering 3.56% geographical area in India. By the legislation passed by the 2002 amendment the construction of lodges, safari trips, hotels need approval of National Board. The procedure is same as that of declaring a national park. The control of these sanctuaries is under the Chief Wildlife Warden (section 33). In India, there are about 28 tiger reserves out of the total wildlife sanctuaries. These reserves are mainly for the protection and the conservation of tigers. Therefore these reserves are species specific. Certain sanctuaries are named exclusively as bird sanctuaries, E.g. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. There are certain restrictions after a land or area has been notified and declared as WS (Sections 27, 29, 30, 31, and 32).

BIOSPHERE RESERVES

These reserves were established by UNSECO in 1973-74 under the Man and Biosphere programme (MAB).This programme aims at bringing the balance between use and conservation of resources. It main objective is in research and scientific outlook in the present’s world. In India, there are over 14 Biosphere Reserves as of 25th October, 2007(Table 3). Biosphere reserves are natural landscapes that extend over large areas. They can be terrestrial or marine or combination of both. These reserves are perfect paradigm for showcasing the existing harmony between man and nature. The reserves help in conservation of the habitat along with the species and also help in the economic development. These biosphere reserves actually have unique features nad are in very good condition. They come under Category V of IUCN classification.

In India, a National Biosphere Reserve Programme was established in 1986.The main criteria for declaring a biosphere reserve is that the area should contain rare and endangered species of flora and fauna. It should be an area that is protected and is a bio geographical unit that is extensive. These ecosystems actually are like alternate research models that provide educational information. A biosphere reserve has a layered structure that contains 3 important zones:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

The core zone actually consists of the target species that need to be protected and conserved. This zone is legally protected from human interference. The Buffer zone is a middle zone that is adjoined to both the core and transition zone. In this zone certain activities like recreation, education, tourism and the restoration of area. In this area, if human activities are natural then these activities are allowed. These activities are only allowed if they cause minimal damage to the environment. The Transition zone is the outermost zone. In this zone all activities along with conservation and administration are carried out in harmony. This zone has no limits on human activities. In this zone there is huge economic revenue that is derived from tourism and management practices.

The biosphere reserves are established under the legal frameworks that have been legislated under WPA, 1972. In the process of declaring an area as biosphere reserve the central as well as the state government have roles and responsibilities to be carried out. The financial support is provided by the central government whereas the management and administration is the duty of the state government. The Indian National Man and Biosphere committee actually is constituted by central government and finds new sites, committees, policies, programmes and other activities for the betterment of the reserve. The ministry proposed certain areas for getting approved into the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, in November 2001, the International Coordinating Council (ICC) of Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO designated and approved of Sunderbans (West Bengal) and the Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) into the world network. The Nilgiri was already included in 2000.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROVISIONS PROVIDED BY WLPA,1972

The CEL – WWF India was launched in 1993. This organization took active legal actions in the country. They have fought legal actions for the protection and conservation of wildlife and environment. They came into forefront mainly because of the Bhitarkanika case, Narayan Sarovar case, and intervention in Delhi ridge. Through research and investigation it came to light that the provisions of the WLPA, 1972 were not being implemented.CEL – WWF filed a civil writ petition in May, 1995 in SC for protection and development of protected areas along with the wildlife. The SC accepted the petition and issued notices to every State Government and the Union of India on February, 1997.

During the course of the case hearing the SC has passed several contempt notices to the state and union officials to carry out their duties with honour and adhere to the orders of the court. In March, 1997 the Indian board of wildlife (IBWL) was ordered to submit a summary and report on the plight of the protected areas in India and its progress after the SC had passed the orders for strict surveillance. The states were requested to submit a report on its activities and the steps they had taken for the betterment of these protected areas. The SC also noticed that some states had WW while some didn’t. Those states who had appointed a WW were only for certain areas.

In response to the SC, the MoEF responded that the meeting of the Previous IBWL have not attended a meeting for the last eight years. This showed laxity at the national level and the action of the highest authority. This board was reconstituted in 1996 and appointed the Prime Minister as the Chairman. At the state level the states had not been adhering to the court orders and were not alert enough to file their replies. Even though it was laxity at the state level and the SC extended the deadline of the submission of the report and granted them another two months to file their answers. Finally, the SC accepted that all the States and Unions of India had constituted their wildlife advisory boards and confirmed the body. This was done in January, 1998.

One of the main issues regarding implementation was about the existing tiger population in India. The court ordered to bring to notice about the population of these cats. By a report submitted by the MoEF stated that the population of tigers had not declined since 1973. But the overall decline of population was due to the fragmentation of tiger habitats.

DE – RESERVATION OF PROTECTED AREAS

Some sanctuaries face a threat of being de – reserved by the state actions. The shield provided by the WLPA, 1972 can be removed by the state wildlife advisory board (state board) in case it’s not necessary. But the order passed by the SC directed the state governments to pass on a proposal of denotification or de – reservation of an area to the NBWL for its opinion and pass it on to the Legislative Assembly. According to the 2002 amendment of WLPA the NBWL has the power to alter PAs over the legislative assembly. Certain cases have already happened like, 1994 the Boriavli National Park was trimmed so that the slum people who resided near the national park would not be evicted. But in case of tiger reserve, it cannot be de – notified by a state board. But a tiger reserve can be de – reserved if it has the approval of the TCA and the National Board for Wildlife. The Forest Conservation Act, 1970 (FCA) actually restricts the authority of the state to de-reserve forest areas. According to the SC order dated 13.11.2000 the state requires prior permission for the diversion or de-reservation of forest land in national parks.

STATE LEVEL RESPONSES ON PROTECTED AREAS – TAMIL NADU

In Tamil Nadu the state board was constituted on 14.09.1995 and again reconstituted on 24.02.1997. The state appointed 10 WW to look after the implementation of the WLPA. Tamil Nadu was one the few states that actually interpreted the Supreme Court orders correctly. The state of Tamil Nadu also informed the Supreme Court that there are 6 WW and a Deputy Director for the Project Tiger. A district officer has also been appointed to look after the implementation of the WLPA properly in various national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The Honorary Wildlife Warden (HWW) is appointed for the National parks and the Sanctuaries. They are appointed for tenure of 3 years. If the person appointed wants to resign before the period is completed then a notice of 3 months has to be given prior to resignation or cancellation of appointment. Many of the protected areas have been notified under the section 16 of the Tamil Nadu Forest act, 1882 and with reference to reserved forest the areas that were proclaimed and notified under the Tamil Nadu forest act, 1882 will enjoy a status equivalent to those that have been notified under the section 26A or 21, WLPA, 1972. Certain sanctuaries and national park come under the non – reserved forest areas. These areas are proclaimed under the section 21 of WLPA.

An order dated 20.03.1998 stated the immunization of all wildlife in NPs/WSs in every state. The state director of animal husbandry was given the authority to carry out the instructions at the district level. The District Forest Officers were instructed the vaccination of all wildlife in the 5 km radius of Protected Areas. Another order dated 20.03.1998 stated the registration of arms and issuance of licences. The State Director General of Police was instructed to comply with the order. The wildlife protection (Tamil Nadu) Rules, 1975 was framed. The Rule 33 is about the registration of arms in the vicinity of NPs/WSs. The DGPs and CWLWs are requested to take action in case of non – compliance.

Tamil Nadu has in total 5 NP and 8 WS, 12 BS, 4 Elephant reserves, 3 Tiger Reserves and 3 Biosphere Reserves (Table 3) which are under the UNESCO’s MAB programme. Almost one – sixth of Tamil Nadu is covered with forest. The state ranks in the 11th position in reference to total forest cover among the Indian states and Union Territories and ranks 13th position in reference to total recorded forest cover. Tamil Nadu ranks 14th position with reference to protected areas.

The diversity of flora and fauna are a boon to the state and need to be conserved and managed with great care since the extent of diversity is beyond our imagination. Forests and wilderness of the state actually defines the state. According to the 2008 census, tiger population increased in the state of Tamil Nadu. This was achieved due to strict and mandatory measures passed by the state board. For the development, conservation and administration activities the state has sanctioned and invested a huge sum of money which has proved to be successful to an extent.

THE SARISKA CASE: TARUN BHARATH SANGH, ALWAR Vs UNION OF INDIA

Tarun Bharath Sangh is a non – governmental organization (NGO) whose concern was about the rural development of Rajasthan. The main issue of concern was the availability of water resource. Illegal mining activities were being carried out in Alwar district of Rajasthant taht resulted in shortage of water. The organization launched the Sariska Case. The area that was under scrutiny is now what is known as the Sariska Tiger Sanctuary. This Tiger Sanctuary is a species specific Protected Area and comes under the Tiger Reserves category and it is an exclusive hunting area for the Rulers of the Quondam, Alwar state.

This NGO approached court petitioning that the illegal mining activity that was going on in the Alwar district of Rajasthan needs to cease in the interest of environment and nature to sustain. They pointed out that the mining is being carried out in a protected area that has been declared by the government. The area is declared as a tiger reserve under Rajasthan Wild Animal and Birds Protection Act, 1951. This area is also declared as a WS and NP under WLPA, 1972. Under these acts such activities in WS or NP or a tiger reserve is prohibited and can result in dire consequences. The permission of the government for such activities actually contradicted these legislations.

The petitioner’s side of argument was that mining permission lease was not granted to the company. For such an activity to be carried out they have to acquire prior permission from the Government of India – section 2 FCA,1980 and rule 4(6) of Rajasthan Minor Mineral Concession Rules. They stated that no permission was obtained and the government illegally issued 400 mining permission leases. This has caused degradation of ecology and devastation of the environment. In this case, the court was called upon to ensure that the laws for the protection of the environment were enacted on.

The state on its behalf countered that the grant of these mining activities where due to some confusion regarding the difference between NP and reserved forests and were confused regarding the exact location of mining areas. But the state was humble enough to agree that the mines were in the protected areas and realised that appropriate action should be taken so that the provisions of the statutes are enforced. The irony is that the state of Rajasthan while proclaiming that they protect the environment actually is part of a huge scam and allows the degradation of the environment.

The central government stated that the FCA provisions extend to reserved, protected forests and all the areas that have been recorded as forests in the government records. They also submitted that no mining should be allowed to take place without the prior permission from the central government. The central government passed a notification on 7 May, 1997 under section 3 of EPA. This notification prohibited the mining in the Sariska NP, Sariska WS and other areas that were protected. According to the Rule 4(6) of the Rajasthan Minor Mineral Concession Rules, 1982, no mining lease can be granted within a forest without going through the rules and provisions provided by the FCA, 1980. The chair man of committee Shri.Justice M.L.Jain recommended 215 mines mentioned in appendix A that are placed wholly in protected areas are closed. The purpose of FCA and EPA are totally different. In the sense that the closure of the mines that were situated in the protected forests may not benefit for the environmental purpose but will surely benefit the forest purpose.

The central government stated that no permission was acquired for the mines that were in the protected forests. The court after the final hearing ordered and issued notice to the listed mines to stop their activities immediately. But the mines outside the tiger reserve were allowed to continue their activity for 4 months within which they could approach the central government with an application to continue their operation. If permitted they are allowed to continue their mining activities with no hindrance. If no permission is obtained then they will have to cease their mining operations immediately. Some miners who felt that they were wronged filed a review application and the SC rejected the application on 7 May, 1994. This case is a perfect example of Industry Vs Protected Areas.

CONCLUSION

Nature cannot be compared in terms of beauty. There is nothing that surpasses her. The presence of nature along with her children playing around carefree and not worried about the future was what God pictured when he first created Earth. But unfortunately, the rosy picture painted by God was not reality. Man has been the root cause of the upheaval.

Protected areas have a very important place in the process of restoration of the environment. These areas conserve and restore the environment along with its flora and fauna. These areas are critical for the conservation of endemic biodiversity. India has a very diverse population of fauna and flora. But now even the smallest of species are facing a threat of extinction. The protection of natural areas is the fundamental conservation strategy. These areas are key habitats since they can be conserved by species approach or ecosystem approach. These provide refuge for wildlife to restore them and protect them from the outside cruelty. They also protect mankind indirectly by protecting the trivial life on earth and help in balancing the nature’s cycle. These areas are life for the local tribes.

The WLPA, 1972 legislation was passed for the protection of wildlife. But ironically until recently the provisions of the act have not been implemented to full strength. Until the SC intervened the State Board and the National Board were very poor respondents. This statute needs to be revised and amended in various aspects. There should be a section legislated in the WLPA dedicated to the implementation of the provisions and instructions. It should be made mandatory. The authorities in charge need to be penalised in case rules and regulations were flouted. Even though there are rules regarding the entry of people, registration of arms into these areas if someone throws in some cash anything under the sun can be achieved, including flouting the wildlife laws. The main reason is that the base of the whole structure is so weak that nothing can be done. Unless we realise and build the system again from the foundation the future is bleak and is very much predictable. This can be seen the case of Tarun bharath Sangh,Alwar Vs Union of India,1992. Here the government themselves are villains by allowing illegal mining operations in a protected forest.

Flouting of wildlife laws has resulted in grave consequences. One such case comes to light about the extinction of tigers from the Sariska Tiger Reserve. In December 2004, all tigers had disappeared from the Sariska Tiger Reserve. In 1973, Project Tiger was established for the conservation of tiger. The shock waves that were created and sent across the country resulted in the establishment of the Tiger Task Force; it was specially formed for the Tiger conservation.

Through investigation it was revealed that poaching was the main issue for the dwindling population of tigers. The last six that remained were poached during the last months of 2004. After this devastating story, the wardens are instructed to shoot poachers on sight when they are sighted. Tiger (Panthera tigris) is our national animal. The danger we are putting it through is a heart wrenching story. Now it doesn’t even have a place to call home since its struggling with mankind tooth and nail for survival.

Joining our national animal are other wildlife species like the lion, Asian elephant, snow leopard etc. Even though these are protected and conserved in areas or reserves they still face the threat of poaching. There are also other reasons that affect the conservation strategies. One of the main reasons is the failure of the forest dwellers or local people in helping to conserve the wildlife. They assist the poachers in killing those animals giving the reason that they are threatened by its presence. Therefore there is no cordial relationship between the management and the local people. But we cannot blame the local people for their action because their whole livelihood is through deriving resources from the forest reserve. The recording and rights of people living near forests and reserves started way back when the acts were legislated but even now many are pending. Many people are still in hope to get their rights so that they can live peacefully with nature. This is a perfect paradigm for Man Vs Wild. These conflicts have been present for ages but have increased over the years because humans expand their cities or towns with reference to development. This has resulted in us exploiting their habitat. Other reasons that can lead to threatening the wildlife in their protected abode is illegal activities such as mining, construction, noise etc.

Protected areas along with its varied flora and fauna actually conserve the value of the country. Even though these areas are protected half the population of the country are not aware that an Act has been implemented for protection. People don’t realise the consequences and the penal codes of the constitution regarding environment. This is basically due to ignorance and illiteracy. Therefore awareness needs to be achieved.MoEF

One act of random kindness will change the life of many. Environment and mankind are interlinked. That is because every living thing has a place and a role to play on this planet through a food chain or a food web. So even if one level is disrupted the whole web goes haywire and can result in a catastrophe that man didn’t perceive. So if he wants to live he needs to start thinking twice before taking a crucial step. But it doesn’t mean that development stops. Development can take place but not at the cost of the environment. Nature should not take the brunt of man’s action. Only recently have people started to stand up to the atrocities being done to animals. But even then the response is poor compared to the huge population of India.

Man being a greedy animal, has never been satisfied with his life and in the name of development has destroyed the environment. When he does realise the mistakes that he has committed it would be too late to turn back and start again. He is already standing on the edge of the cliff, one wrong move and he sinks without a trace. Being the most intelligent creature ironically man has been doing the most foolish thing of his lifetime. What is life without any morale and values? Are we so inhumane to even listen to the pain that these animals cry out when they are being killed? Are we deaf to the pleas that reverberate out of them and asking us for their help? But instead of helping them we are using them for our benefit. This is what life has become to develop our race we step onto the lives of another.

GLOSSARY

Art.252 Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State.

Art.51A(g) “It shall be the duty of every citizen of india to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,lakes,rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”

Entries 17A and 17B Forests and Protection of Wildlife in Concurrent list

Art.8 In – Situ conservation of protected areas

Art.21 Protection of life and personal liberty.-No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

Section 2(37) “wild life” includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which form part of any habitat;

Section16 notification declaring forest reserved

Section 18 Declaration of sanctuary

Section 26 A Declaration of area as sanctuary

Section 27 Restriction on entry in sanctuary

Section 29 Destruction,etc., in a sanctuary prohibited without permit

Section 30 Causing fire prohibited – No person shall set fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or leave any fire buring, in such manner as to endanger such sanctuary.

Section 31 Prohibition of entry into sanctuary with weapon – No person shall enter a sanctuary with any weapon except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wild Life Warden or the authorised officer.

Section 32 Ban on use of injurious substances – a No person shall use, in a sanctuary, chemicals, explosives or any other substances which may cause injury to or endanger, any wild life in such sanctuary

Introduction

It is important to appreciate the size and scope of the cruise industry before discussing the issues and challenges associated with it. This paper provides an overview of the cruise industry, key players, growth, recent trends and developments and informs on the key impacts and effects that this fast growing cruise industry has on its destinations, communities, the waterways, passengers and the environment, It further analyzes the economic, social, cultural, health, safety, environment and taxation attributes of the cruise business and discusses both the positive and as well as the negative aspects of cruise tourism. The cruise industry provides economic and other benefits to the destinations, from the tourists’ expenditures and ships’ operational purchases to the taxation benefits for the communities in those destinations. It gives satisfaction and relaxation to the cruise passengers and results in profits for the cruise companies. At the same time, there are many negatives associated with cruise ship tourism, a number of which are significant and seriously damaging to the very same destinations, communities and the environment.

Statement of Purpose

The primary purpose of this paper is to provide a balanced snapshot of the industry and to highlight several key concerns and provide recommendations towards reducing their negative impact, and have more controlled and sustainable cruise operations. There is not one single cure-it-all solution to what is a very complex problem, but it is believed that more assertive policies and legislations that are international in scope and internationally enforced are a big part of the answer.

Cruise Industry Overview

The cruise ship industry is the fastest growing segment in the travel industry and since 1980 the average annual growth rate of cruise passengers worldwide averages 8.0%. As of January 2004, there were 339 active oceangoing cruise ships; this global fleet amounted to a total of 10.9 million gross tons, with 296,000 beds. [1] In 2007, the worldwide cruise passengers grew to 12.9 million. According to the Cruise Industry Report 2012 by the Florida Caribbean Cruise Association [2] , the 2011 passenger number was over 16 million, of which 11.2 million originated in North America. The 2012 forecast is 17.0 million worldwide, with the Caribbean as the most preferred destination. The cruise lines continue to add new ships and exciting options to ensure continued growth. Today’s ships offer a new generation of dizzying onboard innovations, including surf pools, planetariums, on-deck LED movie screens, golf simulators, water parks, self-leveling billiard tables, multi-room villas with private pools and in-suite Jacuzzis, ice skating rinks, rock climbing walls, bungees and trampolines. With all of this luxury and increase in passengers’ numbers, the impact and the challenges in such areas as economic, socio-cultural, environmental, safety and security and taxation are a major concern.

Economic Effects

These economic benefits arise from five principal sources: 1) spending by cruise passengers and crew; 2) the shore-side staffing for their local offices, marketing and tour operations 3) expenditures for goods and services necessary for cruise operations; 4) spending by the cruise lines for port services; and 5) expenditures for the maintenance. According to CLIA, the economic impact of the U.S cruise industry from 2005 to 2006 resulted in expenditures of $35.7 billion in gross output in the United States, a 10.2 percent increase. This increase generated 348,000 jobs in the U.S.A., a total of $14.7 billion in salaries. It should be noted that accommodation of large cruise ships in ports requires a great deal of initial capital investment in infrastructure and maintenance costs, which is absorbed eagerly by the host port, not by the cruise line. It is recommended that to create a more balanced port development the cruise companies must contribute financially towards the local infrastructure costs, and put a pause on increasing the size of new ships so that existing ports can welcome new ships without costly port rebuilds.

Impact of Powerful Cruise Companies

The top 10 brand operators control 64% of the global cruise berth capacity, with Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Star/NCL groups controlling 35% of the cruise vessels and 68% of the berth capacity worldwide. Carnival alone controls 22% of the vessels and 39% of the berths. [3] If one adds to it the growth rate of 8% annually, the net result is that the above three cruise companies exert a lot of power globally. Cruise business has become a revenue and profit churning machine and this is often with the exclusion or restriction of local providers. Arguably, cruise lines benefit the most from the activities associated with the passengers both onboard and off-board.

There are minimal profits for the providers of local tourism services as cruise lines obtain all income from items sold on board such as the rental of aquatic equipment, food and beverages or souvenirs, leaving the local tour operator with relatively little profit. Tourism service providers have to pay for promotion on board; videos, brochures, and the cost of an actual booth ranges up to U.S. $16,500. [4] Others income comes from “dream islands”, cruise line’s private island property and once again reducing the economic benefit to impacted communities.

The cruise industry also has a strong lobbying group to push for policy and legal decisions in their favor. From 1997 to 2007, Cruise Line International Association spent US$10 million on lobbying the U.S Congress. These cruise sectors try hard to avoid or minimize paying local taxes, as their ships go under the flags of convenience, Liberia, Bahamas and Panama and cross international borders, which are exempt from paying certain destination taxes and pollution fees, and it is difficult for the local jurisdictions to enforce such payments. This causes apprehension to hotel operators who are obligated to pay such taxes and it makes them less competitive and profitable than the cruise lines. One suggestion is for a new international standard where cruise ships are obligated to pay a local port tax and economic development contribution based on the size of the ship and number of passengers, payable while in port.

Environmental Effects

Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that affect the marine environment, e.g. sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, solid waste and also emits air pollutants to the air and water. These environmental costs are significant but incalculable given that the cruise ship industry is largely unregulated. As an example, blackwater and graywater generate 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day by a typical large ship with 3,000 passengers, and 24% of vessel solid waste worldwide comes from cruise ships. The few regulations that are there are not always successful enforced. In 1999 Royal Caribbean paid a fine of US$18million for discharging oily bilge water in Alaska, the same amount was paid by Carnival Cruise Line in 2002 for dumping oily waste from five ships and still not much has changed. Although cruise ships represent a small percentage of the entire shipping industry worldwide, public attention to their environmental impacts comes in part from the fact that cruise ships are highly visible because of the industry’s desire to promote a positive image.

LeAna B. Gloor’s article on cruise tourism impact on Hilo in Hawaii [5] illustrates the social, physical and environmental concerns. She states that while Hawaii is benefiting economically at unprecedented levels, it is also being impacted negatively on the environmental side of things at unprecedented levels. She advocates for a stronger legislation, more aggressive enforcement and more bills such as the Clean Cruise Ship Act. She also calls for a more proactive, sustainable vision of the future from the port communities themselves.

Social and Cultural Effects

Interactions between resident and cruise passengers can have positive effects but at the same time, high frequency and density of cruise activities can restrict the available space for local residents and push them to adopt different moral and cultural standards. There are often negative reactions from the residents triggered by the cruise tourism in small ports, where the ratio of cruise tourists to inhabitants is high, in places such as Aruba, Antigua, Barbuda or Dominica. This leads to local resentment, overcrowding and lack of services such as taxis, beach space and available seats in restaurants on the cruise days, or lack of demand and no work on the days when cruise ships are not in port. This differs for ports such as Miami, Barcelona and European destinations, where the number of cruise visitors’ ratio is small compared to other tourists and local residents. Another negative is that ships with flags of convenience have questionable labour and work safety standards and often have no legal minimum wage enforcement. Past efforts to have this changed by organizations such as the ITWF have failed. It is recommended that standard minimum wage, work hours and days of rest for cruise ship workers are established and enforced internationally.

Health and Diseases

A number of recent studies have focused on the health risks and disease directly attributable to cruise ships with their high concentration of people from different countries. One such study [6] looked at the risks and diseases caused by contaminated water and found that the organization of water supply to and on ships differs considerably from that of water supply on land. Risks of contamination can arise from source water at the port or during loading, storage, or distribution on the ship. The authors reviewed 21 documented outbreaks of waterborne diseases associated with passenger, cargo, fishing, and naval ships, and findings showed that the majority of reported outbreaks were associated with cruise ships. Risk factors included contaminated port water, inadequate water treatment, improper loading techniques, poor design and maintenance of storage tanks, contamination during repair and maintenance, poor connections, and insufficient disinfectants.

The recommendations include the need for hygienic and comprehensive handling of water all along the supply chain from source to consumption. This may be achieved in the future by the adoption of improved Water Safety Plans that cover design, construction, operation, and routine inspection and maintenance. Another study [7] of waterborne diseases on cruise ships concluded that the overall decrease of gastroenteritis during 10 years prior to 1986 was directly attributable to the improved enforcement of the Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Another study [8] reported in 2006 a number of outbreaks of Norovirus on cruise ships, with 43 outbreaks on 13 vessels. Cruise ship holidays create an environment in which Norovirus is easily spread. It was recommended that an active reporting system could function as an early warning system, but more important would be to implement internationally accepted rules and guidelines for reporting, investigating, and controlling Norovirus and other diseases on cruise ships. As Los Angeles Times headline on February 4, 2012 stated: “Florida cruise ships riddled with Norovirus. Anyone surprised?”

Safety and Security

After the terrorist attacks on New York’s World Trade Center, cruise related tourism has been seen as one of the safest ways to experience foreign travel. Yet, as P. Tarlow indicates in his rather somber study on cruise risks [9] , the cruising is not immune to dangers ranging from virus outbreaks to terrorism to accidents. He lists a number of major disasters, terrorist attacks, robberies and on-board assaults to demonstrate his point. Cruise tourism can lead to incidents where the ship can become a trap, as the recent examples such as Costa Concordia grounding and Carnival’s ship engine fire and subsequent stranding at sea demonstrate. This author lists a number of specific recommendations for tourism professionals to follow in order to mitigate safety and security risks.

Taxation

There are no common standards in the application of port taxes to cruises. Some ports charge levy that is reasonable, some excessive. Some ships pay, some do not. Another unresolved situation is that the cruise lines are allowed to operate under the “flags of convenience” (FAO), usually, Panama, Liberia or the Bahamas. Such cruise ships are then exempt from multiple tax responsibilities and it is easier for them to implement lenient standards of safety, undergo few environmental inspections, their operating costs are lower, they recruit staff without adhering to national or international regulations. The most obvious is Panama, where the ship pays for each passenger landing in Panama, in order to encourage the use the Panama flag of convenience. [10] A

good recommendation would be to adopt an internationally binding comprehensive policy and standards related to taxes, minimal fees, address key areas of staff and passenger safety, and the ships’ environmental responsibilities. Only then can we have a more sustainable, controlled development and operations of cruise lines where rules are adhered to rather than avoided.

Conclusion

There is no question that cruise ships bring money to local businesses and to the operators. However, ensuring the sustainable development of a cruise destination and the environment comes with very high cost which the cruise lines must be a part of. The major players in this highly consolidated cruise industry have to take a more proactive and self- policing measures to ensure a sustainable future for cruise tourism while preserving cruise destinations and cruise waterways. This essay discussed some of the key pros and cons of cruising and offered some recommendations for improvement towards a more balanced, sustainable growth.

The onus as well needs to be on the port communities, as on one hand, there is a portion of the decision makers that pressure for more cruise tourism, but there is frequently no policy at the local government level to control the impacts of such activity. The cruise industry will not be going away anytime soon, so it is more important to improve the situation that is not balanced or sustainable. Ports need the cruise ships as much as the cruise ships need the ports, the waterways need to be maintained in a more sustainable way, the cruise workers need fair employment standards and the local population needs to have a voice in the local planning for the impacts of tourism. With the continued growth of the cruise industry now is the time to create new set of international policies and rules that are binding for all participants. This paper tried to inform on some of the pros and cons and challenges facing this industry and to provide recommendations towards change in key areas of impact. More research needs to be done, more data needs to be collected, and more engagement from all involved parties is needed. There is much to do.

Works cited and references

It is important to appreciate the size and scope of the cruise industry before discussing the issues and challenges associated with it. This paper provides an overview of the cruise industry, key players, growth, recent trends and developments and informs on the key impacts and effects that this fast growing cruise industry has on its destinations, communities, the waterways, passengers and the environment., It further analyzes the economic, social, cultural, health, safety, environment and taxation attributes of the cruise business and discusses both the positive and as well as the negative aspects of cruise tourism. The cruise industry provides economic and other benefits to the destinations, from the tourists’ expenditures and ships’ operational purchases to the taxation benefits for the communities in those destinations. It gives satisfaction and relaxation to the cruise passengers which results in profits for the cruise companies. At the same time, there are many negatives and a number of which are significant and seriously damaging to those same destinations, communities and the environment. This paper will as well provide a balanced snapshot of the industry and highlight several key concerns and provide recommendations towards reducing their negative impact and with a future of more controlled and sustainable cruise operations. It should be noted that there is not one single cure-it-all solution to what is a very complex problem, but it is believed that more assertive international policies and legislations that can be enforced are a big part of the answer.

Cruise Industry Overview

The cruise ship industry is the fastest growing segment in the travel industry and has had an annual growth rate of 8.0% since 1980. Just imagine about 339 active cruise ships with well over 10.9 million gross tons and about 296,000 beds. [1] In 2007, the worldwide cruise passengers grew to 12.9 million. According to the Cruise Industry Report 2012 by the Florida Caribbean Cruise Association [2] , the 2011 passenger number was over 16 million, of which 11.2 million originated in North America. The forecasted numbers for 2012 forecast was 17.0 million worldwide, with the preferred destination being the Caribbean. The cruise lines continue to add new ships and exciting options to ensure continued growth. Today’s ships offer a new generation of dizzying onboard innovations, including surf pools, planetariums, on-deck LED movie screens, golf simulators, water parks, self-leveling billiard tables, multi-room villas with private pools and in-suite Jacuzzis, ice skating rinks, rock climbing walls, bungees and trampolines. With all of this luxury and increase in passengers’ numbers, the impact and the challenges in such areas as economic, socio-cultural, environmental, safety and security and taxation are a major concern.

Economic Effects

These economic benefits arise from five principal sources: 1) spending by cruise passengers and crew; 2) the shore-side staffing for their local offices, marketing and tour operations 3) expenditures for goods and services necessary for cruise operations; 4) spending by the cruise lines for port services; and 5) expenditures for the maintenance. According to CLIA, the economic impact of the U.S cruise industry from 2005 to 2006 resulted in expenditures of $35.7 billion in gross output, a 10% increase, which generated 348,000 jobs and paid out $14.7 billion in salaries. It should be noted that accommodation of large cruise ships in ports require a great deal of initial capital investment in infrastructure and maintenance costs, which is absorbed eagerly by the host port, not by the cruise line. It is recommended that to create a more balanced port development the cruise companies should contribute financially towards the local infrastructure costs, and also put a pause on increasing the size of new ships to allow the existing ports to still welcome new ships without incurring additional rebuild costs.

Impact of Powerful Cruise Companies

Three main cruise lines, Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Star/NCL control around 35% of cruise vessels, with Carnival controlling 22% of that 35% alone. [3] If one adds to it the growth rate of 8% annually, the net result is that the above three cruise companies exert a lot of power globally. Cruise business has become a revenue and profit churning machine and this is often with the exclusion or restriction of local providers. Arguably, cruise lines benefit the most from the activities associated with the passengers both onboard and off-board. There are minimal profits for the providers of local tourism services as cruise lines obtain all income from items sold on board such as souvenirs, rental of aquatic equipment, food and beverages, leaving the local tour operator with little profit. Tourism service providers also have to pay for promotion on board; videos, brochures and booths. A booth can costs up to U.S. $16,500. [4] Other income comes from “dream islands”, cruise line’s private island property and once again reducing the economic benefit to impacted communities. The cruise industry also has a strong lobbying group to push for policy and legal decisions in their favor and during the period from1997 to 2007, the Cruise Line International Association spent US$10 million on lobbying the U.S Congress. They try their hardest to avoid or minimize paying local taxes. For example, many of their ships go under the flags of convenience, Liberia, Bahamas and Panama and cross international borders, where they are exempted from paying certain destination taxes and pollution fees, and where it is difficult for the local jurisdictions to enforce these payments. This causes the local hotels to get angry as they are obligated to pay such taxes and it makes them less competitive and profitable than the cruise lines. One suggestion is for a new international standard where cruise ships are obligated to pay a local port tax and economic development contribution based on the size of the ship and number of passengers, payable while in port.

Environmental Effects

Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that affect the marine environment, for example, sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, solid waste and also emits air pollutants to the air and water. These environmental costs are significant but incalculable given that the cruise ship industry is largely unregulated. As an example, blackwater and graywater generate 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day for a ship with 3,000 passengers, and 24% of vessel solid waste worldwide comes from cruise ships. Unfortunately, the few regulations that are there are not always successful enforced. In 1999 Royal Caribbean paid a fine of US$18million for discharging oily bilge water in Alaska, the same amount was paid by Carnival Cruise Line in 2002 for dumping oily waste from five ships, and still not much has changed. Cruise ships have a positive image of glamour, even though they only represent a small percentage of the entire shipping industry worldwide, and because of this their environmental impacts are tolerated and continue to be unregulated.

LeAna B. Gloor’s article on cruise tourism impact on Hilo in Hawaii [5] illustrates the social, physical and environmental concerns. She states that while Hawaii is benefiting economically at unprecedented levels, it is also being impacted negatively on the environmental side of things at unprecedented levels. She advocates for a stronger legislation, more aggressive enforcement and more bills such as the Clean Cruise Ship Act.

Social and Cultural Effects

Interactions between resident and cruise passengers can have positive effects but at the same time, high frequency and density of cruise activities can restrict the available space for local residents and push them to adopt different moral and cultural standards. There are often negative reactions from the residents triggered by the cruise tourism in small ports, where the ratio of cruise tourists to inhabitants is high, in places such as Aruba, Antigua, Barbuda or Dominica. This leads to local resentment, overcrowding and lack of services such as taxis, beach space and available seats in restaurants on the cruise days, or lack of demand, and no work on the days when cruise ships are not in port. This differs for ports such as Miami, Barcelona and European destinations, where the number of cruise visitors’ ratio is small compared to other tourists and local residents. Another negative is that ships with flags of convenience have questionable labour and work safety standards and with no legal minimum wage enforced. Past efforts to have this changed by organizations such as the ITWF have failed. It is recommended that standard minimum wage, work hours and days of rest for cruise ship workers are established and enforced internationally.

Health and Diseases

A number of recent studies have focused on the health risks and disease directly attributable to cruise ships with their high concentration of people from different countries. One such study [6] looked at the risks and diseases caused by contaminated water and it showed that their water supply is very different from the water supplies on land. . The risks of contamination were much higher due to the way it was sourced during loading and also the dispersal on the cruise ship. The authors reviewed 21 documented outbreaks of waterborne diseases from various vessels and it was discovered that the bulk of the outbreaks were on cruise ships. Some other risk factors involved already contaminated water from the port to the ship and contamination in their storage tanks, which could be a result of poor maintenance and lack of disinfectants. The recommendations include the need for hygienic and a better comprehensive system to handling of their water supply from source to consumption. This may be achieved in the future by the adoption of improved Water Safety Plans that cover the overall design of the water storage tanks, better internal operations and regular inspection and maintenance. Another study [7] of waterborne diseases on cruise ships concluded that the overall decrease of gastroenteritis over a 10 year period prior to 1986 was directly attributable to the improved enforcement of the Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Another study [8] from 2006 involved 43 outbreaks of Norovirus on 13 vessels. It is a known fact that cruise ship holidays create an environment where Norovirus spreads easily, so it was recommended that an active reporting system could function as an early warning sign, but more importantly steps must be taken to implement internationally accepted rules and guidelines for reporting, investigating, and controlling Norovirus and other diseases on cruise ships. A Los Angeles Times headline, February 4, 2012 stated: “Florida cruise ships riddled with Norovirus. Anyone surprised?”

Safety and Security

After the terrorist attacks on New York’s World Trade Center, cruise related tourism became one of the safest ways to experience foreign travel. Yet, as P. Tarlow indicates in his rather somber study on cruise risks [9] , that cruising is not immune to dangers ranging from virus outbreaks to terrorism to accidents. He lists a number of major disasters, terrorist attacks, robberies and on-board assaults to demonstrate his point. Cruise tourism can as well lead to incidents where the ship can become a trap, as the recent examples of the Costa Concordia grounding and Carnival’s ship engine fire and subsequent stranding of passengers for several days at sea.

Taxation

There are no common standards in the application of port taxes to cruises. Some ports charge levy that is reasonable, some excessive. Some ships pay, some do not. Another unresolved situation is that the cruise lines are continually allowed to operate under the “flags of convenience” (FAO), usually, Panama, Bahamas and Liberia. This allows them to be exempt from multiple tax responsibilities, it is easier for them to have lenient standards of safety, they undergo few environmental inspections, their operating costs are lower, and they recruit staff without adhering to international regulations. The most obvious is Panama, where the ship pays for each passenger landing in Panama, which further encourages the use the Panama FAO. [10] A good recommendation would be to adopt an internationally binding comprehensive policy and standards related to taxes, fees, and as well address key areas of staff, passenger safety, and the ships’ environmental responsibilities. Only then can we have a more sustainable, controlled development and operations of cruise lines where rules are adhered to rather than avoided.

Conclusion

There is no question that cruise ships bring money to local businesses and to the operators. However, ensuring the sustainable development of a cruise destination and the environment comes with very high cost which the cruise lines must be a part of. The major players in this highly consolidated cruise industry have to take a more proactive and self- policing measures to ensure a sustainable future for cruise tourism while preserving cruise destinations and cruise waterways. The onus as well needs to be on the port communities, as on one hand, there are some decision makers that pressure for more cruise tourism, but there is frequently no policy at the local government level to control the impacts of such activity. The cruise industry will not be going away anytime soon, so it is more important to improve the situation that is not balanced or sustainable. Ports need the cruise ships as much as the cruise ships need the ports, the waterways need to be maintained in a more sustainable way, the cruise workers need fair employment standards and the local population needs to have a voice in the local planning for the impacts of tourism. With the continued growth of the cruise industry now is the time to create new set of international policies and rules that are binding for all participants. This essay discussed some of the key pros and cons of cruising and offered some recommendations for improvement towards a more balanced, sustainable growth. More research needs to be done, more data needs to be collected, and more engagement from all involved parties is needed. There is much to do.

Work Cited

Brida, J., & Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2008). The impacts of the cruise industry on tourism destinations. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1298403

Brida, J., & Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2009). Cruise tourism: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. nternational Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing, 1, Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1332619

Chin, C. (2008). Cruising in the global economy. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pw3GGaY84akC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=related:JzINeoWcSTMJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=29X-WtBHnH&sig=ivsupSeYhJmVT5hTOROibMm8EVo

Daniels, N., & Karpati, A. (2000). Traveler’s diarrhea at sea: Three outbreaks of waterborne enterotoxigenic escherichia coli on cruise ships. 4, Retrieved from http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/181/4/1491.short

Dowling, R. Cruise ship tourism. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gZ3_28wi_UkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=cruise

Ebersold, W. (2004). Cruise industry in figures. Business Briefing: Global Cruise, Retrieved from http://www.touchbriefings.com/pdf/858/ACF7B5.pdf

Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association (2012). Cruise Industry Overview – 2012: State of the Cruise Industry. Pembroke Pines, Florida.

Gloor, L. (2005). Riding tourism’s new wave: Evaluating the cruise industr’ys impact in hilo . Retrieved from http://hilo.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/documents/Vol04x14RidingTourismsNewWave.pdf

Roon, R. (2004). A review of outbreaks of waterbourne disease associated with ships. 119, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497646/pdf/15219801.pdf

Tarlow, P. (2012). Cruise risks, threats and dangers: A theory. 1, Retrieved from http://wscholars.com/index.php/ajtr/article/view/107

Verhoef, L., & Boxman, I. (2008). Emergence of new norovirus variants on spring cruise ships and prediction of winter epidemics. 14, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600213

Wu , B. (2005). The world cruise industry: A profile of the global labour market. Retrieved from http://www.sirc.cf.ac.uk/uploads/publications/WorldCruiseIndustry.pdf

Cost -Above noted, there are many different way of getting to the Caribbean, as a result of the When region at a good affordability, especially when compared to different places in the world there is an off season the ticket get less expensive. More over these essential factors make a enormous he tourism region. These attractions such as dolphin cove and mystic mountain they develop and implement more facilities and resorts that offer the taste of the Caribbean. The official industry touted “past time” as a priority.

Accommodation- Caribbean region has a risen vacancy in the hotels, spas and resorts. These options means that tourists comes from all over the level of region to come visit , but in the addition the vacancies is also affordable. Hotels and resorts continue to give low prices, for the rooms to the visitors. Other opportunities such as golf, netball, tennis and other recreational activities is available in the resort towns which concentrate on water activities particularly diving, jet skis to lesser, extent, boat hire. With more person visiting the room include additional sports and recreational facilities like yachting, shopping.

Reputation- The Caribbean standard is most profounded from the 1800s and for this the reputation is raised every year so tourist wants to come here to see the people culture etc. In fact, the Royal Victorian Hotel was built in the Bahamas during the American Civil War, one of the earliest such establishments in the region. This repeat vacation. Also, the region is known for being safe, alleviating concern from families and single visitors.

Quality service

Quality in the tourism and hospitality industry involves consistent delivery of products and guest services according to expected standards. Delivering quality service is one of the major challenges the hospitality managers will defacing in the following years as it is an essential condition for success in the emerging, keenly competitive, global hospitality markets. There are various tools that measure and improve quality service, as well as mechanisms for quality recognition in the tourism and hospitality industry. The weigh up the impacts of cost-profit and be in a position to priorities towards a quality improvement process for their own property managers should identify record and the present study shows that tourism stakeholders perceive quality service in a hotel as value for money, a comfortable room, friendly staff and tasty food. Moreover, the survey shows that there is always room for further improvement of the hospitality services. Other results of the surveys reveal that the most important factors for a hotel’s future are guest satisfaction, guest retention and word of mouth advertising. Aiming at excellence and profitability, the outcomes of the survey suggest focus on quality service; retention of existing guests by exceeding their expectations; continuous quality improvement; employment, regular training and empowerment of service-oriented staff; search for best practices through benchmarking; and, finally, pursuit of quality accreditation through the various schemes, such as the eco-labels, ISO and the EU Foundation for Quality Management. The delivery system is designed to provide the customer with the required variety of services and with the minimum delay. A common feature of delivery systems is the customer line or queue. A key aspect of any system is to control the length of queues. The unique tourism aspect service industry belongs to service delivery system. The term covers aspect of operation that taken place at any given time customers or client requested.

Title of my Paper: Travel Tourism Sector

Student’s name: Natanya Williams

Colbourne College

Lecture: Ms Michelle Branch

November 13, 2012

Report

This assignment is base on the fort most knowledge on travel tourism sector. Travel tourism is the movement of objects, people between two geographical locations of relative distance. More times tourism includes the movements of different destination as a stop point to move from destination to destination to reach the final destination. Recently it has been discover that the centre stage in terms of vacation and holidays or mostly acquired to the term Business Travel and Cargo.With these advance technology travel tourism has become more revolutionized with passage of time. Travel has become such a global need for all security measure has become a priority for all.

Table of content

Report 1

Quality services 2

Pros and cons of community based tourism 3

Main factors that attract tourist to the Caribbean 4

Conclusion 5

Bibliography 6

Pros and cons of community based tourism

Pros- The implications of pros on the country on a whole is that the convention visitors bureau need to develop efficient products for locals and international person and that product must be environmental friendly for society and civilization. The convention visitor bureau needs to generate income through sustainable resources by organized local resources by people. The member of the tourist board need to put the pros forward and try to resolve them and put Jamaica on the mop for the most experience tourism spot in the world. The sustainable, giving that the pros revised on the topic of the rural and poor communities and its source of income. In this type of area this aspect is valid and varied lives of local and indigenous people while they preserve the environment and the culture heritage. There are projects set aside for benefits to the community as a whole. When international tourist arrives to a certain areas it is rich in culture and biodiversity and at the same will get more involved as a country.

Cons-The conservation implicated on the country on a whole by the variety of activities that is encourage and support a wide range of development and conservation for e.g. (economic and social). This chapter of the project identifies the issues that affect community base tourism and the sustainability and promotion, with every growth interest, tourism development and marketing strategies that associated with a specific industry and its components. In this section it is useful to produce a clear definition of community base tourism to its readers. There are several different specialized tourism activities e.g. ecotourism, Nature base tourism etc. Although there is a estimate of 10%-15% conservation of nature – related tourism. It is difficult to generalized countries and there natural environment as the primary key attraction for most international visitors, and the increasing of domestic tourist.There is a excessive amount of accurate data and it clearly show that the community base industry need to rise it standards.

Conclusion

I am currently discussing the achievements of the travel and tourism sector project and looking to the future of great gesture. It is interesting to receive the amount of information from the different resources in respect of their different opinion. I have achieved the primary goal of this project and everyone has benefited in many ways from being involved in the project.