Author: Andre Coleman

The dramatic increase in average life expectancy during the twentieth century ranks as one of societys greatest achievements. While most babies born in 1900 did not live past age 50, life expectancy at birth now exceeds eighty-three years in Japan and is at least eighty-one years in several other countries (United Nations, 2011). Life expectancy is increasing so fast that half the babies born in 2007 will live to be at least 103, while half the Japanese babies born in the same year will reach the age of 107 (Boseley, 2009). It is certain that people are glad to live a longer life since longevity is the pursuit of most humans. However, longevity has also caused a lot of problems to society, such as financial burden, lack of resources and so on. This essay is to discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of the fact that people are living a longer life so that a clear picture of the situation is shown.

The advantages of longevity can be seen from both individuals and the society.

As for individuals, longevity has always been considered as a kind of treasure and fortune. And wisdom is usually linked with the elder. Death has always been regarded as something frightening and most people want to live a long life. Living longer means one can stay with his or her family longer and enjoy a happy later life. People spend most of their life working and taking care of their family. So it is simple common sense that people deserve a healthy and peaceful old age after the amount of paid work. Some people die without enjoying a pleasant twilight years, which is a great pity. On the other hand, that people live longer provides an opportunity for their children to return the care they have received from parents. As a saying goes, the tree may crave calm, but the wind will not drop and the off springs want to support but for the non-existent families. It is a pain and lifelong regret for many people. With parents living longer, children can have more time to stay with and show filial respect to them. So longevity helps to promote the harmonious relationship among family members.

As for society, longevity allows people to contribute more to the world with their talent and wisdom. So many prominent scientists and scholars and other elites died with regret that they could not accomplish their plan. For example, Zhu Shenghao, a talented Chinese translator of Shakespeare’s works, passed away at the age of 32 due to illness. If he could live longer, there might be more Chinese versions of Shakespeare and more people could appreciate the Chinese translation art. Another illustration is the early death of English poets such as Byron who died at 36, Shelley at 29 and Keats at 25. All of them are supremely gifted and great treasure to the academia but die so young. When their poems are read by people nowadays in modern time, their rich talent can still raise great admiration. What a pity it is for the world to witness the loss of so many extraordinary talents. Since people are enjoying a longer life now, scientists can discover and invent more, scholars can write more and artists can compose more. Therefore, people living longer can make more contributions to the world.

Moreover, business markets can also benefit from the reality that people live longer. Traditionally, it is believed that a person has three major periods of life: childhood, adulthood and old age. However, old age is now evolving into two segments, a third age (young old) and a fourth age (oldest old). Recognition of the older population as a major market for business is beginning, as evidenced by an increasing number of articles about the “silver market.” Because a great deal of wealth is held by the older population and the number of elders is increasing relative to other age groups, it makes sense for business to design products appealing to the older market, and to direct advertising to them. Consumption by the older population can stimulate the economy. The economic power of older adults also can act as a force to change the ageist stereotypes often perpetuated by advertising (Uhlenberg, 2013). In addition, since old people need to be taken care of, more nursing homes need to be built. This offers more jobs so that the unemployment can be reduced and social stability can be maintained.

Thus, it is beneficial to both individuals and the society with people living longer from the perspective presented above.

The Disadvantages of Longevity

The most obvious disadvantage of longevity people are facing now is the aging problem. The U.N. Population Division projects that people older than age 60 will increase from just less than 800 million in 2011 (11 percent of world population) to more than 2 billion in 2050 (22 percent). That is to say, by 2050, almost a quarter of the world population will be the aged. When walking in the street, one old person out of four will be seen. In a world with low fertility, low mortality, and restricted immigration, countries must deal with the reality of having 20 percent or 30 percent of their populations older than age 65 (Uhlenberg, 2013). The aging population causes a series of problems to the society.

First of all, old people have to be taken care of, which leave great burden to their family as well as the society. According to an article published in the journal Corporate Adviser, MGM Advantage calculates the current level of annual household expenditure where the main occupant is aged 75 and over at more than ?6,000. So if someone lived until they were 100, between their 75th and 100th birthday not including inflation, they would need to find around ?400,000 to live. This, combined with falling annuity rates, will lead to more pensioners falling below the poverty line. (Corporate Adviser 2011) Though that people live longer is good news, the fact that should not be neglected is that this has a huge financial burden on people. The great pressure to support old parents may lead to the cracks of relationship between children and parents. There are reports about old people who cannot afford to live in nursing homes and have no child to rely on. So it is the responsibility of the government to help the old. In developed countries, where acute care and institutional long-term-care services are widely available, the use of medical care services by adults rises with age, and per capita expenditures on healthcare are relatively high among older age groups. Accordingly, the rising proportion of older people places upward pressure on overall healthcare spending in the developed world (Kinsella, Beard and Suzman, 2013).

Secondly, longevity does not necessary mean health. The rate of getting illness increases with the growth of old age. In spite of the advances in medical technology, there are still many diseases that cannot be treated efficiently. For example, the prevalence of dementia increases dramatically with age, and the projected costs of caring for the growing numbers of people with dementia are daunting. The World Alzheimer Report 2012 (Alzheimer’s Disease International, 2012) estimates that the total worldwide cost of dementia exceeded US$600 billion in 2010, including informal care provided by family and others, social care provided by community care professionals, and direct costs of medical care. An Australian study has estimated that around 10 percent of the expected increase in healthcare costs anticipated over the next twenty years will be due to this condition alone (Vos, et al., 2007).

In addition, longer life expectancy and lower fertility rate may lead to lack of young working forces. The world with less young people will become less vigorous. And the increasing population is challenging the tolerance of the planet people are living on for most of the resources people are consuming are non-renewable. So it is urgent for human beings to do the best to protect the environment and save energy. Otherwise, longevity will become meaningless if one cannot live with contentment

Therefore, longer life expectancy of human beings creates burden to society and environment. However, the problems can be dealt with if people around the world work together.

Conclusion

Both the advantages and disadvantages of longevity have been discussed in detail above in this essay. Overall, the advantages of longer life span outweigh its disadvantages. It is obvious that though longer life expectancy puts burden on the society and environment, the problems caused can be tackled with the joint efforts made by people and it is urgent for human beings to do the best to save the environment and find out solution to the difficulties caused by the larger and larger population on the planet. On the other hand, the benefits both people and the world can get from the phenomenon of people living longer are irreplaceable and undeniable. It is the truth that longevity is a symbol of civilization and better life.

Children are often cherished in the United States. Parents all over the country eagerly wait for the day when they know what gender their child is, and what color to paint the baby’s room. Organizations provide social services to ensure a safe upbringing of American children. Each child is seen as a gift to families across this nation, so much that families commonly adopt children. Unfortunately our western societal views are not shared by other countries such as China; where thousands of girls are aborted, hidden, or abandoned. Although the United States allows the adoption of Chinese girls, the media rarely reports on Confucianism and lack of humanity resulting in the disregard of these children.

China has more than four thousand years of history and culture; a culture that typically favors boys rather than girls. Chinese culture emphasizes having a large family, but because of the rapid population growth, resulting in a ten year famine, restrictions of one child per family were implemented in 1979. Leaving an astounding number of disregarded girls. Due to this one-child policy, China has accepted international adoptions. According to the Washington Journal of Modern China, more than 63,000 Chinese orphans now have a permanent residence in the United States, but one lingering question remains ( qtd. in Gann 79). How can an entire country disregard a gender?

China’s culture has always maintained a Confucian structure of society. Confucianism can be defined as a preference for male authority, but also an emphasis on producing a large family. When implementing this ideology into a society, women should always hold a role less than that of a man. As a result, the pressure on women to produce a male heir in their families is emphasized in China. If no male heir is produced it is seen as a betrayal to the ancestors. According to Greenhalgh and Li and their (1995) findings in the villages of Shaanxi Province, more girls than boys are being given up for adoptions when the one-child policy was put into effect. These numbers are continuing to grow as well (qtd. in Jihong, Larsen, and Wyshak 23). This discrimination is a result of China being an agricultural society. Rural families often own farms that require hard labor in order to be successful. Because men are viewed as stronger workers when compared to women, a male child is typically preferred. Also the difference in wages between males and females in China are growing, with women normally making little over fifty percent of that of a male’s income (Gann 73).

In 1949 the Chinese government tried to promote the new social place of women; unfortunately this effort conflicts with a tradition lasting over twenty-two centuries. Discrimination of women are still prevalent, and even more so in rural areas. In 135 BC Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty implemented the Confucianism as an orthodox state ideology in China. It is probably safe to say that Confucianism is not leaving China for centuries to come (Gann 80).

It should be noted that China has a unique way of dealing with social security. Typically the female children marry and leave the household, whereas male children stay to take care of the parents in elderly years. For thousands of years the Chinese culture has practiced this tradition. Therefore, the parents are ensuring their wellbeing by having a son instead of a daughter. It is a driving motivation normally not discussed in the media (Gann 79).

Currently the population in China has reached an astounding 1.32 billion. In the 1970’s China provided a solution for population control, known as the one-child policy. This policy is enforced on the dominant Han ethnicity to have only one child. The rules on other populations in China vary depending on minority and the region. According to this policy, if the first child is a boy, then the family can have no more children. In some rural areas families are permitted to have two children. If the first child is a girl, then they can have a second child. This policy implies that boys are preferred, more so than girls. The parents must pay thousands of dollars in order to keep a second child that is a girl. If these families have another child that is a boy, the girl, which has been in the family for quite some time, is usually put up for adoption. Orphaned boys are handled a little differently. Although Confucianism teaches about the importance of maintaining a bloodline, boys are more likely to be adopted and raised in secret as an offspring (Gann 73-79).

The one-child policy has had one major back-lash. Today the population has 13 million more males than females. In the schools the girls are completely outnumbered by the boys. The ratios of gender in births are increasingly uneven; so much that there are currently 40 million girls that are “missing” from the overall population, either due to abortion, female infanticide, or unreported births. Therefore, it is predicted that in the next decade 40 million men are expected to not have a woman to marry. This issue is prevalent today in China, where cases of women being abducted and sold as wives, forced marriages are common, and prostitution is growing. In rural areas female infanticide is common. The numbers of these cases are expected to increase in future years (Weiguo 66).

The one-child policy has its pros and cons. In China it is praised for solving an economic crisis, because the population was exceeding and the country could not support so many children. The opposing argument is that it is supporting female infanticide. Also, the orphanages are overwhelmed with babies with no home. The Chinese welfare system does not have enough money to maintain these orphanages. For example, ‘the Wuhan Orphanage in southern China that noticed a great increase in the number of female orphans’ (qtd. in Gann 77).

It is prevalent that there is a great shift in humanity between the United States and China; humanity meaning the human species, human nature, and the importance of the experience of life. Today in American culture we are conflicted about abortion, where in China children can be born and discarded without a second thought. Although illegal, some Chinese soon-to-be parents will get an ultrasound to determine the gender of the child, and then abort it if it is a girl.

Perhaps it is a result of these issues that China opened its doors to international adoptions in 1992. Since then thousands of Chinese children, mostly girls, were taken in by American families. Where in one country these girls are viewed as useless and burdens, in another they are loved and accepted as family. In the United States these young girls can grow up getting an education, choosing a career path, choosing their own spouse, and finding an appreciative role in our society. If adopted into the United States, these children can thrive in a healthy environment (Jihong, Larsen, and Wyshak 21).

37.3 percent of parents seeking to adopt from China are childless. Whereas it is more common in the United States to wait a few years after marriage to conceive a child, in China societal pressures to have children begin at the beginning of marriage. Within a year if a child is not produced then couples often seek medical opinions about reproducing. If medical advice does not lead to conception, these Chinese couples will typically adopt a daughter, because waiting for a son to adopt could take years. Chinese couples that do adopt a son pay a higher price for a boy than that of a girl. In most cases these families adopt a daughter in hopes of producing a son in later years, because they could be fined for having two sons (Weiguo 69).

According to the China Center of Adoption Affairs (CCAA), there are restrictions and a procedure to follow when adopting from China (qtd. in Gann 79). The parents must be 30 years old or older in order to adopt. An application must be sent to an American adoption agency. It then takes 14 to 15 months for the parents to get a medical record, picture, and the name of the child. After another two months the agency will gather a group together to travel to China for two weeks. There they finally meet their children and finish up the process. The whole procedure takes about two years (Gann 80).

In the past decade more restrictions were implemented for adoptive parents. There are now restrictions on the applicant’s weight, no one considered obese can adopt, and also on unmarried applicants. As homosexual marriages are banned in the majority of the United States, the new restrictions are preventing homosexuals from adopting. People with mental disorders, including depression and anxiety, cannot adopt from China. Also, the adopting family must have a net worth of $80,000. Informal adoptions are more common. In rural areas in China the adoption process is typically informal; which accounts for eighty percent of overall adoptions in China (Gann 79).

As a result of China being the number one place to adopt from, a globalization has occurred between the United States and China. There is now an apparent closer link between these different countries possibly due to the international adoptions. These adopted children are learning Chinese as a second language, cooking Chinese food, and some families are even celebrating Chinese festivals in order to keep their children’s culture alive. One can only hope that this is a two-way street, meaning that China can in turn accept some of the western ideologies about humanity; although unlikely, due to China’s resistance to western influence and their beliefs to keep their tradition and heritage alive (Dowling and Brown 352).

There are also cultural conflicts with international adoption. Chinese people find it hard to understand why American families adopt children and raise them as their own offspring. In some Chinese cultures stepchildren are seen as burdens on families. There is such a great emphasis on Confucianism and the family blood line that the Chinese rarely adopt. The American reasons for adoption are mainly based on religious and humanitarian reasons, which make it even more difficult for the Chinese to understand.

Because of the expenses involved with Chinese adoption, Americans are beginning to reflect something once seen as a good deed, as negative, by generalizing the Chinese adoption as exporting babies to make a profit. The average cost to adopt from China is about $20,000 dollars (Weiguo 70). It is argued that the money is not to make a profit, but instead help the welfare system in China. Nevertheless, conflicts are emerging between the United States and China about exporting goods, and now babies.

Perhaps these cultural conflicts could be resolved if the American and Chinese media would take more interest in reporting on these children. By broadcasting this growing issue across the United States, it is possible that more families would open their hearts and homes to these innocent children who are currently being raised in an orphanage due to blatant discrimination. With the increasing issue of prostitution, female infanticide, forced marriages, and abduction in China, American adoptions are certainly a better option for these young girls. As Americans adopt Chinese children, in turn the Chinese could adopt our views on humanity. With the growing popularity of In Vitro in the United States, fewer couples will adopt, leaving many children in China in orphanages. With more media coverage, the ignorance on this topic could be resolved and more families could take interest in adopting from China. And as we take home a piece of their culture, we could leave China a piece of ours; that every human life is valuable.

Work Cited

Dowling, Monica, and Gill Brown. “Globalization And International Adoption From China.” Child & Family Social Work 14.3 (2009): 352-361. Consumer Health Complete – EBSCOhost. Web. 23 Nov. 2012.

Fang, Gann. “A Special US-China Relationship: American Adoptions Of Chinese Children.” Washington Journal Of Modern China 9.1 (2008): 73. Advanced Placement Source. Web. 23 Nov. 2012.

Liu, Jihong, Ulla Larsen, and Grace Wyshak. “Factors Affecting Adoption In China, 1950-87.” Population Studies 58.1 (2004): 21-36. Environment Complete. Web. 23 Nov. 2012.

Zhang, Weiguo. “Who Adopts Girls And Why? Domestic Adoption Of Female Children In Contemporary Rural China.” The China Journal 56 (2006): 63. JSTOR Arts & Sciences I. Web. 24 Nov. 2012.

Enzymes were discovered by a German chemist Eduard Buchner near the end of the 19th century. He had been trying to extract a fluid for medicinal use from yeast, however, the yeast extract kept going bad. He then decided to add sugar to the yeast, however, the yeast converted the sugar into alcohol, which is also known as fermentation. Buchner investigated into this and soon found out that living cells were not responsible for this fermentation and that it was caused by the fluid that was trying to be extracted from the yeast. The word enzyme was coined for the active ingredients in the juice that promoted fermentation. Although enzyme literally means “in yeast”, it is now however being used as the collective noun for several hundreds of compounds that have shown to have a catalytic action on specific chemical reactions.

Enzymes are biological or organic catalysts made up of protein. They catalyse (increase/decrease the rate of) chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed at the end of the reaction. It can therefore be used repeatedly and so is effective in small amounts. They essentially work by lowering the activation energy of the reactions and hence allowing the reaction to place at a quicker rate. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules are the start of the process are called substrates, and the converted molecules, the products.

Properties of enzymes:

Enzymes have the following properties:

Enzymes alter the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed at the end of the reaction.

Enzymes are very potent. Since enzymes are very specific, a small amount of an enzyme is capable of catalysing a huge chemical reaction.

Enzymes are affected by temperature. Enzymes are inactive at low temperatures. Increasing the temperature increases the activity of the enzymes. There is an optimum working temperature at which certain enzymes work best. This is normally between 37-42 degree centigrades. However, a high temperature, anything above 45 degree centigrades normally destroys the active sites of the enzymes and causes it to denature. This permanently damages the enzyme and they become functionless.

Enzymes are affected by pH. Certain enzymes work best in acidic conditions whereas certain enzymes function better in alkaline conditions. For example, pepsin works best in the stomach where the pH is below 7, however intestinal enzymes work better in coditions of pH of above 7.

Some enzymes may require a compound to be bound to them before they can catalyse chemical reactions. These compounds are called co-enzymes.

Enzymes can work in either directions. Metabolic reactions are reversible and the direction in which the reaction goes depends on the amounts of substrate and products present. The reaction will proceed from left to right until an equilibrium is reached between the substrates and products. Also, if there is a large amount of products, then the reverse reaction starts and hence causes the product to be split up until again equilibrium is established.

Lock and Key & Induced Fit Hypothesis:

Although enzymes have a large size, however, they only have a small region that is functional. This is known as the active site. Active sites can be described as depressions on the surface of the enzyme. Only a few of the amino acids of the enzyme molecule make up this active site; the remainder are used to maintain its overall three-dimensional shape. The active site is the site where the substrate binds onto the enzyme and only substrates with a particular molecular shape will have any chance to bind effectively with the particular enzyme. This is the reason why enzymes are specific in their actions as they can only bind to specific substrate molecules.

Another idea which arose from the lock and key hypothesis is the induced fit hypothesis that suggests that the enzyme alters its shape slightly to ensure that the enzyme molecules bind tightly with the substrate molecule. However, once the product or substrate leaves the active active site, the active sight realigns itself to its original form.

Now, having discussed enzymes generally, we shall move onto discussing the enzymes more specific to this experiment. The enzyme being used in this investigation is Neutrase. Neutrase is a bacterial protease which is produced from a bacterial strain called Bacillus Amyloliquefaciens. Protease is an enzyme which catayses the hydrolysis of proteins into polypeptides/amino acids. In humans, the digestion of protein chiefly starts in the stomach with Pepsin in the gastric juice where the proteins are converted into polypeptides. Protein digestion is represented in this experiment by the fact that when the proteins in the milk are digested, the solution turns from opaque cloudy white to a see-through solution.

In an enzyme controlled reaction such as that of protein digestion in milk, an increase in the concentration of enzyme will lead to an increased reaction rate. This is due to the fact that when there are more enzyme molecules present, there will be a greater chance of more of the enzyme molecules colliding with the substrate and hence increasing the frequency of the collisions. This increased frequency of collisions will help to form an enzyme-substrate complex more rapidly.

Aim:

The aim of this experiment is to see if there is a negative correlation between the enzyme concentration and the rate of digestion of the protein content in the milk. Increase in enzyme concentration leading to decrease in the rate of digestion of protein content.

Hypothesis:

H1 – There is a positive correlation between the enzyme concentration and the rate at which the protein content in the milk digests. (Increase in rate of reaction).

H0 – There is no correlation between the enzyme concentration and the rate at which the protein content in the milk digests. (No affect on rate of reaction).

Equipment:
Equipment
Justification For Use

Marvel Powdered Milk

The source of protein upon which the enzyme to work on.

Enzyme (Neutrase )

The enzyme which digests the protein content in the milk.

Sodium Phosphate Buffer (pH 6.4)

In order to ensure the pH of the solution remains constant for optimal working of the enzyme.

Test Tubes And Test Tube Rack

Test Tube: To hold the enzyme, buffer and milk powder solution.

Test Tube Rack: To hold the test tubes.

Measuring Cylinder

To measure out the volume of distilled water.

Measuring Scale

To measure out the mass of the milk powder.

Pipette And Pipette Filler

To measure out accurately the volume of the enzyme.

Beakers

To hold the water and the test tubes containing the enzyme, buffer and milk powder solution.

Stopclock

To time the duration it takes for the enzyme to completely digest the protein content in the milk.

Syringe

To add the solution of the enzyme, buffer and milk powder into the curvettes.

Colorimeter

To measure the light absorbancy values.

Preliminary Experiment:

A preliminary experiment was conducted initially in order to test whether the method intended for use was flawless or not. However, through the conduction of this experiment, a number of flaws were noticed and hence dealt with to produce a more flawless and sound experimental procedure.

In the preliminary experiment, it was decided that the temperature of the solution containing the enzyme would be kept constant by using a bunsen burner. However, fluctuation in temeperature were going to be evident and hence causing inaccuracies. Consequently, it was decided to use a thermostatically controlled water bath to keep the temperature constant.

Also, when using the colorimeter, I decided to place the solution inside the curvette and then place it onto the colorimeter and record the values over time until it reached 0. However, this would give inaccurate results based on the fact that when the solution was removed from the water bath and placed inside the curvette, the temperature would decrease over time and hence affect enzyme activity. As a result, it was decided that the solution be removed from the water bath and placed into the curvette at regular intervals. After every 20 seconds, a new curvette would be used with solution removed from the water bath and then placed onto the colorimeter to record the light absorbancy values.

Method:

Measure out 10.00 grams of milk powder using an electronic mass balance into a beaker. Then measure out 200 cm^3 of distilled water using a measuring cylinder. Add the water into the beaker containing the milk powder and use a spatula to stir the solution well.

Now, different concentrations of enzymes are to be prepared.

To make a 1% concentration solution of enzyme, add 1cm^3 of the Neutrase into a test tube using a pipette. Then add 99cm^3 of distilled water measured out using a measuring cylinder. Shake the test tube containing the solution (100cm^3) well.

To make a 2% concentration solution of enzyme, add 1cm^3 of the Neutrase into a test tube using a pipette. Then add 98cm^3 of distilled water measured out using a measuring cylinder. Shake the test tube containing the solution (100cm^3) well.

Use the same method as above to make 3%,4% and 5% solutions. Place each of the test tubes into the test tube rack.

Add Sodium Phosphate Buffer ( 6.4 pH ) to each test tube.

Place one of the test tubes containing the enzyme solution and any one of the milk solution test tubes into the water bath for 5 minutes.

After 5 minutes, immediately pour the enzyme solution into the test tube containing the milk solution.

Use a colorimiter to check the amount of light passing through the solution with time. Press ‘R’ to reset the colorimeter (use the red filter) as red light is transmitted the best and this will give accurate readings.

After every 10 seconds, place some solution from the test tube into the a curvette and the curvette onto the colorimeter and record the result.

Variables:

The sole independent variable in this experiment is the concentration of the Neutrase solution which ranges from (1-5)%.

Other variables which could affect the investigation have been tabulated as follows:

Variable

How may a change in this variable affect the data?

How will it be controlled?

Type of milk used.

Some milks will have more or less protein molecules present than others which alters the amount of substrate molecules being available to form enzyme-substrate complexes.

This will be controlled by ensuring that the same milk powder is used throughout the experiment.

pH of the solution.

Enzymes work better in solutions of different pH. The activity of the enzyme depends upon the pH of the solution; if optimal pH solution is used, the enzyme would work better than if non-optimum pH was used.

This will be controlled by ensuring that a pH buffer ( Sodium Phosphate – pH 6.4) is used. This will minimise any changes in the pH of the solution and ensure that the optimum pH is kept constant for efficient working of the enzyme.

Volume of Neutrase solution used.

A larger volume would of enzyme ( Neutrase ) soltuion would result in a greater amount of enzyme-substrate complexes and hence increasing the rate of the reaction.

Neutrase solution volume will be kept constant by precisely measuring the volume required using a pipette and pipette filler.

Temperature of the solution.

Temperature alters the rate of enzyme activity and a higher temperature would result in greater enzyme activity. However, anything normally above 45 degree centigrades would lead to denaturing of the enzyme.

Using a thermostatically controlled water bath will maintain a constant temperature. The temperature would be kept constant at the optimum working temperature for the enzyme.

Volume of milk used.

A larger volume of milk would result in a greater amount of enzyme-substrate complexes being formed as there is a greater number of protein present and thus increasing the rate of the reaction.

Milk volume will be kept constant by precisely measuring the volume required using a pipette and pipette filler.

Health & Safety Regulations:

Wearing a lab coat inside the laboratory.

Wearing safety goggles to protect the eyes from chemicals.

Wearing plastic gloves when handling the enzyme and milk solution and to prevent contamination.

Keeping the test tubes in a rack to prevent accidental breakage or spilling.

Bunsen burners will be ensured that they are kept on yellow flame when not in use.

Conclusion:

The results of the experiment prove that the H1 hypothesis is correct. There is a positive correlation between the enzyme (Neutrase) concentration and the rate at which the protein in the milk digests. In other words, increasing the concentration of the enzyme increases the rate of reaction.

The results show that an increase in the concentration of the enzyme leads to a descrease in the time taken for the solution to go clear. This is due to the fact that when the concentration of the enzyme is increased, there are more active-sites present on the enzymes onto which the substrate binds onto. This creates more and more enzyme-substrate complexes. The higher concentration of enzyme increases the kinetic energy of the molecules and increases the frequency of the collisions between the enzyme and substrate molecules. A lower concentration of enzymes means there would be fewer active sites and hence, a slower rate of reaction.

However, if we kept increasing the concentration of the enzyme, one would notice that the line would start to level off because all of the active sites on the enzymes would be occupied and hence, increasing the concentration would have no effect on the rate of the reaction.

Evaluation:

Observing the results, one can easily generate the conclusion that there is a positive correlation between the enzyme concentration and the digestion of the protein content. Even though, the set of results achieved are not fully accurate and hence, there are anomalies. However, improvements can be made to minimise inaccuracies and unreliability in the experiment.

One of the factors that could have affected the experiment could have been human reaction error in timing. Also, the starting of the stop-clock for each of the tubes could have been different and this could have resulted in unreliable results. To avoid this, however, an automatic stop-clock could be used.

Another factor that could have affected the experiment could have been the movement of the reacting mixture constant. The mixing between the substrate ( Protein in the milk ) and the Enzyme ( Neutrase ) could not have been same in each tube. This could have resulted in inaccuracies in the result as the molecules in the tubes with the better mixing would have greater kinetic energy and hence, the reaction rates would be quicker as more and more enzyme-substrates would be formed quicker. To avoid the extent of mixing in each tube from affecting the results, I will ensure that next time, there will be no stirring of the mixtures when solutions are added in any way so that this way, it will be constant ( no mixing ) for each tube.

In the past decade due to deadly conflict around the world, children were more and more sacrificed as child soldiers. For the children the world is now more violent and violated place. In the last decade, 2 million children were killed due to conflicts. More than 12 million children were made homeless, while 6 million children have been injured or disabled. It is approximate that another 20 million children have been displaced within the boarders of their own countries. At any given time, children under the age of 18 years who have been forced or encouraged to take up arms as child soldiers is generally in the range of 300,000. Each year 8,000 to 10,000 children become the victims of land mines. [1]

2. Child soldiers have featured prominently in international and internal conflict in recent years. In one of the most deadly conflicts, children feature most prominently in the terrorist campaign of Sri Lanka Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). They were fighting for an independence separate Tamil mono-ethnic state in north eastern Sri Lanka. They utilized both male and female fighters in guerrilla and terrorist attacks against military, political, economic, religious and cultural targets.

3. After the ethnic riots of “Black July” in 1983, there was a massive migration of civilian to India. The LTTE leadership decided to establish a training base in India for recruits less than 16 years of age from the civilian who fled to India. Initially the LTTE identified them (child soldiers) as “Tiger Cubs”. Then they received non-military training, most primary education and physical exercises. In 1984, LTTE changed the name of Tiger Cubs and formed new unit called “Baby Brigade “. It is nothing but the child soldier unit of LTTE fighting wing.

4. The child fighters were originally a part of the Baby Brigade but later LTTE gradually integrated them with other units to refill the heavy losses. Since April 1995, some 60 percent of LTTE cadres killed in combat were children. “Olivichu”, the LTTE monthly video release, supports those trends. A study by a United Kingdom based Sri Lankan researcher Dushy Ranatunge reveals that at least 60 percent of the dead LTTE fighters were under 18 years and are mostly girls and boys age in between 10 to 16. [2]

5. At the time of researching on this topic, the government of Sri Lanka totally sweep away the LTTE. But there are no of war effected children and child soldiers are in IDP camps and rehabilitation centres .

CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
PREVIEW

1. The aim of this presenting on rehabilitation of child soldiers to help integrate them in to society is to study the factors behind child soldiering, why they became as chilled combatant, the role of international community and the role of Government of Sri Lanka on this and how integrate them back to society.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

2. Most of the countries in the world face this problem due to internal conflicts. When it is studying there are so many reasons behind that. Due to non education and poor family back ground may cause child to joint with some terrorist organization as a chilled combatant. In Sri Lanka resent past LTTE has taken children by force for their terrorist activities.

3. In Sri Lanka though war is over there are number of chilled soldiers in IDP camps. Children make obedient and cheep soldiers capability of imposing terror on civilians and government forces. Child soldiers are forced to fight and are generally illiterate and from poor families. The children survive from combat are often physically injured and psychologically scared.

Some of the factors covered as follows.

a Who is the child soldier

b Reasons behind child to became as soldiers

c Child combatant is a biggest problem in the world

d It is observed that most of the Asian countries face this problem

e In Sri Lanka it is considerable numbers of child soldiers can be seen in the IDP camps

f UNO and NGOs role in this issue

g How to take them in to society as a normal children.

I will society take them in to society as a children.

J What are the steps that can be take to rehabilitate them.

K Sri Lanka government’s role on this issue.

THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

4. Due to the war children suffered physically and mentally. As a nation we should take them in to the society same as other children. So that we should establish good environment for them and Sri Lankan government should have a sound national plan for that

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

5. The methodology adopted in gathering data will be as follows:

Extracts from child psychology publications.

Extracts from newspapers and reports.

Extracts from books published on child soldiering.

Interviews and questionnaires.

Related web sites of the Internet.

Guidance and advice of experts on the subject.

CHAPTER3
THE CHILDHOOD
DEFINITION OF CHILD

1. According to the 1989, UN CRC, a child means every human being below the age of 18 years, unless under the law applicable in their case, the “age of maturity’ is attained earlier. The “”age of maturity” is a social, religious and cultural or legal device by which societies acknowledge the transition to adulthood and there is no necessary correlation between any of the age levels. [3]

2. The idea of the child as a person under 18 years of age is widely accepted in international circles, even if a different terminology such as ‘”youth” or “‘young people” may be a better ward to describe those in the crucial 15-18 age bracket whose physical, emotional and intellectual maturity is rapidly developing even as they continue to face certain legal constraints. Clearly, those under 18, no matter their individual capacities, are generally presumed not to appreciate fully the nature and consequences of their action.

CHILD HOOD, A POTENTIAL TARGET

3. Although the Convention defined as a child in general as anyone below the age of 18 years, most young combatants are between 15 and 18. A majority of these trained child soldiers were boys, but significant numbers of girls are also engaged.

4. Though child rights activists are campaigning at international, national and local level to rise the age to 18, there is no international organization or mechanism to regulate against guerrilla and terrorist organizations recruiting children to their organizations.

BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDREN

5. Their basic human needs of survival and growth to their full potential are largely, if not wholly, dependent for fulfilment, especially in their early years on the willingness and ability of adults to recognize and discharge their obligation to protect them.

THE CONVENTION ON RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

6. Today children around the world suffer abuses in many ways. Child soldiering is one such situation. Children were kidnapped or forcibly recruited to many militant organizations to serve as soldiers. They were ill-treated when they were with militant groups. Once they surrender or captured by government forces they were imprisoned in inhuman conditions. Sometimes they were put in cells with adults without considering their rights as children. The Convention on the Right of the Child put children’s rights on the world’s agenda. It is the most widely confirm treaty in the world. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1989, the Convention promises children around the world the right to life, liberty, education, and health care.

7. The Convention on the Rights of the child emphasized the importance of a happy childhood and it had been described the Rights of the Child very clearly and most comprehensively in its 54 articles guaranteeing for the first time social and economic as well civil and political rights adding new rights never before recognized. It is said that granting a Child the Right to information and freedom of expression would amount to allowing him/her as well, to decide on the life and organization of the family and society.

CHAPTER 4
CHILD SOLDIERS
DEFINITION OF CHILD SOLDIER

1. A child soldier is any person under 18 years of age who is a part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers and anyone accompanying such groups other than family members. [4]

REASONS FOR CHILD TO BECOME A CHILD SOLDIER

2. There is a very thin line that separates voluntary from forced recruitment. It is not possible to know exactly at what age a young person is capable of “volunteering” in the way we accept that of an adult. No one makes a decision in a vacuum and clearly a child can be susceptible to certain types of pressure from certain people and circumstances beyond their control.

3. Although forced recruitment of children is practiced in many countries (Burma, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Angola, Sri Lanka and Sudan), a majority of them are not so much forced.

4. Examining different contexts and taking into account the specific experiences of children will help us to draw a clearer picture of the child soldier in a given conflict. Forced recruitment of children happens because of shortages of adult soldiers, institutionalised discrimination against certain sectors of society, a perceived need to control the population.

5. There are many young people voluntarily join armed groups. In attempting to explain why children join armed groups. We can try to examine the followings: [5]

a. Trigger factors. These are immediate happening of events, situations or exact reasons that cause a child’s participation such as urgent or emergency individual needs or family problems and suggestions and pressure from peers and adults. Their social environment influences children’s subjective understanding of reality and these exert strong pressure on the children.

b. Circumstantial factors. These are the complex order of situations or influences existing, occurring in and resulting from the child’s significant interactions and relations providing context and history to their involvement and development. It could be a combination of any of the following: experience of neglect and abuse, poor parenting styles and weak family ties, negative experiences in school, etc.

c. Contributory factors. These are factors that aggravate the current situation of children and young people in their given localities. These are the social, political, cultural and economic realities in society today such as poverty, social injustice, limited or no access to basic services, militarization of daily life, and structural violence.

6. Children are vulnerable to military recruitment because of their emotional and physical immaturity. They are easily manipulated and can be drawn into violence that they are too young to resist or understand. Technological advances in weaponry and the proliferation of small arms have contributed to the increased use of child soldiers.

POVERTY AND FAMILY BACKGROUNG

7. “Poverty and lack of schooling are said to be among key causes that draw hundreds of young boys and girls to took up arms in Sri Lanka’s North East and many are likely to face starvation if they quit the guerrillas”. [6] If a significant number of child soldiers were indeed released this would augur well for the future.

8. Poverty is the main reason for joining the war. Due to domestic problems especially the financial difficulties, these children were prevented from schooling and were pushed by their own parents to join the LTTE organization. Mostly the children of high society like upper class and upper middle class or middle class are not recruited as child soldiers. Reason was that these families are well educated and guided well these prevailing conditions.

TAMIL SOCIO-CULTURAL IDENTITY

9. In 1983 riots Tamil as a group were humiliated, the youths took up arms to prevent complete eclipse of the group identity. Language was the vital element of the Tamil identity. The identity develops from childhood through successive psycho-social stages to culminate in youth. [7]

10. For younger girls, who experience the wide spread socio- cultural oppression against their sex, it is a means of escape and liberation. In many youngsters political repression, socio economic deprivation, frustration in life and fear of enemy has become prime motives if not compulsions for joining the militants. Another potential factor has been the oppressive Tamil-Hindu society where lower castes were suppressed by the so-called higher castes. For many from the lower castes joining the militants become a way out of this oppressive system.

VIOLENCE

11 Laws such as the prevention of Terrorist Act and the Emergency Regulation allow for detention for long periods with out judicial process and sometimes violent act against such detainees. For example Bindunuwewa massacre. The great impact of this kind of structural violence and oppression is on the younger generation. These conditions create a sense of fear and hopelessness

12. Recruitment to the LTTE has remained largely voluntarily earlier. But the majority recruited may be children. LTTE denied that they used child soldiers. Likewise child recruitment by the LTTE was to become institutionalised after 1990. Older men were no longer joining. [8] In 1987 the LTTE banned other Tamil militant groups and started using young boys and girls as fighters.

IMPACT OF CHILD SOLDIERING TOWARDS CHILDREN

13. War has be fallen a grave impact on a child development on attitudes, beliefs relationships with his countrymen and society, moral ethics and values and the mental framework for understanding society and understanding his own self and life itself. Children represent the future society in which these conflicts are waged but what will be the future and what can be expected from these nations where the horizon is masked by brutality and the youths of future generation are robbed of their golden childhood

DIRECT IMPACT

14. Death and injury.

a. Child soldiers are being used in more than thirty countries around the world. Children forced to take part in atrocities were often given drugs to overcome their fear or reluctance to fight. Because of their immaturity and lack of experience, child soldiers suffer higher casualties than their adult counterparts. Even after the conflict is over, they may be left physically disabled [9]

15. Human right abuse.

Sri Lanka has traditionally high level of education and training provided for children. But due to the past conflict many displaced children lose key identity document that is their birth certificate. Since birth certificate is an important document in Sri Lanka, displaced children are unable to gain full access to education. Not even that, they will not able to apply to all important national identity card which must be present at every check points and need for day to day work.

16. Displacement.

a. Child soldiering and displacement are so integrally related. It demonstrates that it is extremely difficult to separate the impact of conflicts on children from the impact of small arms. Measures to ameliorate one situation often improve the other.

b. Former child soldiers are vulnerable to displacement. They cannot simply return to their families and communities, and some families may reject them due to crimes committed and instead they become internally displaced person, refugee or seekers.

INDIRECT IMPACT

17. Psychological trauma.

a. Children appeared to be much more capable of retuning to normal after stress. But in the long term, when the armed conflicts continues, when no safe and secure not available for children, they may be put under enormous strain. Adults may not easily recognize the long-term responses of children to death, destruction and disruption, as children cannot verbally express their feeling and experiences. The way child react to trauma will depend on his/her age. The response also is influenced by the nature of the trauma. Some common traumatic experiences are separation anxiety, emotional disorders, sleep disturbances, unable to express and release their emotions verbally or otherwise, behaviour changes etc. [10]

Anti social or psychopathic personalities are characterized by a conspicuous lack of conscience and human sympathy, rejection of social norms, emotional coldness, poor relationship, meaninglessness, cruel, callous and aggressive behaviour and poor impulse control. Delinquents, aggressive and psychopathic personalities may do well in a military set up where their energies and excess aggression can be diverted to national ends and their confinements to the Army proves to be a protection for society.

d. Children complained of headaches, dizziness, fainting spells or chest pains with out a few days or months of joining the military movement. They were found to have repressed, separation anxiety for their parents and home or difficulty in adjusting to the rigorous training and militant life.

e. The traumatic loss of family members, the experiences of cruelty, atrocity or barbaric behaviour, rarely leave visible scars but the effects are profound. Children may withdrew from contract, some become obsessed with violence or live on feelings of guilt or fantasies of revenge and become preoccupied with their role in past events.

18. Insecurity.

a. Child soldiers are essentially displaced. Displacement for these children means insecurity and lack of access to choice, resources and opportunities. As child soldiers who cannot simply go home, it means risk of death, disability and serious psychological trauma.

b. The social, psychological, moral and emotional deprivation they suffer, the persistent fear of loosing or the actual loss of parents are as damaging to childhood as being deprived of food, water and health care. They may have no idea that there could be better future. So many child soldiers have grown into adulthood without having known their family for long periods.

19. Culture of violence.

a. Exposure of children during their formative years to insecurity, hopelessness, and violent deaths of loved ones as well as other cruel and aggressive acts and to the full paraphernalia of war with its instruments of destruction will permanently influence their development.

b. So the delinquency has been found to be a common complication of exposure to war conditions. It is also likely that repeated exposure to violence, a family life ruled by terror and frequent disruption and a society in a continuous state of disequilibrium, where acceptance and praise to given to act of violence and recognition to the instruments of war teaches the child quickly the ways of violence

20. Lost opportunities.

a. The presence of these widespread sophisticated weapons can have significant effect on future opportunities for children. The continued presence of these weapons in post conflict societies “not only undermines a country’s ability to sustain peace but also represents a major stumbling block to sustainable human development”. Children are severely affected by the lack of sustainable developments.

b. Spread of two-decade conflict has caused untold suffering to millions of children caught up in armed conflict, not only during the conflict but also for reduction there after. The presence, proliferation and misuse of small weapons and light weapons have a devastating impact on children in conflict and post conflict societies. Cheap, easy to use and widely available these weapons fuel many contemporary conflicts and prolong, spread and deeper the consequences of conflict

EFFECTS OF CHILD SOLDERING TOWARDS THE SOCIETY

21. The war has affected the functioning of the family unit in many ways. From the loss of one or both parents, separations particularly the children may it be Sinhalese or Tamil. Our Sri Lankan society is still based on the family. As such, the family tie is destroyed as a result of their child members being used in combat. Therefore, the society with dispersed families is destroyed to a greater extent.

22. The children from their young peer groups are separated by the war. This is what actually expected by the LTTE. Their parents are desolate and helpless and other family members are liable to ill treatment by the security forces. These children are being taught to obey only the LTTE leaders and to ignore the normal law of the country. After joining the organization they were motivated in such a manner that they were anxious to take revenge from the Sri Lankan forces and the Sinhalese people in the South. Most of them did not have any idea about so called independent Tamil state before they joined the organization. But after some times when they were captured only they had realized and understood the real Sinhala soldier and its hospitality and the importance of peace.

23. These children at the beginning, although they join the organization with willingness, face serious mental retardation because they lack the parental love and affection. There is no kind treatment or love from the LTTE organization even they fall sick. They are not treated well but are ill cared. Such treatment has affected the child’s mind very badly.

24. Before this LTTE came into being, family setup, the connection between the parents and their children was so much good and it has affected the society very favourably. This has rewarded the society with very decent children. As such small children being taken out of the families, whether forcibly or willingly, have directly affected the families as well a

CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS

1. Mainly the child soldiers are from the Tamil community, especially from the lower castes of oppressed Hindu Tamils. Initially Tamil youths joined the LTTE organization. However, in time the older youths escaped and migrated. Older men were no longer joining. Then the LTTE started using children and women as fighters recruiting them forcibly and willingly after motivated.

2. LTTE organization was one of the most dangerous front line in guerrilla organization in the world. They select children from the poor families, down trodden broken families, families of illiterate parents, and from the families of fallen heroes and families of poverty ridden and the children who are orphaned having lost their elders and relatives. LTTE was fully aware that they are violating child rights but continue to mislead telling that they come to them seeking recruitment. At the some time the LTTE organization terrorized the Tamil community and has laid down an unwritten law to the effect that every family must contribute a child of either sex to the organization. [11]

3. Children separated from their families become mentally disabled or permanently sick and deprived of earning, food shelter and of family ties and education. Some of them have become drug addicted, violent and criminals. They have become a burden to themselves and to the Tamil society, to the whole country and to the whole world. On the other hand, their old parents neglected and isolated too have become another burden to society along with them.

4. War is the main reason for such a situation. The prime duty of the government, NGOs and the UN is to stop as well as evade children joining the war. Highlighting the violation of children’s rights and as well as a proper and correct rehabilitation while safeguarding the children’s rights.

5. At rehabilitation camps in Sri Lanka more than 100 former Tamil Tiger child soldiers are undergoing a year long rehabilitation course. There are nearly 300 child soldiers are integrate them in to society. Although the camp is surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by the Army, the inmates say the atmosphere inside is more like hostel. Many of them says that the LTTE took them by force. [12]

CHAPTER 6
RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Education and awareness building are key elements in changing the reintegration of youth into post conflict societies and cultures of violence. Hence, the Government must provide effective programmes that provide peaceful alternatives to counter conflict, violence and crime and eliminate the effects of armed struggle on the psycho-social development of children and their communities.

2. As such the authorities must take action to create secure conditions within which children can be educated and interact socially. The government must spare sufficient amount of money for the development of schools, rebuilding of schools, public libraries, health care facilities, publication of books,and recreational areas as an incentive to develop community peace essential for the well being of children.

3. Government must bring forward an accepted economic plan viable and effective, giving war affected children an opportunity to rehabilitate, to have shelter, food and education by coordinating NGOs, agencies and other donor approaches under a rights based frame-work implimented in order to protect children in futuere conflict.

4. Special attention should be paid by the government to eliminate in future recruitment of children into armed forces and groups by achieving universal ratification and full implementation of the optional Protocol to the Convention on the rights of the child on the involvment of children in armed conflict without reservation and declaration of 18 as the minimum age for voluntary recruitments.

5. Also the Government should legalize the using of children under 18 years in armed conflict as a criminal offence, and must grant refugee status to children under 18 years.

6. Also provide primary health care and rehabilitative care of children with sound health conditions and specially the psychological care and facilitate the fullest possible social integration.

7. The Government should provide emergency relief to rehabilitate the agriculture livestock and fisheries and to re-employ or to employ them on other income generating enterprise to enhance local capacities to improve house hold security on a self-reliant and sustainable basis in the North and East.

8. Also the Government must take steps to start programmes dedicated to family unification for former child soldiers.

9. Prohibiting of the import of arms to groups that use child soldiers as well as eliminating economical assistance to the same should be started by the Government.

11. Provide special care and attention considering the impact of conflicts of children, being victims of the conflict, on girls in particular the specific abuses perpetrated against them, and must take actions immediately to protect the rights of children and the rights of women.

12. The government must facilitate all requirements to eliminate HIV/AIDS infection and other sexually transmitted diseases spread through rape and sexual violence and against girls with children born from rape.

13. Special attention must be taken by the Government to provide successful rehabilitation through social and medical support and counseling, as girls and boys fulfill different roles within the armed groups and also a gender analysis must be included essentially because the girls represent the reproductive force of a damaged community.

14. Government and civil organizations should prioritize protection of unaccompanied or separated girls, for example, organizing special accommodation and safeguards for such female children and others at particular risk of recruitment.

15. The Government should ensure universal birth registration to have everyone a Birth Certificate and in order to prevent recruitment under 18 by default.

16. The Government must ensure speedy registration procedures at Camps and Settlements.

18. Make effort to trace and reconcile former child soldiers with their families, using long-term institutional care only as a last resort.

19. The Government must take early action to restrict civilian possession of military assault-weapons and include restrictions on the age of the user with a minimum age required.

20. The Government should use the Media to give the real picture to the mass by exhibiting how and why these children join the war and by using the electronic media the State must systematically dismantle the structures of discrimination and violence against these young human beings and the Tamil minority, as well.

21 Evan after children leave the rehabilitation center and return to their families should follow the progress of their normal life. Should help them to catch up their missed schooling and should give them a vocational training with the support of NGOs.

CONCLUSION

1. The ideological experiment of motivating children as combatants has been a highly successful one. The LTTE has been able to enhance its performance in battle by developing child units, a sizable cadre of the Baby Brigade, were consisting of children in the age group of 7-15 in both sexes. Most of them were recruited not willingly, but being motivated yet not knowing anything of a Separate State. Their performances were high..

2. The United Nation Organization is the most powerful Organization, which can fund for rehabilitation program. It is only the UNO, which can take stern action against Terrorist organizations for employing children in war. However, Prabakaran has promised when they were fighting to Mr. Olara Otunu, which they will never employ children in war combats in future, they broke the promise in no time, but it seems that UNO has not taken proper action far against this incident. Fact is that, though these NGOs, about 82 in number, talk about the rights of the children does nothing about their rights. Their responsibility is to highlight internationally about the injustice done by the terrorist and avoid such happenings in future. The violations of children’s rights have to be enlightened and they must safeguard the children’s rights as well. A UN Special Envoy Maj Gen Patrick Camert had a visit to Sri Lanka to assess the situation of children affected by the conflict .He paid more attention on re-inte

Studies into the evolution of humans and essentially any organism in the world clearly prove that the concepts and tenets of Evolutionary Theory are much more complicated than the common, simple idea of “survival of the fittest”. The subject of homosexuality is no different in this distinction; even into modern society, human behavior has been in heated debate to uncover whether it is more a result of heredity or environmental factors. Homosexuality as a biological concept and the definition I will be using refers to same-sex sexual behavior between members of the same gender. Understanding Evolution, and natural selection as an extension of it, will help to clarify and comprehend how homosexuality fits into this framework of ideas. Modern evolutionary theory incorporates both Charles Darwin’s observation that there is heritable variability in traits and that variants best suited to an environment are more likely to be passes on (natural selection) as well as Gregor Mendel’s work on how that variation is inherited to further generations. Most importantly natural selection acts on phenotypes which are observable and often measurable expressions of a trait (Stinson, Bogin and O’Rourke 824). Phenotypes are not purely a result of genes; they also include (most importantly) the influence and interaction with the environment. When individuals have a phenotype that is advantageous in an environment, often this results in an adaptation where their genes are most likely to survive and they are able to reproduce to contribute alleles to the next generation (Stinson, Bogin and O’Rourke 7). Behaviors, as we are seeing with the increasingly developing field of Sociobiology, are often a result of both biological and social components. As clinical psychologist Frank Muscarella points out when “behaviors commonly exhibited by humans can be expected to have contributed to survival and reproduction in the evolutionary past” those genes that influence the behavior will spread (Muscarella, Fink and Grammer 394).

In regards to homosexuality, and male homosexuality specifically, this behavior fits well into this model because there is increasing evidence that there are both genetic and social aspects that predispose individuals to homosexual behavior. A common misconception about homosexual behavior is that it is both a rare occurrence and it is inherently deleterious because same-sex sexual acts do not result in offspring; yet the commonality of homosexual behavior in itself indicates that there is an evolutionary factor selecting for it. In reality homosexual behavior is and can be seen in countless species in the world. Biologist Bruce Bagemihl in his compilation of studies on animal homosexuality shows that “homosexual behavior occurs in more than 450 different kinds of animals worldwide, and is found in every major geographic region and every major animal group” (Bagemihl 12). Similarly biodiversity specialist R.C. Kirkpatrick in his research cataloged the geographical distribution of forms of homosexual behavior in a variety of human populations around the world (Kirkpatrick 387). So it is safe to presume that there are other factors that play into the adaptation of homosexual behavior, some may have more of a physical evolutionary basis, while others more related to social evolutionary mechanisms but many theories have become potential explanations of this seemingly paradox of evolution that occurs quite often within and between species.

The important distinction is that homosexuality, like many traits, isn’t attributed to one model or theory. Multiple theories attempt to help to explain how a behavior attributed to something as seemingly ironic as nonreproductive sex contributes to an adaptive advantage in human evolution. One of the first and oldest hypotheses revolves around the theory of kin selection where selection is made for increasing inclusive fitness by increasing the reproductive fitness of kin (since parents and siblings share fifty percent of their genetic material). Another similar theory revolves around the ideas of reciprocal altruism and an adaptive advantage of homosocial behavior. Lastly, a more recent theory proposes a more physical genetic basis revolving around sexual antagonism, the theory being that the same genes that promote homosocial behavior in males is beneficial to the reproductive potential of relatives.

II) Kin selection Theory

Kin selection theory operates on the assumption that there is some genetic basis for homosexuality and genes for it are maintained in a population by homosexuals increasing their inclusive fitness by contributing to the reproductive success of relatives, in theory “these kin would then have a better chance of reproducing and of carrying foreword genes common to both the homosexual and his kin” (McKnight 129). Unfortunately I believe lack of data has led to this hypothesis being prematurely discredited by many researchers. On the other hand inconsistencies and the lack of data as I’ve seen is more due to the types on environments the studies are being done in. A study on the role of homosexuality in males using data from London residents found that “there were no significant differences between heterosexual and homosexual men in general familial affinity, generous feelings (willingness to provide financial and emotional resources), and benevolent tendencies” (Rahman and Hull 462). However modern western and industrial societies are vastly different than the historical environments where much of human evolution has taken place. Taking into account the length of time we can track homosexual behavior has persisted, it’s most likely that this adaptation is a result of a specific type of environment and cultures that are more representative of ancestral environments will likely give us a better case study. A great case study by evolutionary psychologists Paul Vasey and Doug VanderLaan also tested this theory Samoan Pacific Islanders; within Samoan culture there is a gender category of men called fa’afafine that tend to be exclusively attracted to other adult men, an excellent parallel to exclusive homosexual behavior (Association for Psychological Science). They found that “the fa’afafine are much more altruistically inclined toward their nieces and nephews than either Samoan women or heterosexual men” (Association for Psychological Science). On the surface it doesn’t seem like kin selection alone is enough to offset the costs of forgoing direct reproduction, yet more and more data is becoming evident that a combination of biological and social mechanisms may contribute to offset these costs. Again specialist Kirkpatrick helps us understand the forces that may be at work; kin selection operates on three basic assumptions “(1) that homosexual behavior reduces individual reproductive success, (2) that lineages with homosexuals have greater reproductive success than lineages without, and (3) that homosexual behavior is typically seen in individuals of low reproductive potential” (Kirkpatrick 391). The third observation that this behavior is seen in individuals with low reproductive potential is an important aspect of our next theory.

III) Reciprocal Altruism and Homosocial Behavior

Altruistic behavior is essentially any behavior of an individual that benefits another unrelated individual at a cost to its own reproductive fitness. As an extension of this, reciprocal altruism assumes that this cost is offset by the likelihood of the return benefit (Trivers 35). Applied with research on homosexual behavior there is strong evidence that this type of behavior is an evolutionary benefit for social relationships and is closely linked with survival. This theory has become known as the “Alliance Theory” and supposes that same-sex “sexual behavior may have reinforced same-sex alliances, which contributed directly to survival and indirectly to reproduction” (Muscarella, Cevallos and Siler-Knogl 771). An important and vital aspect of this theory is to recognize that homosexual behavior does not discount the occurrence of heterosexual behavior. In fact as Muscarella points out individuals in many species including humans both heteroerotic and homoerotic behavior have been important social aspects for most of our evolutionary history (Muscarella, The Evolution of Homoerotic Behavior in Humans 53). Same-sex sexual behavior in humans likely contributed to survival by reinforcing social alliances; by forming social ties, overall survival of members would be directly increased as well as lower status individuals increasing their reproductive fitness by gaining access to mates through a higher ranked member. Average reproductive success increases by adapting to include a moderate level of homosexual behavior (Kirkpatrick 389). This type of relationship can be seen in both chimpanzees and gorillas where lower status males that form same-sex alliances with higher status males both increase their survival potential and in many cases increase reproductive potential due to the higher status male allowing reproduction with female members ( (Muscarella, The Evolution of Homoerotic Behavior in Humans 61); (Kirkpatrick 397)). It’s likely that genes predisposing behaviors for altruistic behavior, which are a clear adaptive advantage especially in complex social species, are at least to a certain extent the same genes that influence homosexual behavior.

IV) Antagonistic Pleiotropy

Genetics in particular are a complicated study because in many cases genes have multiple effects, these can be based on stages of life and even have separate effects regarding different sexes of the same species. Regarding antagonistic pleiotropy, being the concept that a beneficial effect to one group can have detrimental effects in another, there are two situations that revolve around the same concept. In the first theory it assumes that there is some reproductive advantage to having ‘homosexual alleles’ in heterosexual or bisexual men, while at some point this becomes a disadvantage as reproductive potential passes the peak level. Likely this advantage relates to “an immediate reproductive advantage by directly enhancing sex drive or some other aspect of sexual performance” (McKnight 76). This creates a great environment for case studies and twin studies in particular are excellent to examine whether this is a plausible explanation. In a twin study carried out on a large number of participants “heterosexuals with a non-heterosexual twin tended to have more opposite-sex partners than do heterosexual twin pairs” indicating that genes responsible for homosexual predispositions likely have a reproductive benefit in heterosexuals (Zietsch, Morley and Shekar 424). Similarly, the next situation proposes that the same genes responsible for homosexual behavior in men are also responsible for higher fecundity in female relatives. Using pedigree demographics comparing both the maternal and paternal line of 98 homosexual and 100 heterosexual men and their relatives, evolutionary psychologist Andrea Camperio-Ciani found that “female maternal relatives of homosexuals have higher fecundity than female maternal relatives of heterosexuals and that this difference is not found in female paternal relatives” (Ciani, Francesca and Capiluppi, Evidence for Maternally Inherited Factors Favouring Male Homosexuality and Promoting Female Fecundity 2217). This along with a second study that found this trend in even first time mothers supports the theory of homosexuality as antagonistic selection where the same genes selected for higher fecundity in females promote homosexual behavior in males (Iemmola and Camperio-Ciani 393).

V) Conclusions

It’s obvious that the evolution of male homosexuality as an adaptation has many facets, understandably it’s just as complicated as any human social behavior, but we are gaining ground on understanding the genetic and social implications of behavior and how evolution has shaped these in humans. Overall however it’s becoming more a more evident that “the survival of a human predisposition for homosexuality can be explained by sexual orientation being a trait that is influenced by a number of pleitropic genes” (Miller 45). For this reason a singular theory is highly unlikely to be sufficient to explain something as complex as homosexuality; multiple theories then likely contribute to the overall model. A gene for altruism, and as an extension homosexuality, likely plays a very important role in Kin selection theory; and it is also probable that sexual antagonism helps offset the cost of non reproductive behavior. No one theory will be sufficient, but with the combined perspectives and research of genetics, sociobiology, psychology and other disciplines the adaptive benefit of this behavior will become more understandable.

In Nancy Chodorows Family Structure, and Feminine Personality it is argued that care, development and socialization of children and females is largely rested upon women, and therefore provides the basis on gender personality development within males and females; but from the perspective of Margret Mead and her book “Sex and Temperament” this fails to account for separating the European views of male dominance, and also the role of the male in early development of the children, and the socialization of females. In the conclusion of Mead’s book she entered the idea that children school yard teasing, and their taught early gender roles were partially to blame for boys to perpetuate male dominated roles, and even the young girls themselves were to blame for furthering this ideology. Chodorow continues on mentioning mother/daughter relationships, and of double identification, but fails to account for “malleability” as well. In these mother/daughter relationships Chodorow continues to link this relationship as paramount to the gender socialization of the sexes. It is my belief that Mead would be superior in ultimately and authoritatively speaking on the basics of gender development in the sexes, due to her studies of different cultures. With Chodorow she continually speaks from the perspective of her native western “nuclear” socialite development, and only academically mentions other cultures which so happen to be possibly more developed towards the ways of the western world.

The ability of being able to draft from a larger pool of culture that Margret Mead did made it possible to draw conclusions, form a basis and gave the ability leave out the Western world perspective allows the reader to conclude to similar opinions as Mead had. When Chodorow speak in large part of the Western, or nuclear families, she was able to draw the reader to make conclusions out of familiarity or even to have close access to ask the opposite sex questions to meet the similar opinions. The problem with Chodorow’s formatting of her short article and conclusions rested far too great of weight on the mother perpetuating of the male dominated society, and that the absent father added to further influence on the development of young boys and girls. Mead was able to present to the reader that in three different and distinct cultures that gender identity was not based on Freudian sexual needs but social conditioning. Chodorow even suggests that the mother/daughter relationship promotes the mother’s own challenges within her own social development was transgressed onto the daughter, forming the daughter’s basis of womanly gendered behaviors known in the western world was feminine behaviors. This was contrasted by Mead when she wrote about the Mundugumor, in which children of either sex were considered a hassle and needed to survive by their own means, therefore both male and female were only differentiated based on physiologic differences, and both sexes displayed “Masculine” and “Feminine” attributes. Mead presented terms such as social conditioning in which the society provided the bonds, or lack of, for gender identity. Chodorow’s accounts were formed of the western perspective, and therefore drew from a shallow pool of cultural intelligence. Chodorow left the reader to believe that male dominance was something inherent and passed from generation to generation, and that naturally passed on due to the dynamics of the heterosexual relationship of men and woman the development of young children. Mead was able to counter this believe in the 1935’s when she talked about the Tchambuli peoples, in where the women were dominant, and the providers of the family; much like the opposite of the western world’s common beliefs.

With Chodorow leaving the inference that gender identity were based on the Freudian model of sexual development, continued because it is also passed generation to generation based on the mother’s upbringing discredits that there is malleability in society. The western perspective on gender identities, and roles had to of evolved from somewhere. With Mead’s views of the different and primitive societies, we the readers are able to draw conclusions that societies are based on their surroundings and passed down. Cultural borders or other borders allow differences to the Western perspective of male dominance. Mead was able to smash the ideals, that women, because of physiological differences with man created masculine/feminine roles. But in fact made the roles subjective in context to what the rest of that society views are masculine/feminine roles. Chodorow alleges that because women have such hard and limited lives of child rearing, lack of career choices, and dominated by men mothers pass this down to their daughters perpetuating the male dominance.

With male dominance Chodorow had to contort her theory of male being dominant and women perpetuating this practice by conveniently including the absent father. The absent father image was what Chodorow presented; child males must transition from the role of son-mother connection and more towards their remote father and take on a positional role. I believe from after reading the context of Mead’s book and how its present’s different cultures proves Chodorow’s claims as false. If the absent father is absent, then how can his role be influenced onto the child whose father is in fact, absent. In this case, this bolster’s Chodorow’s initial claim that mother’s determine the gender roles of both sons and daughters. But according to Mead and the Mundugumor people, children were seen as a liability to the men, and therefore already sent in motion the social conditioning that followed. The Mundugumor men viewed the children as liabilities, could potential beat their wives, and their society in response forced the framing an anti-children society. So in this one culture Chodorow’s claim is disproven because Mead directly illustrated men do have an active role, and even went on further explaining this point with just this one Papua New Guinea tribe.

Mead in her conclusion of “Sex and Temperament” noted that in the western world, child gender development was continued in the school yard. Chodorow’s view was more limited in that she was attempting to bolster her view that women gender identities developed as based on the mother/daughter relationship. Chodorow did acknowledge that some external events could influence gender role/identities development. Mead noted very powerful school yard bullying in two examples of feminine behavior being “taught” or “reinforced” on females in particular. One example was the usages of the word “tomboy”. Mead went on to note that the term formerly encompassed “acting like a boy, dress like a boy and things like that.” “Nowadays all girls have to do is act like boys quite quietly.”

At the core of Chodorow’s argue of gender development is that the mother/daughter relationship forges the ideals of femininity. This is also entirely of the Western gender perspective. But Chodorow states that the formation of female gender identity is through the socialization of her mother, in which is socialized in groups of women, and therefore has no need to reject this perspective unlike the males. With girls and women there is not fanaticising of roles, but direct identity and therefore easily transitions these “feminine” identities. Chodorow leaves the reader to infer that there could be biological reasons for gender identities, with the theory of the mother/daughter. This maybe the way how gender identity is perpetuating in the western world, but in terms of evolutionary, it isn’t the methods these are roles based. Mead concluded with her studies that the social conditioning defined the roles of male and females, she also further concluded that what is masculine and feminine is relative and not based to sexual identity. Mead with her “cross cultural research” noted three different societies, one where men has the traditional to the western world feminine attributes (Tchambuli), another culture were the women were as aggressive as the western world men (Mundugumor), and a third culture were men and women were exact complete equals (Arapesh). With these findings Mead was able to conclude that the individual society dictated the society structure and the gender roles, and what was masculine or feminine. The reader could also infer that both the genders were responsible for advancing the sociality gender identities onto the youth further progressing their gender models.

Gender identities have been researched by both Margret Mead, and Nancy Chodorow, and both have presented excellent ideas to the sociology of genders. Margret Mead was able to present views from three cultures unlike our own. Chodorow mainly presented on a culture like ours, with references to other modern developed cultures. Chodorow was able to speak extensively for the female perspective of how feminine behaviors are passed from mother to daughter, and gave some examples on the male gender development. Mead was able to present that genders were malleable, and therefore changed based on what that culture demanded the roles of males and females be. Mead illustrated that women were not born feminine, and men not masculine. But that those qualities had to be taught onto the different sexes and outside of physical differences that man and women were essentially the same. Chodorow illustrated that gender behaviors were forged based on the relationships of the children to the parents, and if the children could assimilate based of their sexual identity. But Chodorow failed to present how these roles were started and only talked about how that are perpetuated. Chodorow also failed to give some explanation as to how these role behaviors either evolved. This is why I still believe that Mead’s writings are a little more comprehensive on the discussion of the roles of genders, and the relativity of masculine/feminine behaviors.

In the article “Patriarchy, the System”, Allan Johnson defines patriarchy, and in doing so addresses the common misconceptions and stereotypes that people inaccurately identify with the term. He argues that people tend to generalize and attach the term patriarchy with men, and therefore come to the conclusion that all men are oppressive people. [1] Johnson recognizes a pattern in which women feel free to blame men for oppressing them and therefore men take it personally and become defensive. He argues that women will blame men for patriarchy “simply because they’re men.” [2] Johnson also considers the possibility that perhaps people are simply confused, that they cannot distinguish the difference between patriarchy as a system and the individual. He argues that people have to recognize this, and examine larger contexts, in order to solve social problems. Johnson suggests that race, gender and class oppression are not actually oppression, but rather “the sum of individual failings”. [3] Johnson argues that in order to solve social problems, these misconceptions must be cleared up. “If we’re ever going to work toward real change, it’s a confusion we’ll have to clear up.” [4] Johnson effectively identifies common misconceptions about patriarchy, and convincingly argues that this ignorance and individualist perspective is contributing to problems within society.

Allan Johnson goes on to argue that patriarchy is organized around relationships and shared understandings, and he argues that this can limit you to some degree. [5] Johnson provides an interesting perspective on how we participate in our social lives. He makes a very good point when he suggests that patriarchy can exist without men being portrayed as the villains. People tend to follow along with what society deems is the norm. This is significant; as it explains why individuals make the decisions that they do, in a larger social context. Johnson further analyzes what patriarchy really means, and explains that it is simply part of our culture, and the symbols and ideas within it. He argues that “the make up of patriarchal culture” is important to understand because it “affects the structure of social life.” [6] He discusses the possibility that culture enforces gender roles and power positions, therefore shaping and influencing our values.

Allan Johnson goes on to say that everyone contributes to patriarchy, the system, whether they’re aware of it or not. We are all involved in patriarchy, but it does not necessarily mean that women are the victims, and men are the oppressors. He explains that who we think we are is closely related to who others think we should be and where we fit in social systems. He sums up his ideas by stating that all men and women are involved in patriarchy because we occupy “social positions.” [7] This further proves his point, that patriarchy cannot be constrained to individuals themselves, as patriarchy is beyond the individual experience.

This article studies the concept of patriarchy as a framework. It provides a sociological perspective on social inequalities and attempts to explain why they exist. Johnson convincingly argues that people don’t truly understand the origins of patriarchy. He has taken the term patriarchy and uses a sociological approach to uncover what it really is, a social construction or framework. He defines patriarchy in broader social terms and effectively proves that there may be oppressive individuals in society but patriarchy is not the result of all men being oppressive people, it is the result of individuals collectively possessing power. The sociological approach that Johnson uses helps to examine and analyze society as a whole, a structure in which everyone participates in and contributes to. This approach can help to explain why individuals act out certain behaviors in their own social lives. Perhaps people behave in such patriarchal ways because “the system” has influenced us in such ways. Maybe gender oppression has nothing to do with men being patriarchal, but more to do with how our society has been constructed and how our culture and our ideas about men and women have been shaped within it. Johnson helps us to use our sociological imagination to better understand the problems society currently faces.

To conclude, Allan Johnson’s article “Patriarchy, the System” can help us to analyze society in broader social terms in order to understand systems like patriarchy and our participation within these larger systems. Johnson’s article helps us to use a sociological perspective to better understand the individual and why things like gender oppression occur. This article is useful, as Johnson’s argument could be applied to other social contexts as well. This article allows us to further our knowledge of social constructions and how we participate in them, and therefore how we can change them to improve equality and eliminate the ideas present in our culture that limit us.

In Rosemarie Putnam Tong’s book, Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction, she describes the perspective of radical feminism. By splitting radical feminism into two different parts, the radical-libertarian feminists and the radical-cultural feminists, Tong shows how two parties that have the same basic theory and goal can have significant differences.

In the beginning of the chapter, Tong points out that “a feminist must insist the sex/gender system is the fundamental cause of women’s oppression” (Tong, p. 46). This differs from the liberal view of feminism because the radical feminists want an entirely new system opposed to working with the system for change.

Tong illustrates two very different methods for achieving a solution to women’s oppression, the radical-libertarian and the radical-cultural feminists. The radical-libertarian feminists oppose the concept of femininity and all things including reproductive, mothering and sexual roles. They believed in an androgynous society which combines both masculine and feminine characteristics exemplified by society. “This expressed radical feminists’ original desire to transcend the limits of the sex/gender system by daring women to be masculine as well as feminine” (Tong, p. 47). The radical-cultural feminists differs from radical-libertarian because it rejects masculinity and encourages women to be more like women and emphasizes the values and virtues associated with women (Tong, p. 47).

Both methods have conflicting ideas about sex, reproduction, and mothering. The radical-libertarians believe in all forms of sexual expression and freedom as long as pleasure is achieved for both parties. Any form of sexual restriction is looked at as cruel (Tong, p. 62). Pornography is looked at as a way to control sexuality (p. 68). On the other hand, the radical-cultural feminists see male sexuality as flawed (Tong, p.62).

When looking at reproduction and mothering, radical-libertarian feminists look at reproduction as a weakness. They are also against biological motherhood and prefer reproduction to be done artificially. Radical-cultural feminists see reproduction as a woman’s source of power, hence men always trying to control it. The best choice is for women to be mothers on their own terms (Tong, p. 80-81).

Planned Parenthood founder, Margaret Sanger was one of the cornerstone representatives of radical feminist movement of the twentieth century. In her book, Woman and the New Race, Sanger discusses birth control and women’s rights to her own body. As she states clearly in the beginning of the section, “no woman can call herself free who does not own and control her body. No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother” (Sanger, 138). Sanger compares both man and woman and the effects of pregnancy on both of them. Though men do suffer from the consequences of the situation, Sanger feels women suffer much more. The woman is the one who has to face the physical difficulty of bearing and rearing the unwanted children” (Sanger, p. 139).

Like many liberal feminists, Sanger touches on the fact that a change needs to be made. Unlike other feminists though, Sanger took action. Regardless of what is right, the fact is that women will never gain freedom until women take it for themselves. Women should not accept but challenge as pointed out by Sanger. Instead of looking into the past like most of society would, look at what should be. Before it is a man’s problem, it is a women and she should therefore be able to decide for herself (Sanger, p. 139).

“Birth control is woman’s problem. The quicker she accepts it as hers alone, the quicker will society respect motherhood” (Sanger, p. 139). Sanger brings up an important fact about motherhood. No one can enjoy something they never really wanted in the first place. By giving women the right to choose, society is making it more likely for woman to be satisfied and enjoy motherhood. By just giving woman the choice is a satisfying enough step for Sanger. This relates to radical feminism in that as Tong stated earlier, Sanger wanted a completely new system of women’s right to her own body rather than just fixing what society saw as acceptable (Sanger, p.139).

Kate Millett’s Theory of Sexual Politics relates to radical feminism by showing how thoroughly culture and society are dominated by men. The central thesis to this theory of sexual politics is that when one group rules another, the relationship between the two is political. When this is carried out over a long period of time it develops into a belief. She defined sex as a status category that contained political implications. Such areas in society like the military, industry, technology, universities, science, political office, finance, and police force are all powered by males (Millett, p. 219). Politics equals power and according to Millet, males dominate female and elder males dominate younger (Millett, p. 220).

Millet also touches point on democracies, aristocracy, and patriarchy. In a democracy, females have not held office except in small areas. This differs from an aristocracy in that women are permitted to hold power and the elder male rule is not present either. In a patriarchy, men hold power over women, children, and most areas of society (Millett, p. 220).

Millett’s beliefs of sexual politics can be related to Tong’s original theory of radical feminism. Millet wished to destroy the sex/gender system and create a new society where men and women are equal throughout society. Millett also believed in the idea of androgyny and that it was only valid if feminine and masculine qualities are worthy enough separately (Tong, p. 51). This androgynous person must combine the balance of the best masculine and feminine characteristics (Tong, p.53).

Tong ends chapter two with a critique of radical feminism. This theory of women is shown to be fascinated by roles and stereotypes that ignore the flaws of women. It is also described as being a historical by social feminists. Radical Feminism is the root to women’s oppression. Women realize their strength and power and want society to acknowledge that. Women are given few choices in a male dominated society. Sanger and Millett focus on the lack of choices when dealing with birth control and political power. Both want a change and an entirely new system.

This essay will explore the concept of the family, and how it has changed over time. The family is an enduring institution over time and within different cultural settings such as nomadic, tribal, agrarian, industrial and post- industrial. The history of man is essentially linked to that of the family; for instance, the most powerful narrative of the western world is arguably the bible, and it gives the defining genealogy of mankind. A central theme of the bible is family history which links the main players from Adam and Eve through to Jesus himself, for instance; who doesn’t know Jesus was from the line of David? It is, amongst other things, an extensive documentation of family.

It is said that in pre-industrial Britain, the family had different a different social agenda and a different focus than that of the family in the industrial revolution that followed. Before industrialisation Britain was an agricultural country with most of its population working on the land. It is widely believed that the extended family was prevalent in these times. Social historian Philippe Aries (1962) suggested that children of this time were regarded as ‘little adults’ who took part in the work place and were thought of as an economic asset. He argued that as their death rate was so high, there were difficulties in investing emotionally in children. ‘In medieval society the idea of childhood did not exist’; www.google.com/www.ehs.org.uk/society/pdfs/Hendrick%2015a.pdf

On the other hand, Peter Laslett (1972-77), studied pre industrial family structures and suggested that neither kinship, nor the classic extended families were typical family structures in pre industrial Britain or America, he suggested the figures showed these families made up less than 10% of the family population in. After extensive research on family sizes in Britain he reversed the argument that the nuclear family came about in reaction to industrialisation, stating that the nuclear family was to be found in pre industrial Britain, and that there was evidence of the same in much of Europe, the nuclear family had economic, political and social consequences that prepared Britain and Europe for early industrialisation. He called the nuclear family of this time ‘the western family’. His studies also led him to conclude that the classic extended family was found more widely in Eastern Europe and in countries such as Russia and Japan.

Anderson (1980) argued that there was a greater variety of family structure than Laslett implied in his research, implying pre industrial Europe was characterised by family diversity. Anderson used data from the 1851 census of Preston and concluded that 23% of the households of the working classes contained kin beyond that of the nuclear family, a much larger figure than that of Laslett’s findings. Preston was largely reliant on the cotton trade in these times, and he concluded that in these times of hardship, resulting from spells of high unemployment, low wages, high death rates and overcrowded housing, large kinship networks would be beneficial to all parties. For example, the parents of spouses would often live in the same household, providing them with child care whilst they were out at work. In turn the grandparents were cared for. Anderson’s studies led him to conclude that the working class family of the mid nineteenth century acted as a mutual aid organisation. Anderson argued that industrialisation increased rather than decreased extensions of working class nuclear families.

In1949 functionalist George Murdock published his studies on the institution of the family, looking at a wide range of societies (250) from large scale industrial, to small hunter gatherer societies. He concluded that a form of the family existed in every society. Murdock defined the family (1949) “It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of sexually cohabiting adults.”; Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition, pg 460. Murdock defined the family as living together, pooling its resources, working together, and producing offspring. He also thought of the family as functioning with at least two of its adult members conducting a sexual relationship, depending on the norms of its society. For example in Muslim countries it is allowed for the male to have up to four wives. Murdock defined the family as being ‘a universal social institution.’

Functionalist views are often referred to as conservative thinking, preserving or maintaining the status quo. Arguments opposing functionalist theories emerge from Marxist and feminist ideology, as often in their fundamental nature, they will challenge or change existing perceived oppression and exploitation, with feminists exposing, or trying to change oppression of women, and in Marxist ideology, exposing and theorizing on the exploitation and oppression of the working classes.

(1884) Engles studied the evolution of the family with a Marxist outlook. Engles argued that the monogamous nuclear family developed as the state passed laws to protect private property, and to enforce monogamous marriage. The nuclear monogamous family solved the problem of the inheritance of property, and gave men certainty as to the legitimacy of their heirs. Engels stated that the monogamous family asserted male supremacy; “the express purpose being to produce children of undisputed paternity, such paternity is demanded because these children are later to come into their fathers property” Engles (1972) first published (1884), Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg464.

Marxist feminists see women as being unequal in society and in the family; they assert the inequality of patriarchal systems in society such as the family. This group of feminist psychologists see the problems facing women in society as being capitalist, but unlike Marxists, who concentrate on capitalism and its effects on the family, the Marxist feminist would focus on its effects on women. Speaking of housewives Benston commented (1972) “The amount of unpaid labour performed by women is very large and profitable to those who own the means of production” pg466. She would assert that the male member of the family pays for the running of a future work force (his children) and the financial care of his wife, and as a result, he is trapped in the cogs of capitalism.

Talcot Parsons (1959-65b) was an influential Functionalist sociologist who asserted that the American family had, by this point in the evolution of the American society, been reduced to two main functions; the stabilisation of children, and the stabilisation of the adult personalities. Parsons identified the typical family in modern industrial society as the isolated nuclear family, and argued; as the society evolves and becomes engaged in “processes of structural differentiation,” the functions of the family are diminished. Parsons thought that as institutions develop within society, there would be a ‘transfer of a variety of functions from the nuclear family to other structures of society,’ Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg47. The Education system, Health and Welfare systems were all seen as examples of this transference of functions. He argued that the isolated nuclear family helps to maintain and perpetuate the wider society. He continued that ascribed status that is given to its members within the family, directly contrasts with status that has to be achieved in society at large. It is because it is isolated it can manage this discrepancy; if it was not, extended tensions could arise. An example of this is the position Parsons gives to the male within the family, head of the family, which may contradict with a lower economic status outside the family, but it is managed within the isolated nuclear family. In an extended family, another male in the household who was on more pay than the spouse, would reduce that male’s status within his family. The family had become structurally isolated and family relationships were more of a matter of choice than blinding obligations. Parsons saw these existing functions of the nuclear family as being vital functions in maintaining the American way of life. (1976)

Zaretsky gave a Marxist outlook; in researching the developments of the family in industrialised societies he asserted “the family props up capitalism” Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition p465. Zaretsky (1976) asserted that only with industrialisation, work and family life separated. He noted that the family was seen as a refuge in a ‘terrible anonymous world of commerce and industry.’ But unlike Parsons, who was pro capitalism, he would say that the family perpetuates capitalism and inequality; in the unpaid labour of women, creating new labour forces, and in the family being a unit of consumption that allowed the bourgeoisie too prosper. Zaretsky saw socialism as the family’s answer to the evils of capitalism.

Marxist feminist Fran Ansley echoed the Marxist view point when she asserted “wives play their traditional role as takers of shit, they often absorb their husbands’ legitimate anger and frustration at their own powerlessness and oppression.” Hers was the view that married working class women cushion their husband’s ill feelings at their powerlessness within the work place.

There are three periods in the development of feminism; the first being political, mainly campaigning for women’s rights to vote. The second period of feminist development was in the 1960s depicting the rise of the woman’s liberation movement which dealt with social and economic discrimination, with feminists of the time campaigning for women’s rights and to change legislation. The third period is said to have continued from the second, but also in reaction to what had already been achieved by feminists through legislation. This period is said to have started in the 1990s and has continued to present times. There are different groups of feminists, who have differing opinions concerning women’s issues and what is the best way forward for womankind. It is said that in modern times feminism has splintered into different groups, reflecting the needs of a multi cultural society. Addressing, for example, feminism from a cultural point of view; such as honour killings, and arranged marriages, which pose considerable problems for the agents of a host society. Different groups of feminist sociologists include liberal feminism; which is a less extreme form of feminism than others. Commenting on liberal feminism Susan Wendel remarks, “one of the modern political goals most closely associated with liberal feminism is equality of opportunity which would undoubtedly require and lead to both”; www.google.com /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal feminism. They see women as having equality, but would look at a women’s ability to show or uphold her equality in the decisions and actions she makes. A liberal feminist would say that a woman needs to mould herself to fit citizenship in a social structure constructed in the interests of men. They also believe that socialisation needs to be addressed, as in its current form, it can often perpetuate the inequalities that women face in society; an example of this would be girl’s toys like dolls and prams conditioning them into their future role as house wives and mothers. Liberal feminist Jennifer Somerville (2000) sees our society as being much more equal in recent years. She believes that laws need to be passed to make heterosexual marriages more equal in order to address the family breakdown.

Radical Feminists believe women are unequal in society. Women are exploited in patriarchal society. Some radical feminists believe the answer is separatism; meaning that men and women should live apart. Radical feminist Germaine Greer (2000) remarks on high profile family couples; “her eyes should be fixed on him but he should do his best never to be caught looking at her. The relationship must be seen to be unequal” Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg 468. She argues that women seem oblivious to the misgivings of marriage but the inequalities soon become apparent, and that ‘male sexuality requires the added stimulus of novelty’. She points to the fact that three quarters of divorces in Britain are instigated by women, as evidence that women will no longer suffer in silence for the illusion of a stable family life. She sees this as a good thing for women.

Difference feminist, Calhoun (1997) states that heterosexual relationships exploit women, and that gay and lesbian relationships reduce that exploitation. She remarks that gays and lesbians have historically been depicted as “family outlaws.” Calhoun sees another type of family outlaw; the ‘unwed welfare mother.’ Calhoun thinks that these family outlaws have been blamed for the breakdown of the traditional family, and of a moral decline within society. Difference feminism has been influenced by liberal, Marxist and radical feminism and has connotations with post modern theories. But where Marxist, and radical feminist movements are insensitive to family variation. Difference feminists focus on these family variations and there effects.

American Difference Feminist Linda Nicholson (1977) states that women can benefit from living in an alternative family, that other theorists and sociologists have over idealised the nuclear family and undermined the alternative family. Examples of alternative families are; families with a stay at home father, heterosexual families living outside marriage, step families and homosexual families to name a few. She points out that the nuclear family had only been the norm since the fifties, and that even then it was uncommon for groups such as the African American working classes. Nicholson says that changes in society such as “Increased participation of married women in the labour force, and the growth of female-headed households were making this way of life increasingly atypical”; Nicholson (1997) pg471. She sees benefits for women living in an alternative family; black women benefiting from mother centred families, as with no male presents, the women often group together forming strong support networks. Also in times of financial hardship, friends and kin act as a social insurance system, helping financially. Nicholson saw disadvantages for women in an alternative family as being; if the family did come into money, they would then be expected to, in turn, help their network of close friends and family financially, another disadvantage of this type of alternative family would be that children had no father figure, unlike in many middle class households. Nicholson also looked at the advantages and disadvantages of the nuclear family. Disadvantages are that with both parents having to work, the children’s upbringing can be negatively affected, and with such a structure, abused children often had nowhere to turn within a nuclear family. Nicholson would assert that an advantage of being in a nuclear family would be that there is a much greater chance of being economically successful as often, both parents are working, and that the nuclear family doesn’t have to redistribute its wealth. Nicholson would argue that different families and households should be acknowledged because they suit women in differing circumstances.

Examine the changing and diverse nature of the family in modern society; the modern family has become increasingly diverse in structure in today’s modern western world. The nuclear family is no longer seen as the norm by many sociologists, and other family structures such as: lone parent families, matriarchal families, reconstructed families (step families), Homosexual families, mixed race families, and ethnic minority families, have become more common place in modern western societies. One form of family which has attracted criticism in recent years is the lone parent family. This type of family structure is now much more prevalent in the western world, in Britain alone, it is said that there has been a thirty per cent increase in lone parent families in the last ten years. Around a quarter of all families are headed by one parent in Britain today. The new right (modern functionalists) believe that the nuclear family is the ideal family structure, and view lone parent families and same sex families as harmful to society. From a new right perspective, lone parent families mostly have no father figure to financially provide for the family, making it financially dependent on the state. Also they would argue that the lack of a male role model is a negative force in the socialization process of children. Other criticisms of lone parent families and their financial reliance upon the state, it is argued, is that they have eroded the responsibilities of fathers, who are much more likely to be involved in antisocial behaviour. New right thinkers believe that single parent families have helped to create an underclass in Britain’s society: who see no need to work, who often live in poverty, whose children are more likely to under achieve in school, and are more likely to be involved in a wide range of social problems. The new right would go so far as to say that there is a generation of a young ‘underclass’ of females who regard pregnancy as a ticket to receiving housing, and financial support from the state, but others would say that this is a simplistic outlook and that it is unfair to stigmatise single parent families, or to blame them for the problems within society. Mary McIntosh (1996) pointed out that “over recent years, the media in the United Kingdom have been reflecting a concern about lone mothers that amounts to a moral panic” pg478. Also, it is mostly not the case that these, mostly teenage girls, get pregnant to be housed and supported by the state, as in most cases, they see a future with their partner’s, but the relationship breaks down. E.E Ceshmore (1985) speaking of the ‘darker side family life’ and how it serves male interests asserted that “the idea of breaking free of marriage and raising children single handed has its appeals” pg488. She continued that it must be preferable for a child to grow up with one caring parent, than live with two warring parents.

Another new form of family structure in today’s Western society is same sex families. Recent changes in attitudes towards gays and lesbian behaviours and in the law (the UK’s Civil Partnership Act of 2004) have enabled this new form of family. Often same sex households will define their households as chosen families, with more choices available than traditional heterosexual families, these families adopt their offspring in most cases, but there is the option of producing a child in a laboratory using donated sperm for some women. It has also been known for homosexuals to conceive children, and for gay couples to use a surrogate mother in order to start a family. Geffery Weeks (1999) stated; “they choose whom to include in their family and negotiate what are often fairly egalitarian relationships” pg484. Weeks goes on to argue that this type of family is based on individual freedoms, and participation within this family is a matter of bargaining instead of merely adopting the traditional roles within the traditional heterosexual family. Arguments against same sex couples come from the new right and religious groups who argue that the socialisation process of children within these families is undermined by the lack of an adult of the other sex in a same sex family. Generally it is seen as a threat to the traditional models of the heterosexual family.

There have been different ethnic groups immigrating to the UK throughout the 20th century. These families have brought with them different norms and values, and different ways of bringing up their offspring. For example, Black Afro Caribbean families, whose structure is often fundamentally matriarchal (single Mothers rearing the children) provide economically for the unit. It is often the case that families originating from Southern Asia often contain extended families. Studies on British Asian families, Muslim: Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Indian: Hindu and Sikh, found that there was a continued emphasis on family loyalty and an effort to maintain traditional marriage practices such as arranged marriages. Ballard commented that this was because upon arriving in Britain, many Asians saw British culture as placing little emphasis on family traditions, or on maintaining kinship ties. These observations resulted in a strong desire to uphold their traditional family ways and try to insure that their children upheld these traditions also. British Asian families often have members of a third generation living in a household, mostly the parents of the mother or father. A Sikh tradition is that when the eldest son marries, his wife moves into the household to help care for the spouse’s parents. This tradition of collective responsibility can be beneficial to members of the family, and the wider society. For instance, the caring of elderly relatives and child care arrangement of the children are traditionally provided for within the family unit, therefore these families have no need to rely on the state financially. On the other hand it could be argued that women in these families are closely monitored and there is the potential for their exploitation, and their abuse in some cases. Honour killings for example, can be seen as an extreme cultural behaviour, which pose a serious problem in modern society.

Different sociological groups have differing opinions regarding the changes in family structures, in changing attitudes towards what is the norm regarding the concept of the family, and the consequences these shifts have incurred. Some point to changes in the law in the sixties and 1970, The Sex Discrimination Act 1975, and changes in legislation that made it easier to divorce. Some sociologists see these changes in legislation as a turning point which saw the start of the decline of the nuclear family as the norm. Germaine Greer’s book, The Female Eunuch, published in 1970, helped to bring women’s liberation to a wide audience of young women. In it, Greer commented that opponents of the liberation of women ‘were more clear sighted’ than those who believed that equality for women would not upset anything. She went on to say that, “when we reap the harvest, which the unwitting suffragettes sowed, we will see that the anti-feminists were after all right.” M Abbott/ Family Affairs/ pg121. Other sociologists believe that the breakdown of the nuclear family is not down to just these changes in legislation, but point to changes in norms, values and in attitudes in modern times. They point to the numbers of divorces, and assert that most people still believe in marriage as the ideal way in which to bring up a family, but greater freedom and expectations for women have led to the divorce rate rising. Sociologists such as Abbot and Wallice recognise increasing family diversity but view the decline of the nuclear family and of marriages as having been exaggerated by the New Right for political reasons. They assert that, “seven out of eight children are born to parents living together, three quarters of whom are legally married. Only one in five children will experience parental divorce by the time he or she is 16.” Pg508

There are obvious outgrowing numbers of gays and lesbians communities in our country and all over the world. People become increasingly engaged into homosexual affiliations. Many variables influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people. These variables are changes in biological processes, relationships and community interactions.

The level of acceptance between gays and lesbians has changed over the years. The researchers would like to determine the level of acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

This study was conducted with the purpose of analyzing the factors that lead to the acceptance of society between gays and lesbians. This study identified the variables and factors influencing and may affect the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the factors that lead to the acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

Specifically, it sought to determine the following:

What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

age?
sex?
civil status?
religion?
educational attainment?

What are the attitudes and behaviours of gays and lesbians which contributes to the level of acceptance of the society?

What are the factors that influence the emergence of being homosexual individual?

What are the challenges faced by lesbians and gays on the acceptance of the society?

How the respondents are reacting to communities of gays and lesbians?

Significance of the Study

The study has significance to gays and lesbians, as they will be aware of the level of acceptance of the society to them and the factors that contribute to the willingness of the society towards them.

To the parents, that they will be aware of the condition of their children, as the findings were presented to them, they will be encouraged to improve their views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

To the society, that they will be aware of the happenings to the homosexual based on their opinions, beliefs, and views, as they give it in relation to their acceptance and may find ways to improve the level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Scope, Delimitations & Limitations of the Study

The respondents of this study include 25 lesbians, 25 gays, 25 parents of either lesbian or gay, and 25 individuals who have gay/ lesbian friends. They will be asked regarding attitudes and behaviours of homosexuals which contribute to their level of acceptance in the society. They will be given chances to give their opinions, views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

Definition of Terms

The terms included in the research paper will be defined to facilitate understanding of the study.

Lesbian. Homosexual woman; the condition in which a woman is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another woman.

Gay. Homosexual man; the condition in which man is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another man.

Homosexuality. The condition of being sexually attracted, covertly, or overtly, by members of one’s own sex.

Society. Organized and interdependent community.

Morality. Degree of conformity to moral principles.

Acceptance. Willingness to accept.

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter includes discussion on related literature and studies both foreign and local, which provides relevant facts about the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians. It also aims to determine the level of acceptance from past to present.

Foreign Studies

On the study conducted by the researchers at the Kaiser Family Foundation entitled “Inside- out : A report on the Experience’s of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals in America and the Public’s Views on Issues and Advices Related to Sexual Orientation”. The are two national public opinion surveys: one, to gather information on the experiences of seslf-identified lesbians, gays and bisexuals: and the second to gauge the general public’s attitudes towards this group and their views on key policy issues related to sexual orientation. They did it to determine where the public really stands. Researchers found out that large majority of self-identified lesbians, gays, and bisexuals believe that there is more acceptance today compared to a few years ago. One third from their respondents say that their family or a family member has refused to accept them. According to the research, lesbians are more likely to report not having been accepted by their families.

It was found out that majority of the general public reports knowing someone who is gay, lesbian or bisexual believes that there is more acceptance of lesbians and gays today compared to a few years ago. Most say that greater acceptance is either good for the country or does not matter one way or the other. The majority also believes that homosexual behavior is a normal part of some people’s sexuality. Individuals age 65 and older those with a high school education or less and those who do not have lesbian and gay co-workers, friends or family members are least likely to have accepting attitudes towards lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. Religious affiliation also has significant effect on attitudes and level of acceptance. Overall, the public is increasing accepting gays and lesbians in the society.

On the study conducted by Elizabeth Mehren entitled “Homosexuals finding more Acceptance. Poll says” states that gays and lesbians have experienced a dramatic rise in acceptance over the last two decades, according to a new Los Angeles Times Poll-2004. In ltwo Los Angeles Times polls in the mid- 1980s and other data from the same era, the level of sympathy toward gays and lesbians was half what it is today. Researchers found out that gay people in general are feeling more comfortable in society and society is feeling more comfortable with gay people. The study revealed that 62 percent say their community accepts gays and lesbians.

Based on the survey conducted by the members of the Public Agenda Organization entitled “Ambivalence and Mixed Messages”, acceptance of gays and lesbians has risen significantly, and currently about half of Americans say homosexuality should be an acceptable lifestyle. Survey questions about whether American society should accept homosexuality often draw different responses depending on the examples mentioned which is an indication of public ambivalence. Questions that raise the issue of fair treatment typically draw much higher levels of public support. For instance, substantial majorities of Americans say they support equal protection for homosexuals against hate crimes and equal rights in terms of housing and jobs. surveys show that slight majorities say a gay person could be a good role model and as good a parent as anyone, yet they are divided on whether they would allow a homosexual to baby-sit their child and half say they oppose allowing gay couples to adopt.

The survey conducted by the faculty & staff of The University of Arizona entitled “Equity’s 1992 Campus Climate Report” was aimed to investigate the climate for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals on campus. Majority of their sample comprised of heterosexuals. They allow their respondents to rate in the scale of 1-10 on every question. As a result, majority placed 8 to 10 range on the level of acceptance with the women expressing high level of acceptance than men. Respondents’ employment status had no significant impact on the acceptance scale, with no major differences surfacing among faculty, staff, and graduate students. They also asked if their religion influences their views on homosexuality; seventeen percent of the respondents marked “yes.” But not only religion appeared to influence people toward negative views. A series of items asked respondents to characterize the level of respect shown for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals by others in their department, specifically their immediate supervisor, co-workers, department head, and students. All in all, the responses to questions about respect levels in departments reveal that the immediate environment for gay, lesbian, and bisexual members of the University is not a particularly good one, but that department heads and supervisors show generally higher levels of respect than co-workers and students.

Justin J. Jagosh, in his thesis entitled “Moving toward understanding and acceptance: Parents’ experiences after finding out their children are gay, lesbian, and bisexual” aimed to explore how the parents will accept their child’s sexuality. Through qualitative inquiry, 12 Canadian parents (7 mothers and 5 fathers) were interviewed to develop an in-depth analysis of their thoughts, feelings, and actions in relation to having gay, lesbian, and bisexual children. He found out that parents went through a process of understanding and acceptance, in which they made sense of past experiences they had with their children, reacted emotionally to finding out, changed their perspectives on issues, and shared their experiences with others. There are still hindering factors but with the strategies suggested in which researchers, educators, health professionals, media personnel, parent support groups, and parents themselves can use like some mentioned above, it will not be difficult for parents to understand and accept their gay, lesbian, and bisexual children.

Foreign studies

On the book overview of Lesbian, Gay and bisexual identities and youth by Anthony R. O’Angelli, Charlotte Patterson explore the psychological dimentions of lesbian, gay and bisexual identities from puberty to adulthood. There are changes in biological processes, relationship and community interactions influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people.

The article, Chasing the Rainbow; Is a Gay Population an Engine of Urban Revival? Cities are beginning to think so by Richard Florida sees that openness to the gay community is a good indication of the low entry barriers to human capital that are so important to spurring creativity and generating high-tech growth. The homosexuality represents the last last frontier of diversity in our society, and thus a place that welcomes the gay community welcomes all kinds of people.

Also an article in New Zealand by the LGBT organization on that country which is entitled “A Civil Union Ceremony in Wellington” last December 20006 states that New Zealand society is generally fairly relaxed in acceptance of gays and lesbians. The gay-friendly is epitomized by the fact that there are several Member if Parliament who belong to the LGBT community, gay rights are protected by the New Zealand Human Rights Act. And New Zealand is relatively small population. The LGBT community is small, but still visible, with Pride festivals and LGBT events held around the country throughout the year.

Local Literature

J. Neil C. Garcia in his book “Philippine Gay Culture: The Last Thirty Years, Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM” tackles the perception of Filipinos to gays and lesbians from the last thirty years. The anxiety of Western civilization toward its many different genders- not just masculine and feminine-finds its fecund expression in the varieties of camp (butch/femme) and transvestisms (macho, queer, transvestophilic, transgenderist, etc.) which, over the last century, have come to be institutionalized as legitimate self-expressions within the gay and lesbian cultures of the United States, Europe and Australia, This anxiety is deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian metaphysical tradition which, until recently, was a rather inexorable force in the Western subject’s life. On the other hand, this study has argued that the Philippines has its own dualist tradition in respect of sexual identity, and although it would seem that the effeminate bakla and the mannish tomboy attest to the fluidity of gender concepts and roles in our culture, at the level of desire they merely reinforce the babae and the lalake, whose pale reflections they are. Rafael cannot be farther from the truth when he ascribes to kabaklaan the parodic and self-reflexive character which it doesn’t (yet) possess.

As things stand, the dominant conception of the bakla identity strictly confines the bakla to an agonistic effeminacy (a poor copy of femininity). In fact, the masculine bakla is simply unthinkable. He therefore must be a closet case, or a double-dealing fraud (silahis). Suffice it to say, then, that at the core of the social construction of the bakla is “coreness” itself. As a recent ethnography reiterates, the bakla is a “man with a woman’s heart” who, like a real woman, deeply desires a real man to be happy.

The “silence” of local psychological institutions in the early sixties about homosexuality and homosexual counseling seems strange, given that globally, the problems of adolescent homosexuals never fail to make it in the agenda of any conference on juvenile mental health (for only obvious reasons). By the rest of the 1960s, as well as the early seventies, however, this situation had palpably changed, and homosexuality was made to belong under the aegis of psychological science, as may be proven by the existence of positivist works on it which were written around this time. (A partial listing of the sundry academic studies on homosexuality in the Philippines is included in the last section of this book). The consequence of this is the renewed and intensified medical psychopathologization of the bakla as inversion’s homosexual: a man whose psychological being does not coincide with his anatomic sex. Only this time, his sexuality has become the central defining feature of his by now “psychosexually inverted” identity.

He concluded that the bakla is the only kind of (male) homosexual Philippine culture has, relatively speaking, known; and therefore also the only (male) homosexual Philippine culture has discriminated against and/or dismissed as sick, deviant and sinful-as bakla, precisely. Any local text proclaiming itself gay or homosexual cannot help but relate itself to and to situate itself within kabaklaan, hence.

CHAPTER 3

Methods and Procedure

Research Methodology

The researcher used descriptive method in the study. Descriptive method of research is a fact finding study with sufficient and accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current condition, situation practices, or any phenomena. Since the study is concerned in the Analysis on the acceptance of the society between gays/lesbians.

Subjects of the Study

The researchers chose 100 respondents divided into four categories. These composed of 25 gays, 25 lesbians,25 parents of gays or lesbians and 25 individuals who have gays or lesbians friends.

The Sampling Technique

The researchers used simple random sampling and the size of the population is 200 and the study of population is people who have known a friend or any related of gay and lesbians also the respondents and the parents.

Sample:

25 respondents

25 gays

25 lesbians

25 parents

Those 25 to sum up of 100 is from the population of 200 and was chosen by simple random sampling.

Procedure of Data Gathering

The researchers used in the method of collecting data is normative survey, researchers used this for its very effective and looking for the commonalities of the said subject. This would be the best and most appropriate method to use in data gathering.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The role of the statistical treatment of data in research. The researchers is considering much in the age and gender also their state of consciousness and the rationality and also the emotion are being needed through the research.