Author: Andre Coleman

Anne Stevenson’s poem, “The Marriage,” is a playful, subtle and profound description of the differences between men and women, and the difficulties inherent in such, specifically in regards to the unification of the sexes, both physically, spiritually and in terms of societal conventions (thus the title). By portraying these difficulties in pure physical terms – as a couple trying to come together to rest comfortably in bed – Stevenson is able to build a vivid and surprisingly comprehensive and universal depiction of marriage.

The poem is from the point of view of the wife, perhaps the author herself, who is trying to figure out a way to position her body against her husband’s so the two will be able to rest snugly at night. With both of them facing the same direction, she in front, he in back, they are nearly successful, but only:

…if her backbone

Cuts exactly into his rib cage

And only if his knees

Dock exactly under her knees

And all four

Agree on a common angle

Thus positioned – provided their bodies willingly correspond – the husband and wife have achieved unification, or, at the very least, a modicum of comfort. But this is a small victory, or even a false one, for as the narrator continues:

All would be well

If only

They could face each other

In three lines, Stevenson has perfectly summed up what plagues marriages, old and new alike: that men and women are inherently different. Not that one is superior and the other inferior – she seems to prescribe to the “separate but equal” doctrine that is the norm in her homeland of American and her adopted country of England – but that they are uniquely separate entities. Men and women think differently, act differently, and are proportioned differently. And any kind of union between the two, any form of coming-together, is marked my problems. The poet is also asserting that in order for this to occur, a compromise must be enacted. And in any kind of compromise, some things are won (the couple “fit”) and some are lost (they are not facing each other). While the partners have achieved a level of comfort and intimacy, with her backbone nicely fitting into his rib cage, and his knees docking perfectly under hers, they have lost a major component of such, as they cannot look at one another.

Stevenson’s vision of compromise is universal, and does not apply to merely physical situations. The implications correspond to any aspect of a relationship, including, for example, where a couple chooses to settle (one likes the city, one likes the country, so they move to the suburbs), to how they raise their kids (one is a fan of television, one isn’t, so the child watches a minimum amount), to how they spend their money (one likes extravagant things, one prefers simple things, so they buy items that are moderately priced). In all of these situations, both parties are content in that they have achieved satisfaction. While neither got everything they were asking for, each partner got enough (presumably, at least) to remain content. This “partial victory” is the crux of a successful relationship.

But Stevenson is not finished. She goes on with her physical description of the pair, who meet:

Nose to neck

Chest to scapula

Groin to rump

And yet, even though the situation is still not ideal – they are unable to face each other, after all – in even this there is a silver lining:

They look, at least

As if they were going

In the same direction

While this is merely a small caveat – notice her use of the phrase “they look, at least,” as if this is merely the appearance of agreement – even so, it is something. And this small something, again, this tiny “victory” is often enough to make all the difference. Stevenson is celebrating the small moments of daily life and the small “victories” that are won through compromise. Are the couple, or, in fact, are any man and woman perfectly matched? No. Are there differences between the two that will never be breached? Certainly. But does this mean that one cannot work with this other to achieve some form of balance, even if it is not perfect? Of course not. And, at least in the poet’s mind, this transcendence of differences makes it even more special.

In Stevenson’s world, a husband and wife half-consciously groping for each other in the middle of the night is as important as any other compromise made between the sexes. A man moves halfway across the world to be with the woman he loves. A woman changes her religion to be with the man she loves. Both are noble and tremendous acts, but are just as heroic as the couple fumbling in bed. Love, marriage, etc., is both gigantic and intimate, and every act of coming together is important.

But let us quickly go back to these words:

They look, at least

As if they were going

In the same direction

This passage holds another meaning, that of the fact that the couple is actually not going in the same direction, but only appear to be. Stevenson is saying that looks are deceiving, and while the pair seems to be in agreement, they are in reality far from it. This is a reinforcement of her belief that the sexes are different, and even when they don’t seem to be (a husband and wife both like the same television program, for example, but he enjoys it for the action, she for the sexy leading man), in truth their agendas and perceptions are widely divergent, more than ever.

To demonstrate her view of marriage, Stevenson adopts a casual, easy, free verse style, one that is relaxed and light. The words are simple and straightforward, and the situation is commonplace and routine. Underneath, of course, it is a different story, as the subject matter – the differences between the sexes, and how these differences can be overcome – is neither easy nor commonplace. And while she uses the couple’s awkward brushing of body parts to personify this subtext, even this is muted. However, her choice of illustration is highly effective, and she doesn’t need to cloud the issue with excessive metaphor or lofty language. In fact, her technique actually apes her point of view. The mundane act of a man and woman trying to sleep comfortably together is profound, as it not only acts as a representation for the larger compromises that couples must make, but is on its own special and meaningful. By keeping it simple, Stevenson demonstrates the complex and universal.

Anne Stevenson, unlike the never-married Emily Dickinson and Elizabeth Bishop (who she is often compared to), has been wed four times. Since 1987 she has been with the Darwin scholar Peter Lucas, and no doubt in those seventeen years she has learned a thing or two about compromise. Her poem “Marriage” perfectly captures the disparities between men and women, and the contortions that must be performed to unify the two. Marriage, relationships, love, etc., are wondrous, unique things, as are men and women themselves, but they are also universal. Couples must compromise to survive, sometimes in big ways, sometimes in small ones. But all of these compromises are significant, and all of them make us human. Stevenson’s poem, like marriage itself, is both incredibly simple and tremendously complicated. Her basic, straightforward words could not be more profound.

Bibliography

Hickling, Alfred. “Border Crossings.” The Guardian Unlimited. 2 Oct. 2004.

Stevenson, Anne. Poems 1955-2005. Northumberland: Bloodaxe Books, 2005.

DISSERTATION

Age assessments for unaccompanied asylum seeking children: Policy, law and implications for social work.

Abstract
Methodology
Literature Review
Chapter One – Introduction
Chapter Two – Unaccompanied Asylum Seekers
Chapter Three – Age Assessment – Policy, Legislation and Practice
Chapter Four – Conclusion and Recommendations.

Unaccompanied asylum seeking children arrive in the UK seeking refuge from often-horrific events in their home countries. The response of both national government and local authorities to this influx has been largely unsatisfactory with campaigners arguing that the focus has been on cutting costs and removing young asylum seekers rather than providing them with the care that they are entitled to. This study suggests that policy and practice around age assessment is central to this argument. There is significant evidence that local authorities are pressurising social workers to age assess children as older than they are in order to save them money. The haphazard way in which age assessments have usually been carried out only serves to encourage this behaviour. Even without financial pressure, the lack of a standard approach to age assessment is also leading to inconsistencies when age assessments are put into practice

The focus of this dissertation has been to analyse how, why and when age assessments are used in processing unaccompanied asylum seekers and examine whether the process is fair and consistent. The methodology has primarily to adopt secondary sources and evaluate evidence from as wide a range of viewpoints as possible. The dissertation has been aimed towards a conclusion that the current process is unsatisfactory and has attempted to deliver recommendations that could improve the process.

Literature for this dissertation has been gathered from a combination of academic books and journals, government publications, reports produced by independent agencies and articles from newspapers and magazines including The Guardian and Community Care.

One of the most detailed reports on the subject of assessment is the 2007, When is a child not a child? Asylum, age disputes and the process of age assessment by Crawley. Much of the factual detail about the actual mechanics of age assessment has been gathered from this source.

Of academic journals, the articles written by Kohli have been most useful as they delivering the results and analysis from a wide range of studies around unaccompanied asylum seekers.

Each year, approximately 3000 unaccompanied children and young people arrive in the UK to seek asylum.^[1] Many of these are subject to age assessment to clarify that they are entitled to services available to vulnerable children in the UK. The age of people claiming to be children can be disputed by a range of professionals, from immigration officers to police and social workers.

It is important to define what an age assessment actually is at the beginning of this study. An age assessment is he method used by either the UK border and Immigration Agency or local authority social services departments to assess the age of an asylum seeker.^[2]There is currently no method that is capable of defining the exact age of a child and the accuracy of the assessment will often be produced within a range of two years over or below the assessment age.^[3]

Some commentators have argued that many local authorities have proactively looked to avoid the cost of looking after young asylum seekers in need and have set up control measures to keep children aged 16-18 out of the territory.^[4] One of the mechanisms for doing this has been attempts by social workers to stop classifying unaccompanied minors as children. There have been suggestions that many social workers became preoccupied with attempting to assess the age of applicants rather than providing services and that such an assessment was crude exercise based on the individual opinion of a single social worker. As Kohli writes

“studies reported a growing disbelief in respect of those claiming to be under 18 and the treatment of anyone over 16 years as a de facto adult allowed access to food and shelter but little else.”^[5]

Professionals working in the highest echelons of childcare have expressed similar concerns, for example the Children’s Commissioner Sir Al Aynsley Green has stated:

“Although Home Office Policy is for the immigration officer to apply the ‘benefit of the doubt’ in favour of the applicant in borderline cases, the evidence suggests that in practice this is frequently not adhered to. The result is that a substantial number of asylum seekers who are in fact unaccompanied children are excluded from the protection of domestic care regimes…”^[6]

Government policy from the early part of the decade has been to work in partnership with local authorities and disperse asylum seekers of all ages around the country. The Home Office negotiated contracts with a number of authorities to receive and accommodate asylum seekers.^[7]

There also is evidence to support this. Central government has since 2005 looked to change the role of social work teams at ports of entry to work practically as adjuncts to the Border and Immigration Agency, deliberately narrowing the gap between immigration and social services functions. There is clearly a financial motivation for this – in 2005 the 6000 unaccompanied asylum seeking children offered services by local authorities comprised less than 10% of cases yet used up approximately 25% of the Home Office budget.^[8]Social work teams have been set targets in terms of turning away age disputed asylum seekers and assessing clients claiming to be 15 as older.^[9]

This study looks at how the UK deals with unaccompanied asylum seekers and in particular examines policy and practice around age assessment. Chapter two focuses on the legislation in place and policy around it whilst chapter three looks more specifically at the age assessment processes and the general failings of the system in the UK. Chapter four concludes with recommendations on improving the system

Unaccompanied asylum seeking children arrive in the UK for a number of reasons. A recent study of 218 arrivals found that half came from countries undergoing armed conflict or serious disturbances and over two fifths were victims of direct or indirect persecution. Deprivation, poverty or trafficking for exploitation were other primary reasons for seeking asylum.^[10]

Dealing with asylum seeking children, either with or without their families is a growing area of social work practice yet one in which there is relatively little understanding of the needs or circumstances of such children.^[11]

In legislative terms, legislation such as The Children’s Act 1989 and The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families remain central to issues around assessment and care for asylum-seeking children and they should also be included under the remit of the Every Child Matters agenda. The Children and Young People’s Plan 2005 for example makes reference to joint working between housing and social care bodies to meet the housing needs of unaccompanied asylum seekers. ^[12]

For local authorities, there is a duty to provide services necessary to safeguard and promote the well-being of any children deemed to be in need under the Children Act 1989. Due to the absence of their parents, unaccompanied children are classed as vulnerable and therefore in need. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 also reinforces the local authority duty to support unaccompanied minors.

It is helpful to have a clear definition of what an unaccompanied asylum seeker actually is. The Immigration and Nationality Directorate definition is a young person under the age of 18(or who appears to be if there is no proof); who is applying for asylum in his or her own right; and who has no adult relative or guardian to turn to within the UK.^[13]

The age of an unaccompanied asylum seeker has historically been an important factor in respect of the Special Grant that the Home Office made available to unaccompanied minors. Prior to 2004 there were two levels of support available, with those supported under the age of 16 receiving a higher level and those first supported at age 16 or 17 receiving half that amount.^[14] However, a judicial review – the Hillingdon Judgement – carried out in 2004 has significantly increased the impact on local authorities. The judgement ruled that, except in exceptional cases, all asylum-seeking children must be treated under section 20 of the Children’s Act 1989 which classes them as looked after children. ^[15]

There is clearly an impact on service provision for both national and local government. Watters writes that “the arrival of significant numbers of unaccompanied asylum-seeking children through the port of Dover thus presented very significant challenges to social care, health and education providers in the south east.” ^[16] Asylum seekers who after the assessment process became looked after children would be entitled to foster or residential placements, an allocated social worker and financial support. They may also have qualified for the benefits of leaving care status up to the age of 21, a further financial burden on local authorities.

The question of age then is a crucial issue for local authorities. Many young people seeking asylum do not have official papers or documentation confirming their age so practitioners in both social services and immigration have difficult decisions to make.

It can be difficult to draw information from asylum seeking children – research shows that when they are asked about reasons for their asylum request, they try and fit their stories into the narrow format that they believe are acceptable in their given country.^[17]This in turn can lead to scepticism amongst officials and social workers, the same research reported instances of social services personnel being cynical about young Kosovan and African males claiming to be younger than they looked and thus worrying that their services were being exploited and their resources drained.^[18]

Ultimately, age assessment is a crucial tool for immigration officials and social workers. There are asylum seekers who try to abuse the system, so a method of asserting age is required. When the current practices serve this purpose will be discussed in chapter three.

When and Why

Most age disputes in asylum cases occur when an asylum seeker first applies for asylum, normally at their port of entry.^[19]There is little in the way of formal assessment at this point, age disputes will be lodged primarily based on the basis of appearance, demeanour and documentation. Another issue of contention is the range of individuals or professionals that might dispute the age of an asylum seeker – this can include immigrations officials, social workers or police officers. Social workers may even dispute the age of a child who had not been queried by immigration officials.

Age disputes may happen several months or even years after a child has entered the country. Crawley quotes a case study of a young girl who had been brought into the country at a young age to be used as a domestic slave. When immigration officials became aware of her five years later – still under the age of 16 – she was age disputed before eventually taken into the care of a social services department.^[20]

In contrast, many young people, perhaps some who are over 18, slip through the net and are classed as minors. Many social services departments simply do not have the resources to undertake formal age assessments and have concerns about the impact of multiple interviews and assessment on young asylum seekers. As such, decisions are made not to query age.

Policy and Legislative framework

Home Office policy in terms of unaccompanied minors is set out in policy documents including Policy bulletin 33, Guidance from processing applications from children and Guidance on age disputed cases 3^rd ed which lays out specific procedures for professionals who dispute a claimant’s age and believe that it is an adult claiming to be a child.

One of the most interesting aspects of policy and perhaps the most controversial in the light of what appears to be happening is that the INDs guidance on age disputed cases states clearly that when there is an age dispute “a claimant must be given the benefit of the doubt with regards to their age unless their physical appearance strongly suggests that they are aged 18 or over”.^[21]It seems that this is not the case currently in practice – local authorities certainly are encouraging social work team to dispute age more regularly.

Other aspects of the IND guidance can be confusing and it is not surprising that there are inconsistencies in practice. For example there is no actual duty for immigration officers to refer age disputed cases to the appropriate local authority, rather this is something that should be done in principle, a situation that can only complicate things for social workers further down the line. Overall, the current system seems disjointed and variable. As Crawley writes:

“There is evidence of a significant gap between what is supposed to happen and to what happens in practice”^[22] and some of the issues involves at age assessment units around the country highlight this:

A general lack of care, including a lack of food and water, for young people waiting to be screened
A failure to use the privacy of separate interview rooms
Difficulties with microphones meaning conversations held through the glass screen in the public area are either overheard or not heard at all

No responsible adult being present to support young person^[23]

Clearly age assessment is not a simple matter. All children vary in development, maturity and natural growth and there can be a wide range of supposed ‘normal findings’ at various ages. It is extremely difficult to accurately gather a young persons age and things such as race, ethnicity and local conditions such as disease and malnutrition have to be considered in any assessment. Whether children’s social workers are qualified to do this is questionable The organisation Youth Support which assists young refuges reports that in its own age assessment process it includes as many factors as possible including

“height, weight, body mass, shoe size, developmental factors such as skin care and teeth, sexual development; mental and emotional age estimates including thought processes and general concepts. Also of great importance is the history and social milestones which the young person might have experienced – again talking culture and religion into consideration.”^[24]

There is clearly inconsistency in the process nationwide. Michie argues that one of the problems in the UK has been that a diversity of systems and guidelines has developed in assessing the age of unaccompanied minors, involving a combination of history collection, physical anthropometry and radiographs. He writes:

“Their lack of uniformity identifies an underlying difficulty: there is no method by which chronological age can be precisely estimated in this age group. Paediatricians in the United Kingdom care for small numbers of individuals in late adolescence and early adulthood in graduate outpatient services, but often have little experience in this area.”^[25]

There are some success stories. At Heathrow Airport for example, Hillingdon Social Services have used a number of strategies to deal with large volumes of unaccompanied asylum seekers. These have included use of a dedicated police officer for child protection, a specific questionnaire for staff working at terminal 3 and the development of a specifics age assessment tool combined with specific training,.^[26]

Guidance for Social Work Practice

Age assessment is clearly a difficult area for social work practitioners. There is little experience in this type of work and relatively little in the way of practice guidelines. The guidance drawn up by the Children’s Legal Centre is perhaps the most useful document for social workers to refer to when carrying out age assessments. Some of the points included are:

Taking account of ethnicity, culture and customs of the person being assessed and well as the level of trauma, tiredness, anxiety and bewilderment present
The asylum seeker may have had coaching prior to arrival. It is important for the social work to engage with the person in a process sometimes known as ‘joining’.
The assessment framework should be led by open, non-leading questions
The practitioner should note the verbal and non-verbal (body language) behaviour of the person
A useful indicator is if the person seems uncomfortable talking to an adult
A detailed family tree with ages of parents and siblings can help assessing likely age
Questions about the activities and roles a person was involved in prior to entering the UK can be a good indicator
Social workers may consider arranging for the person to be put in a social situation with people of the age stated and observing interaction
Gaining detailed accounts of educational history can be a valuable source of information in making an accurate age assessment

Assessment of life skills is useful – does the person have any experience of living independently, managing money etc^[27]

All of the above can be done in conjunction with opinion and input from other sources including foster carers, teachers, doctors, interpreters and residential workers. It is useful also to have input from paediatricians, dentists or optician although a social worker should take into account advice from paediatricians that there can be a five year error in age assessments.^[28]

Just as important is information and best practice sharing between professional involved in this type of work. A uniform approach to age assessment across the UK should be a shared objective.

There are clearly huge improvements necessary in the way that social service departments across the country deal with unaccompanied asylum seekers. This includes both the process for age assessment and the subsequent services provided. Evidence shows that staff in the various agencies dealing with these children lack knowledge about the services available and how to deal with the emotional trauma that many of these children will have experienced.^[29]Social workers dealing with age assessments are clearly lacking in the skills to do so accurately. One reported when surveyed:

“We do them (age assessments) but we can be wrong five years either side – it matters a lot doesn’t it? They can end up with many dates of birth – social services, Home Office, their own..”^[30]

Practitioners need such understand the vulnerability of the young people they are dealing with and avoid taking a cynical approach. As Michie concludes:

“The fairness, legality and ethical base of any national framework for age assessment has to take into account legal history, jurisprudence as well as the paediatric wisdom, “What if this were my child?”, Although it may be difficult to quantify the inadequacies of the current system, it clearly compounds abuse to a vulnerable group of children. We must do better.”^[31]

The are some positives in examining the UK response to unaccompanied asylum seekers . The more holistic approach developed in recent years seems to be more efficient are more aware of the sensitivities of the issues than for example the US and Australian governments. Bhaba et al write of the UK:

“It has made extensive efforts to identify children in genuine need at the earliest possible stage and to institute programmes to target trafficking in children through training of in country border officials and the instigation of research. ^[32]This is a pleasing sign, yet problems still occur when age is disputed.

Recommendations:

There are a number of steps that can be taken to improve the way in which young asylum seekers are treated to ensure consistency. Protection of vulnerable children is crucial, yet it is also important that age assessments can be used to identify asylum seekers over the age of 18 who seek to abuse the system. The EU’s reception directive states that unaccompanied children seeking asylum should be appointed a legal guardian^[33] and this should be adopted by the UK

Helping vulnerable children through the process would be a welcome improvement.

Trained, skilled age assessors should be employed at ports of entry. These may well be social workers, experienced in dealing with this age group, accountable to a child protection team with paediatric expertise open to them in some form. Another option would be to establish fully trained multi agency teams based in regional assessment centres, something that would produce holistic and better-informed outcomes.

Ideally age assessors should be financially independent of local authority social services – this would limit the chance of pressure being put upon assessors to reach targets for the number of age assessments found to be 18+.

The lack of statutory guidance on the process of age assessment should also be addressed – this would help alleviate some of the inconsistencies in the process.

A final recommendation, supported by Crawley, would be for the age assessment process to be overlooked by an independent age assessment panel which could provide support and guidance, help with the auditing process and make it less likely that decisions could be challenged or influence by those holding the local authority purse strings.

The most important thing is that age assessment is done fairly and consistently, and that young asylum seekers are treated in the same way, regardless of port of entry or the local authority overseeing them. At present this is not the case and there is work for legislators, policy makers and practitioners to do if this is to be rectified.

Bibliography

Bhaba J, Finch N, Crock M & Schmidt S, Seeking Asylum Alone, Themis Press 2006

Chase e, Emotional Well-being of asylum seeking children, http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2008/07/29/108994/well-being-of-asylum-seeking-children.html – accessed 15 October

Children’s Legal Centre, Practice Guidelines for age assessment of young unaccompanied asylum seekers, http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/NR/rdonlyres/BAA6E134-7810-42C1-9634-2AC500D326DE/0/PracticeNotesKarenGoodman.pdf – accessed 15 October

Crawley, H, When is a child not a child? Asylum, age disputes and the process of age assessment, Immigration Law Practitioners Association, May 2007

DFES 2005, Guidance on the Children and Young People’s Plan,

Hayes D, Humphries B, Cohen S, Social Work, Immigration and Asylum, Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2004

Kelly A, Minors Conflict, The Guardian Jan 31 2007 http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2007/jan/31/asylum.guardiansocietysupplement1 – accessed 16 October

Kohli R, The Comfort of Strangers: social work practice with unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and young people in the UK, child and Family Social Work ,vol 11 2006

Kohli R, The Sound of Silence: Listening to What Unaccompanied Asylum-seeking Children Say and Do Not Say, British Journal of Social Work vol 36 2006

Michie CA, Age Assessment: time for progress? Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(6) June 2005

Mitchell F, The social services response to unaccompanied children in England, Children and Family Social Work, vol 8 August 2003

Watters C, Refugee Children, Routlege 2008

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jan/05/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices – accessed 15 October

Asylum seekers and unaccompanied minors, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jan/05/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices – accessed 16 October

http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/asylumprocessguidance/specialcases/guidance/disputedagecases.pdf?view=Binary – accessed 15 October

www.everychildmatters.com – accessed 14 October

http://www.ilpa.org.uk/infoservice/Info%20sheet%20Age%20Disputes%20&%20Age%20Assessment.pdf – accessed 16 October

1

Title: A critical review of Porter’s competitive strategy in relation to his five forces model in comparison to other perspectives.

“All men can see these tactics whereby I conquer, but what none can see is the strategy out of which victory is evolved.” Sun Tzu, Chinese General

Introduction

Strategy originates from military and warfare and according to Stephen Cummings; the word itself has its origins from the Greek word ‘stratos’ which meant ‘army’ (Cummings, 1993, pp 133 – 135). A number of ancient generals and scholars have defined the character of strategy. Some famous ones are Sun Tzu, the Chinese general in the 2^nd century BC and Sextus Frontinus, the Roman general in the first century AD. Frontinus has defined strategy as “everything achieved by a commander, be it characterised by foresight, advantage, enterprise or resolution” (Cummings, 1993, pp 133 – 135). Another Greek military commander Xenophon very aptly defined strategy as “knowing the business which you propose to carry out” (Cummings, 1993, pp 133 – 135).

The importance of clear intent, seeking advantage over adversaries, objectives of survival and expansion, and utilisation of given resources with inherent strengths and weaknesses in a manner that successfully leverages the advantage, are as relevant to a business organisation as to military. Aligning resources to objectives to gain advantage to maximum limits requires strategic thinking. This process can be either logical or creative. Strategy formation itself can be deliberate or emergent.

Strategy operates at various levels and contexts. It can operate in a combination of business level, corporate level or network level in industry context, organisational context or international context (Wit and Meyer, 2004, p.14). There are diverse models on strategy and strategic management. However all models focus on the importance of aligning the dynamics of a business system to the dynamics of its environment for meeting its long-term objectives. The goal of strategic management is to gain competitive advantage.

According to Wit and Meyer, a business system is the configuration of resources (inputs), activities (throughput) and product/service offering (output) and this configuration is the cornerstone of gaining competitive advantage (Wit and Meyer, 2004 p. 231).

There are two broad models on business level strategy. One involves market orientation and the other is focussed on resources. One revolves around the outside-in perspective, while the other is inside-out perspective. Both deal with the ability of a form to acquire competitive advantage (See Appendix I and II).

One such prominent strategy model is Michael Porter’s Five Forces model. This assignment critically evaluates Porter’s Five Forces model and compares it with alternative models.

Sustainable Competitive Advantage

It is important for competitive advantage to be sustainable. But what exactly is competitive advantage and what makes it sustainable?

According to Wits and Meyer, “a firm’s has a competitive advantage when it has the means to edge out rivals when vying for the favour of customers” (Wit and Meyer, 2004 p. 244). Michael Porter argues that competitive advantage is sustainable “if it cannot be copied, substituted or eroded by the actions of rivals, and is not made redundant by developments in the environment” (Porter, 1980). Wits and Meyer interpret that sustainability is determined by competitive defendability and environmental consonance.

Porter’s Five Forces Model

The five forces model involves market orientation and is an outside-in perspective. The model proposes that the starting point in determining an appropriate competitive strategy is to understand two dynamic factors, (1) the long-term profitability that determines the attractiveness of the industry in which the firm operates; and (2) the position that a firm occupies within an industry vis-a-vis its competitors.

Porter concludes that neither all industries are equal in attractiveness, nor are all firms equal in achieving levels of profitability with in their respective industry. But these positions change and therefore cannot fully determine competitive strategy. On the other hand, a firm can actually shape both (1) the industry attractiveness as well as (2) its competitive position. By understanding of what he calls as the “rules of competition” a firm can create an effective competitive strategy that can alter the balance in its favour.

According to Porter, five competitive forces determine the rules of competition. These are:

The barriers to entry for new competitors
The threat of substitutes
The bargaining power of suppliers
The bargaining power of buyers
The magnitude of existing competition

As can be understood that all the above forces have a direct or an indirect impact upon how the prices and the cost that make up business operations within the industry. What’s more, the level of investment required by a new comer to get into the industry is also portrayed by these forces. The intensity as well as the importance of these forces varies from industry to industry. But irrespective of the nature of industry the collective strength of these forces “determines the ability of firms in an industry to earn, on average, rates of return on investment in excess of cost of capital” (Porter, 1985). For example, for an industry with low entry barriers, the magnitude of competition will be higher. Similarly, availability of substitutes deflates the price within the industry. Bargaining power of buyers brings down prices and as a consequence the margins for firms within the industry. Bargaining power of the suppliers has a direct impact on cost and availability of raw materials. For an industry, which is intensely competitive, the margins once again come under pressure. The UK supermarkets are clearly operating in an intensely competitive industry albeit with a certain degree of control over their suppliers. However, this is not entirely true for the airlines industry, which is not only highly competitive, but also has a low control over its suppliers, especially for its most important raw material – the petrol prices. Therefore the pressure is on both ends – the cost as well as the price.

Each industry has certain economic and technical features that make up its structure. Industry structure is susceptible to change over a period of time. It is important for a firm to understand the factors that could change the industry structure. It is this understanding that can enable a firm to build an effective competitive strategy that can alter the structure of an industry. Porter argues that a successful strategy is the one that can alter the rules of competition to create a position of advantage for the firm. He states that the merit of the five-forces framework lies in the fact that it “allows a firm to see through the complexity and pinpoint those factors that are critical to competition in its industry, as well as to identify those strategic innovations that would improve the industry’s – and its own – profitability” (Porter, 1985).

A strategy has a potential of altering the industry structure in a negative manner as well. It can bring about price sensitivity, competitive backlash or lowering of barriers that protect the industry and ensure its profitability. A good example of this is the low-cost airlines where pricing is treated as the strategy.

‘Smart’ companies take a long-term perspective while making strategic choices, so as not to destroy the industry structure. Industry leaders whose strategic choices can easily alter the industry structure, due to their size and bargaining power, are sensitive to the fact that an altered structure can have a negative impact on the firm’s own growth therefore a leader needs to show an approach that protects the industry structure, rather than destroy it.

The importance of industry structure

Two key areas are touched by industry structure. These are:

Buyer needs, and
Supply/demand balance

Buyer needs: Serious firms treat the task of satisfying buyer needs as their core objective. The effort is always to create value for their customers. However, industry structure determines how profitable this effort turns out to be. For instance, two industries that create an equally high value for their customers may have different returns. Entry barriers, threat of substitutes, bargaining power of buyers and suppliers as well as intensity of competition, all these forces influence industry profitability vis-a-vis customer value creation.

Supply/demand balance: This also has an impact on the industry profitability and at the same time is influenced by industry structure in the long term. Entry and exit barriers exert influence as also capacities. For example, in some industries, even a little excess capacity can lead to price wars and therefore lower the profitability. This is being witnessed in the airlines industry.

Competitive strategies

The objective of understanding industry structure lies in the need to build a sustainable competitive strategy which results in a position of advantage relative to its competitors. The starting point is in value chain analysis that helps a firm to determine the activities which contribute to creating superior value. The goal is to achieve profitability higher than the industry average.

Porter argues that based on this analysis, a firm can have one of the three competitive strategies:

Cost leadership – by which a firm leverages its scale to bring down the cost of doing business and then passes the benefit to its customers. This is achievable only for firms that display one or more of such features – (1) they operate on a large scale, serving multiple segments and perhaps even operating in complementary industries; (2) have proprietary technology; (3) have “preferential access to raw materials” (Porter, 1985). What’s more, cost leadership advantage is not at the expense of differentiation and is pursued by seeking cost advantage from multiple operational areas such as marketing, finance, human resources, in addition to production and supply-chain. Porter states that “a cost leader must achieve parity or proximity in the basis of differentiation relative to its competitors o be an above-average performer, even though it relies on cost-leadership for its competitive advantage” (Porter, 1985). An example is Tesco.
Differentiation: This strategy is aimed at achieving uniqueness on attributes that determine consumer preference. According to Porter, this strategy can emerge from product differentiation, distribution system, and/or marketing approach. This allows a firm to charge premium price and can result in a loyal customer base. However care must be taken that the premium price is more than the cost of differentiation as well as is sustainable in long run. Once again, pursuing this strategy does not mean that a firm can ignore the cost element, which is a vital contributor to its bottom-line. An example of this could be Waitrose.
Focus strategies – cost focus / differentiation focus: These strategic choices are for firms with narrow target segment. These are achievable only if the “target segments “either have buyers with unusual needs or else the production and delivery system that best serves the target segment must differ from that of other industry segments” (Porter, 1985).

These are generic strategies across industries and the manner in which these are executed also varies for different industries.

Internet and the Industry Structure

In recent times, Michael Porter’s five forces model has expanded in scope to include internet and its influence industries. In his article “Strategy and the Internet” published in Harvard Business Review in 2001, Porter argues that Internet “tends to influence and alter industry structures in ways to dampen overall profitability, and it has a levelling effect on business practices, reducing the ability of any company to establish an operational advantage that can be sustained.” He states that the seemingly low cost of doing online business is actually artificially depressed as it does not account for many key activities such as inventory and warehousing which are needed to deliver value to the customer. But he also determines that internet has increased the possibilities for firms “to establish distinctive strategic positionings” that traditional information technology tools could not offer. He concludes that including internet offers a new dimension to a firm’s operations and is unavoidable as a tool in carrying out business. But if real economic value is to be created then internet initiatives must be integrated with the traditional competitive strategy as “internet per se will rarely be a competitive advantage” (Porter, 2001).

Alternative model: Strategy from inside-out

This perspective is exactly opposite to Michael Porter’s Five Forces model. Models based on this perspective are focussed on internal strengths and capabilities for devising a competitive strategy rather than scouring external opportunities. The starting point is an assessment of firm’s resources or competences that have been acquired over a period of time. What’s more, if one such resource is not existing within, then how to acquire it? Market positioning is sought in alignment with a firm’s resource based strategy. “Selected market positions must leverage the existing resource base, not ignore it….for success resources should be leading and markets following” (Wit and Meyer, 2004, p. 252).

Two main models have been proposed by leading practitioners of management:

Competence based view; and
Capabilities based view

This viewpoint does not consider just physical resources, but also intangible resources or competences that get uniquely composed within an organisation during its operational span. These could vary from competence in Internet-driven supply-chain management to offline quality process. Firms seeking leadership position make sure that its core competences or capabilities are upgraded on a periodic basis so that competitive advantage is maintained. This is termed as the dynamic capabilities view (Teece, Pisano and Shuen, 1997). It is emphasised that a firm needs to take a long-term view of its competences and take all actions to strengthen these competences. This perspective does not advocate an ad-hoc approach that results in building up of unrelated competences.

On the flip side, the challenge is in dismantling of existing competences and building of new competences as market demand changes. One good example of this is the mass-production mastered by American automobile companies could not be transformed swiftly into lean production practiced by Japanese firms such as Toyota, leading to erosion of market share and competitive advantage for giants such as General Motors and Ford. “…companies experience that that their core competences can be their core rigidities, locking them out of new opportunities” (Leonard-Barton, 1995).

The perspective is further refined by Miller, Eisenstat and Foote (2002) as they propose the terms “asymmetries” and “capability configurations.” According to them, a firm’s asymmetries are it’s “skills, knowledge, processes relationships, proper ties, or outputs an organisation possesses or produces that its motivated competitors are unlikely to acquire or copy in a cost or time-effective way” (Miller et al 2002). However these can be of disadvantage to a firm unless “carefully fostered and directed….by leveraging them via an appropriate market focus, companies may be able to aspire realistically to attain competitive advantage” (Miller et al 2002). This is the essence of “capability configuration” which is a system of reinforcing elements incorporating core capabilities and the organisational design infrastructures…” (Miller et al 2002). They argue that the development process of inside-out strategy is emergent and iterative in nature and is characterised by trial and error. Three imperatives suggested by them for deriving sustainable competitive advantage out of an capabilities model are that firms need to: (1) “discover asymmetries and their potential”; (2) “create capability configurations – by design”; and (3) “pursue market opportunities that build on and leverage capabilities” (Miller et al 2002).

Conclusion

Both perspectives have their supporters. It is for a firm to decide the perspective that it wants to take for building its competitive strategy. It is suggested that the inside-out perspective has more depth. The argument is that although market-orientation and ability to capitalise on external opportunities are critical factors in a firm’s success, both (1) market-sensing and (2) customer-linking are distinctive capabilities that get cultivated within a firm over a period of time (Day, 1994). At the same time, Barney (1991) argues that resources become the foundation of competitive advantage only once they meet four conditions. They should be “(1) valuable, (2) rare, (3) difficult to imitate, and (4) difficult to substitute” (Barney, 1991).

Appendix I: Outside-in versus inside-out perspective

Outside-in perspective

Inside-out perspective

Emphasis on

Markets over resources

Resources over markets

Orientation

Opportunity driven (external potential)

Strength driven (internal potential)

Starting point

Market demand and industry structure

Resource base and activity system

Fit through

Adaptation to environment

Adaptation of environment

Strategic focus

Attaining advantageous position

Attaining distinctive resources

Strategic moves

External positioning

Building resource base

Tactical moves

Acquiring necessary resources

External positioning

Competitive weapons

Bargaining power and mobility barriers

Superior resources and imitation barriers

Source: Wit and Meyer, 2004, p.255

Appendix II

References:

Barney, J.B. (1991); Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage; Journal of Management, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1991, pp.99-120
Cummings, S. (1993); Brief Case: The First Strategists; Long Range Planning, Vol. 26, No. 3, June pp. 133 – 135
Day, George S. (1994); The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organisations; Journal of Marketing, October 1994, Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 37-52
Leonard-Barton, D. (1995); Wellsprings of Knowledge; Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA
Miller, Danny; Eisenstat, Russel and Foote, Nathaniel (2002); Strategy from the inside out: building capability-creating organisations; California Management Review, Vol. 33, No. 3
Porter, M.E. (1980); Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors; New York: The Free Press
Porter, M.E. (1985); Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance; New York: The Free Press
Porter, M.E. (1996); What is Strategy’; Harvard Business Review, Vol. 74, No. 6, November-December, pp. 61-78

Porter, M.E. (2001); Internet and Strategy’; Harvard Business Review, March; accessed from Harvard Business Publishing online http://www.hbsp.harvard.edu/hbsp/index.jsp

Prahalad, C.K. and Hamel, G. (1990); The Core Competence of the Corporation; Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, No. 3, May-June, pp. 79-91
Teece, D.J., Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997); Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management; Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 18, No. 7, August, pp. 509-533
Wit, Bob De and Meyer, Ron (2008); Strategy: Process, Content, Context – An International Perspective; Thomson, 4^th Edition

Brief 211514Page 1 of 8

Recently, research has occupied a crucial place in nursing that is identified as “the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or potential health problems” (American Nurses’ Association, 1980 p.9); thus, an appropriate understanding of research literature is a prerequisite for every individual who works in this area (Rees, 2003). Unfortunately, despite the fact that most of nurses acquire specific skills in research, only some of them manage to apply research data or research findings to practice (Bostrum & Suter, 1993). This can be explained by the nurses’ inability to critique a research, evaluating its pros and cons (Krainovich-Miller et al., 2002). The aim of the present essay is to critically analyse two quantitative research literatures in patient safety. The first research is “Relationship between complaints and quality of care in New Zealand: a descriptive analysis of complainants and noncomplainants following adverse events” by M. Bismark et al. (2006), while the second research is “Comparison of three methods for estimating rates of adverse events and rates of preventable adverse events in acute care hospitals” by P. Michel et al. (2004). Although many nursing studies have been conducted in the last decade (e.g. Johnson & Lauver, 1989; Conlon & Anderson, 1990; Norman et al., 1991; Brennan et al., 1995; Gross et al., 1995; Fieler et al., 1996; Bennet, 1999), they implicitly dealt with the issues of patient care; however, the studies discussed further directly relate to the quality of medical care in New Zealand and France.

The research conducted by Bismark et al. (2006) evaluates the extent of injuries in the patients cured in public hospitals of New Zealand, or more precisely (as the title reveals), a correlation between patients’ complaints and quality of medical care. While the title is clue to the focus, the abstract gives more detailed information, identifying the major aspects of the research (objectives, design, setting, population, main outcome measures, results and conclusion) in a clear scientific style. However, the abstract does not indicate the research questions of the study; they are stated further in the research and are the following:

1) Do complaints track injuries, or are they prompted by more subjective concerns?

2) Are complaints the “tip of the iceberg’ in terms of quality of care problems and, if so, how representative are they of broader quality problems? (Bismark et al., 2006 p.17).

Although the research by Michel et al. (2004) also refers to patient safety, neither the title, nor the abstract uncovers the theme in an explicit way. Actually, the theme is exposed further in the research; in particular, the study analyses rates of unintended injuries (defined by the authors as adverse events and preventable adverse events) in the patients cured in care hospitals of France. Similarly to the first research, the abstract in the second study briefly summarises the research and is divided into the same categories that uncover the essence of the investigation. In this regard, the abstract is an obvious strength of the analysis and it can serve as an example to other researchers who investigate various aspects of nursing.

But the research does not specify the research questions either in the abstract or in the introduction section of the paper. Such a lack of specific questions certainly complicates the overall apprehension of the study. The authors could have proposed some research questions, such as

1) What are the major aspects of reliability, acceptability and effectiveness?

Or

2) How rates of adverse events and rates of preventable adverse events can be properly assessed with each of three methods?

These questions are of primary importance to the research, as adverse events and preventable adverse events can not be rightfully evaluated, if the major criteria of reliability and effectiveness are not properly discussed in the context of the research. However, the authors pay little attention to these aspects of the analysis.

Despite the fact that the introduction section in both studies provides a valid explanation of the importance of the problem, neither of the two studies includes an overview of the previous research or specific reports. This neglect decreases the overall presentation and reduces the value of the presented data. However, the problems of statement are formulated in a concise way and reflect that the researchers narrowed the areas of research to the issue of adverse events in the clinical setting in order to get more accurate findings. In fact, this issue is especially relevant today when patient safety has become worse in many countries of the world. The justification for the chosen topic in the research by Bismark et al. (2006) is that the recent accident compensation system in New Zealand does not adequately examine patients’ complaints in all cases of adverse events. Pointing at the fact that “there is growing international interest in harnessing patient dissatisfaction and complaints to address problems with quality” (Bismark et al., 2006 p.17), the authors concurrently put crucial questions that inspire readers’ interest in the issue of patient safety from the very beginning. In the research of Michel et al. (2004) the underlying reason for initiating an investigation is that the limitations of the employed methods reduce the validity of the received findings in regard to patients’ injures within the hospital setting. However, the lack of appropriate background, theoretical frameworks, hypotheses and definite aims in the introduction section considerably limits the studies. This especially regards the non-inclusion of specific theories that usually back up the presented data. In this respect, both studies are theory-free; unlike theory-testing research and theory-generating research, this kind of research is less popular because it does not analyse any theoretical concepts that constitute the basis of practical nursing. On the other hand, the studies of Michel et al. (2004) and Bismark et al. (2006) specifically focus on a practical problem-solving framework; that is, the present researches are aimed at identifying practical solutions to the discussed problems rather than discussing theoretical implications.

The research of Michel et al. (2004) uses a quantitative research method that “emphasizes objectivity through statistical analysis” (Santy & Kneale, 1998 p.77) and the quasi-experimental design that is considered to be more adequate and less biased than an experimental method, if an investigation is conducted within the clinical setting (Polit & Hungler, 1995). Though objectivity is crucial for such kind of research, it would also be appropriate to combine quantitative and qualitative methods, that is, to combine objectivity and subjectivity (Phillips, 1990). The fact is that due to its quantitative method the study appears to be too analytical, too objectively-oriented; thus, there is a necessity to introduce some aspects of the subjective realm into the research. However, Parahoo (1997) supports another viewpoint, exposing the inadequacy of a qualitative method, especially in regard to a nursing research. The author points out that, applying to a quantitative method, researchers are able to predict the final outcomes, while a qualitative method may generate unpredictable results. The data in the study are collected in care hospitals of Aquitaine with the help of three research techniques – a cross sectional method, a prospective method and a retrospective method. Such triangulation is aimed at “relat[ing] different sorts of data in such a way as to counteract various possible threats to the validity of analysis” (Hammersely & Atkinson, 1983 p.199). In the present study triangulation corresponds with the terms of reference that provide appropriate relevance to the whole research (Shih, 1998). Identifying both advantages and disadvantages of all three methods in Box 2, the researchers contribute much to the reliability of the findings, despite the fact that they have not conducted a pilot study that, according to Carr (2003), intensifies the credibility of the employed research techniques. On the other hand, a pilot study is crucial for the investigations that utilise unchecked tools for research, as is the case with the present study, where the researchers conduct an evaluation of methodology. In this regard, a pilot study “helps to illuminate some of the problems of the research tool” (Santy and Kneale, 1998 p.80).

The research of Bismark et al. (2006) is also quantitative with descriptive design. The baseline data are taken from the medical records of the New Zealand Quality of Healthcare Study (NZQHS) and the Commissioner’s complaints database. Further, multivariate and bivariate analyses are applied to the research to identify certain dissimilarities between complaints and non-complaints. Overall, the explanation of the research techniques and methods is a great strength of this study, as the authors provide a thorough description in regard to data collection and study design. Although the researchers do not define a hypothesis of the analysis, they, nevertheless, use dependent and independent variables to differentiate complainants from non-complainants. However, the limited space of both studies has not allowed the researchers to insert the samples of medical records and questionnaires that served as the basis for the research; thus, the methodology of both investigations can not be fully assessed in terms of the quality.

Actually, the research of Bismark et al. (2006) and the research of Michel et al. (2004) employ primary sources (including official records) that explicitly relate to the subjects. But according to Burgess (1991), even primary sources should be critically assessed and “it is essential to locate them in context” (p.124). But neither the first nor the second study provides a critical evaluation of the utilised sources.

In regard to ethical issues, they are not openly addressed in the studies; however, in the research of Bismark et al. (2006) there is a mentioning that the investigation was endorsed by the Wellington Ethics Committee. For Robinson (1996), such ethical approval is a necessary part of a nursing research, as any investigation deals with human beings who may experience certain difficulties during the research. On the other hand, due to its descriptive nature the present study does not necessarily need an informed consent or ethical considerations (Cutcliffe & Ward, 2003), while the research of Michel et al. (2004) requires a discussion of certain ethical issues because of its quasi-experimental design. Some of these issues are patients’ confidentiality, defence of their rights and risk control (Pranulis, 1996). In regard to the latter factor, it is necessary for researchers to increase potential benefits and decrease potential risks, especially in such studies that involve a great number of participants, as is just the case with the research of Michel et al. (2004). Thus, it would have been proper for the researchers of the present study to discuss in detail subjects’ conditions and potential harm, particularly in view of the fact that nursing directly relates to patient safety within the clinical setting (DHHS, 1981). However, the ethical rights of samples are implicitly defended in both studies, as no personal details of participants are revealed. But the researchers provide no information of the ways the data were stored and protected before or during the investigation. Similarly, neither of the studies refers to informed consents, while this is a prerequisite for any nursing research (Alt-White, 1995; Berry et al., 1996).

As for sampling, the study of Bismark et al. (2006) analyses two groups of patients: the first group includes people who made complaints to the Commissioner and the second group includes people “identified by the NZQHS as having suffered an adverse event who did not lodge a complaint” (Bismark et al., 2006 p.17). A two stage sampling process is initiated by NZQHS on the example of 6579 medical records. Although inclusion and exclusion criteria are not explicitly identified in the study, the researchers make it clear that they only choose the patients who suffer adverse events. In the process of analysis these patients are divided into two categories – complainants and non-complainants, though both groups are typical representatives of the larger population. In the research of Michel et al. (2004) the sampling includes 778 patients from medical, surgical and obstetric wards. This number of samples is appropriate for a descriptive study.

Initially, the researchers chose 786 patients with the help of a two stage cluster stratified process, but excluded 8 persons “because they were still present on day 30, precluding the review of their medical records” (Michel et al., 2004 p.2). In this respect, the study does not clearly define inclusion and exclusion criteria, but some samples are excluded in the process of investigation. No obvious bias is found in regard to the samples; similar to the previous research, the samples belong to typical representatives of the larger group. In view of this fact, the sampling can be considered as fully reliable.

In addition to authors’ comments, the results in the research of Bismark et al. (2006) are presented in figures, tables and boxes that are introduced as additional tools for clarification. This visual information reflects how the data are collected and measured (Figure 1 is especially accurate in revealing the cases of injured complainants and non-complainants). Although the authors do not specifically explain such a choice, they provide a detailed justification for the use of correlation tests that define dependent variables (a distinction between complainants and non-complainants) and independent variables (age, ethnicity, sex and other factors). Besides, the researchers weight the bivariate and multivariate analyses to acquire more accurate findings. The results in the study of Michel et al. (2004) also appear in both textual and graphic forms in order to enhance explanation. But the researchers do not attain the balance between figures and comments, putting too much emphasis on figures. Unlike the previous study, the authors do not use dependent and independent variables in their analysis; however, they employ paired X² tests for the comparison of retrospective and prospective methods.

Discussing their findings, Bismark et al. (2006) draw a parallel between the received results and the findings of the previous studies. Actually, many findings of the prior research are consistent with the present research (e.g. Burstin, et al., 1993; Studdert et al., 2000), while some findings contradict the earlier results (e.g. Tapper et al., 2004). To some extent, such a comparison justifies the lack of literature review at the beginning of the research and provides more validity to the overall outcomes. In general terms, the findings of Bismark et al. (2006) directly relate to the objectives of the study, gradually introducing the evidence that proves the authors’ initial suggestions. In particular, the researchers find out that 79% of all injures can be identified as preventable adverse events. In the case of the Commissioner’s analysis, 64% of the complaints are made by the patients who suffer adverse events, of which 51% are preventable adverse events. In regard to the NZQHS review, 315 cases of adverse events (out of 850 cases) are preventable, 124 cases are serious and 48 cases are serious and preventable. As for instigators of complaints, 41% of complaints are made by the patients, while 59% – by their relatives or friends (13% – spouse, 16% – parent and 17% – child).

Evaluating the independent variables, the researchers reveal that the age of complainants is lower than the age of non-complainants; moreover, non-complainants mainly live in the regions with poor economic conditions. The findings in the research of Michel et al. (2004) also relate to the terms of reference, providing evidence that “the prospective method has several advantages over retrospective and cross sectional methods” (Michel et al., 2004 p.3). In particular, the prospective method better recognises preventable adverse events and is more trustworthy than two other methods. This is clearly seen in Venn diagrams that demonstrate the number of adverse events identified by each of three research methods. Overall, the findings in the present study are not properly discussed; however, the researchers discuss in detail the strengths and limitations of the research in the discussion section. For instance, as the authors reveal, reliability and effectiveness of adverse events rates are successfully estimated because the samples are assessed with the help of three methods. On the other hand, the researchers point at the possibility of bias that “may have been present due to the small number of hospitals and wards” (Michel et al., 2004 p.3) and because of the participation of the care teams in the prospective method. Besides, the reference list that the researchers utilised in the process of investigation might have errors that were not identified. Finally, the aspects of reliability, effectiveness and acceptability are not discussed in detail by the authors, though these are the major assessment criteria of the study. However, there are some obvious strengths of the research; unlike the studies that analyse adverse events either in surgery or medicine (e.g. Mantel et al., 1998; Waterstone et al., 2001), the present study examines various cases of adverse events in three areas – medicine, surgery and obstetrics.

Similarly to this research, Bismark et al. (2006) also identify certain limitations of the study; in particular, the analysis of adverse event rates is rather confined, if medical record reviews serve as the basis for the research. The research also lacks definite ethnicity data for all complainants; thus, there is a “potential for measurement error” (Bismark et al., 2006 p.21). In addition, the authors do not provide any information as to the alternative research methods that can be used for the assessment of the relations between complains and quality of medical care. Drawing a parallel between the employed methods and the alternative methods, it will be possible to enhance the validity of the received findings. The conclusion in the research of Bismark et al. (2006) directly responds to the terms of reference; based on the received results, the conclusion suggests that elderly or economically poor patients rarely initiate complaints processes. The same regards the patients who belong to ethnic minorities (in this case – to Pacific ethnicity). The authors recommend to conduct a further study that will profoundly investigate the reasons for people’s refusal to make complaints in the cases of poor medical care. Moreover, the complaints greatly depend on the severity of injures and whether the event is preventable or unpreventable.

In this respect, as the researchers conclude, “complaints offer a valuable portal for observing serious threats to patient safety and may facilitate efforts to improve quality” (Bismark et al., 2006 p.22). Unfortunately, no recommendations for practice are made at the end of the study, thus reducing the relevance of the received findings. On the other hand, as Santy and Kneale (1998) claim, “all research has some implications for practice even if the results have proven to be inconclusive” (p.82). In the research of Michel et al. (2004) the conclusion summarises the results that, in the authors’ words, “provide new insights into the epidemiology of adverse events” (p.4). Such a viewpoint is explained by the fact that the findings of the present study reveal the ways to intensify the implementation of prospective assessment in the clinical setting. However, the researchers only suggest the answers to the posed questions, avoiding any insistence on specific concepts or notions. Comparing three methods, the researchers recommend to use the prospective method for different purposes that implicitly or explicitly relate to the evaluation of adverse events rates. Finally, Michel et al. (2004) briefly discuss the prior knowledge on the topic and the knowledge acquired in the process of investigation. In regard to the prior knowledge, the assessment of adverse events was conducted in an analytical way that considerably limited the findings. In the present study the researchers receive more feasible results and identify that the causes of adverse events and risk reduction programmes can be successfully evaluated by the prospective method rather than by the retrospective or cross-sectional methods. However, further research is required, if the evidence received in this research is applied to practice (Barron & Kenny, 1986; Scott & Thompson, 2003).

Overall, both researches are well-structured and are written in a scientifically concise style; however, as was stated above, the study of Michel et al. (2004) provides too much technical details, while analysing the results. Therefore, it is slightly difficult to read the research and, consequently, there is a chance that its findings may be ignored by a practitioner on the premise of misunderstanding. Although the research of Michel et al. (2004) is logically constructed, an unqualified person may fail to rightfully apprehend the presented data. On the contrary, the study of Bismark et al. (2006) is easy to understand because it lacks much unexplained jargon. Another strength of the research is the appropriate use of quotes in the discussion section; these quotes are directly related to the analysis and correspond with the ideas expressed by the authors, either refuting or confirming them. Employing this or that quote, the researchers provide a detailed interpretation of a certain concept; and for all that, the number of quotes is reasonable and they are rather short. On the contrary, Michel et al. (2004) do not utilise quotes in the discussion to support their arguments, though they use certain references. Despite the fact that the researchers do not explicitly recommend their studies to nurses, the overall findings can be especially relevant to nursing staff, as well as to the researchers who are involved in health care.

Within a complex clinical setting nurses experience various difficulties because of the lack of appropriate practical knowledge (Treacy & Hide, 1999; Polit et al., 2001). Thus, the studies of Michel et al. (2004) and Bismark et al. (2006) can inspire nurses’ interest in the ways of patient safety, as, despite their limitations and certain inadequacies, the studies pose vital questions that may increase the quality of medical care not only in France and New Zealand, but in other countries as well. Due to the fact that nowadays nursing staff is usually required to implement various aspects of research into practice (Christman & Johnson, 1981; Burnard & Morrison, 1990; Street, 1992; McSherry, 1997; Cormack, 2000; Rodgers, 2000; Hek et al., 2002; Cluett & Bluff, 2004), the present studies are especially valuable, as they provide useful and valid information that extends the prior knowledge in patient safety. In further studies it will be crucial to discuss the received findings in the context of international implications and to pay more attention to preventable adverse events (Thomas et al., 2000). Moreover, it will be important to give some recommendations for nursing staff and those individuals who deal with patients’ complains (World Health Organisation, 1977; Gordon, 1988; Brink et al., 1989; Lindley & Walker, 1993; Ferketich, & Mercer, 1995; Northouse, 1995; Roseman & Booker, 1995; Duffy et al., 1996; Madge et al., 1997; Vertanen, 2001).

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According to Raz, the sources thesis is essential to the authority of law. Does it follow from his account that authority is at heart a matter of power (as a sceptic would maintain) rather than a rational virtue? Can Raz avoid this conclusion and remain a positivist?

It is contended that Raz and his articulation of legal positivism remains intact after careful analysis, if somewhat buffeted by the arguments inherent in the question as posed. To fully appreciate the concept of authority as Raz develops it, one must first consider how Raz has defined the sources thesis and its relationship to the authority of law.

The source thesis as developed by Raz is the culmination of his logical progression in the development of a flexible and comprehensive tool to define legal positivism. Raz fashions a three headed thesis comprised of social, moral and semantic components, of which the social thesis is the most important.^[1] Raz emphatically states that what the law is and what it is not is a social fact –his corollary proposition is that a rule is only a legal rule if it meets a social condition.^[2]

Raz proceeded in his analysis to articulate how the social thesis becomes a cornerstone for the justification of law as a social institution, a concept tightly allied by Raz to three elements that determine the true existence of such systems – efficacy, institutional character and the source of law.

In this context, Raz elevates the source thesis to one of both complexity and prominence. It is submitted that Raz in his definition of both efficacy and institutional character as separate tests that identify the existence of a legal system, in fact renders them as sub-compartments of his source thesis. Raz is certain that the source thesis, an acknowledgement that all law is fully determined by its social sources, is the most important element of a legal system.^[3] He defines his social sources as including any extraneous ‘interpretative sources’^[4] that may exist in a society.

Raz stipulates that a law has a source if its contents and existence can be determined without resort to moral arguments. Raz thus includes both legislation and a wide range of societal facts as defining the law and its authority.

The Raz definition of law as an aggregation of community and societal custom, habits, and shared perspectives is a far cry from the seminal Austin concepts of legal positivism, ones centred upon the notion of a irrefutable ‘sovereign power’ that promulgates law as a command that is reciprocally enforced by sanction, all crisply delineated from any moral considerations.^[5] In contrast, it is plain that Raz perceives the authority of the law in less stark and more indirect terms than Austin would have accepted.

The source thesis as posited by Raz has two functions. The first is its utility in categorising and systemising the interconnected aspects of law (a purpose that all legal positivists from Austin onwards would endorse). The second function is to provide publicly ascertainable standards that are binding upon society.^[6] The state power as contemplated by Raz to achieve these legal societal purposes is held in a collective sense by the community; there is no supreme and authoritative sovereign lawgiver in the Raz model.

However, it is equally plain that Raz does not attribute ‘rational virtue’ to his concept of authority. By definition, virtue is a moral consideration and therefore one that Raz and positivists generally would not permit to enter the authority equation. On the subject of unvirtuous law, Raz suggested that ‘…Even a bad law, as the inevitable official doctrine, should be obeyed for as long as it is in force, while lawful action is taken to try and bring about its amendment or repeal’. It is submitted that this perspective internalizes authority to within the society, consistent with Raz’ thesis that law is fully determined from social sources.^[7]

Raz considers the question of power in relation to law in another sense that bears upon the present question. Raz has stated in a number of his works that consistent with the source based notion of all law, the authority to create or administer the law must be either legitimate or de facto.^[8] The use of the term ‘authority’ has a strong power connotation; legal systems may only claim legitimacy through an implicit or express assertion that the system possesses the power to maintain such authority. The power to adjudicate legal issues and to the ability to maintain regulatory and enforcement systems places the legal system in a position of supremacy within a society, but it is a supremacy derived from societal forces and desires and not a sovereign influence in the Austinian positivist sense.

It is submitted that in the Raz interpretation of the institutional character of the law, the legitimate legal system will inevitably reflect the social fact of the society. In this fashion Raz closes a philosophical loop in his conclusion that ‘…conformity to moral values or ideals is in no way a condition for anything being a law or legally binding. Hence, the law’s conformity to moral values and ideals is not necessary^[9]. It is this proposition that cements the Raz position as one within the positivist camp.

Bibliography

George, Robert P., (ed.) The Autonomy of Law: Essays on Legal Positivism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)

George, Robert P. “What Is Law? A Century of Arguments.” First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life Apr. 2001:23

Raz, Joseph. Ethics in the Public Domain: Essays in the Morality of Law and Politics (Revised ed.) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995)

Raz, Joseph. Practical Reasons and Norms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979)

Raz, Joseph. The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979)

The Enduring Popularity of Shakespeare’s Hamlet

Why is Hamlet so popular? Shakespeare wrote countless masterpieces, many of which are debatably more exciting (The Tempest), momentous (Macbeth), intriguing (Othello), romantic (Romeo and Juliet) and profound (King Lear). But not only has Hamlet been produced more by the Royal Shakespeare company than any other work, it is a favourite of troupes (and audiences) around the world. From the play’s inception in 1602, up until the National Theatre’s acclaimed production in 2000 (and beyond), Hamlet has captured the imagination. A close examination of the play, along with a careful focus on its themes, will shed some light on Hamlet’s 400 year old enthrall, with a special emphasis on its relevance to a modern British audience.

Hamlet is a tale of revenge, murder and existential and spiritual angst. The title character is a young prince whose father, the King of Denmark, has unexpectedly passed away. His brother, Claudius, has inherited the throne and taken the former king’s wife as his own. Hamlet is visited by his father’s ghost, who informs him that he was murdered by Claudius, and that his death needs to be avenged. Instead of instantly doing so, Hamlet attempts to first confirm his uncle’s guilt by feigning madness, and later by staging a play of the murder, to which Claudius’ reaction essentially confirms his guilt. But even with the evidence in hand, Hamlet is still unable to enact his revenge. After accidentally killing the king’s councilor Polonius, he is deported to England, and upon his return enters into a duel with Polonius’ son, Laertes. However, the fight is a setup; Laertes’s blade is poisoned, as is the wine in a goblet from which Hamlet is to drink. While Hamlet wins the duel and ends up killing Claudius, he too succumbs to the poison and dies.

In the play, Hamlet is by far the major presence: his problem is central to the plot, and his public and private exultations and speculations dominate the action (Hoy, 1991). Furthermore, the role of Hamlet is far larger than any other in all of Shakespeare’s works. While the play is filled with ambiguities, the biggest of all have to do with Hamlet’s motivations and actions (Levin, 1959). There is always more to him than the other characters in the play can figure out. Part of this has to do with the way Shakespeare crafted him – his intense pensiveness, his uncertainness, the vagaries of his actions – but part of it is Hamlet himself, who actually tells other characters that there is more to him than meets the eye, notably his mother and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. In addition, when he speaks, he sounds as if there’s something important he’s not saying, maybe something even he is not aware of (Hoy, 1991).

What separates Hamlet from other revenge plays is that the action we expect to see is continually postponed (Wilson, 1951). Instead of being based on activity, the play is all about character, and really only the character of Hamlet. Many people regard Hamlet as a play about indecisiveness, but more than this, it can be seen as an examination of action itself; that is, the conditions necessary for such, and the appropriate amount required, depending on the circumstances. The question of how to act is affected not only by Hamlet’s need for certainty, but by emotional and psychological factors (Halliday, 1964). Hamlet himself appears to distrust the idea that it’s even possible to act in a controlled, rational way. For when he does act, he does so swiftly and recklessly. This extreme shift from paralysis to impulsiveness further adds to his enigmatic nature.

Without action to sustain the play, the plot instead revolves around Hamlet contemplating various questions, among them: Is the ghost what it appears to be, or is it really trying to deceive him? How can the facts about a crime be known without there being any witnesses? Can Hamlet know the intricacies of Claudius’s soul by studying his behaviour? Can we ever really know whether our actions will have the consequences we want them to have? Can we know what happens in the afterlife? (Levin, 1959).

This last question is one of the most powerful throughout the play. There are times when Hamlet seems to feel that death itself may bring the answers to his deepest concerns (Wilson, 1951). The question of his own death plagues him, and he more than once contemplates whether or not suicide is a legitimate choice in an unbearably painful world. Hamlet’s grief is such that he frequently longs for death to end his suffering, but worries that if he commits suicide, he will be suffer eternally in hell. In his famous “To be or not to be” soliloquy, Hamlet concludes that no one would choose to endure the pain of life if they were not afraid of what will come after death, and that it is this fear which causes morality to interfere with action (Levin, 1959).

In sum, Hamlet, is ambiguous, vague and mysterious, uncertain, indecisive and pensive, self-loathing and self-reflexive, simultaneously afraid to live and afraid to die. Is it any wonder then that people can relate to him? People enjoy Hamlet because he evokes their sympathy. His character is flesh and blood. He doesn’t just act; he thinks, he questions, he feels. Hamlet is extremely philosophical and contemplative, and takes the time to analyze difficult questions that cannot be answered with any certainty. His melancholy is in many ways endearing. Though his actual age is debatable, in essence he is the quintessential teenager, afraid to grow up and take on burdens and responsibility he knows he must and yet is not ready for. His urgency is contagious. Beyond this, there are the questions he deals with, primarily those of death and the afterlife, that haunt us all. It is extremely rare to not only hear such questions so well articulated, but to hear them articulated at all. These conversations are largely relegated to our own heads. They are intimate and personal, and are seldom expressed. To see them on stage is to bear witness to our own souls.

But this only explains why the character of Hamlet is so popular. Though he dominates the course of the action (or lack thereof), there is another reason why the play itself has been so successful and so resonant, which has to do with the famous line: “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark” (Hamlet, I, iv, 90). Everything is related in Hamlet, including the health of the ruling royal family and that of the nation as a whole (Hoy, 1991). Throughout the play, there are explicit connections drawn between the two. Denmark is often described as a physical body made ill by the moral corruption of Claudius. While the dead King Hamlet is portrayed as a strong, noble ruler under whose guard the state was in good health, Claudius, is regarded as wicked, corrupt and out to satisfy only his own appetites (Wilson, 1951). Throughout history, similar correlations have been made, from Stalin and Hitler to Blair and Bush. While the latter pair are perhaps far less sinister, their political decisions have similarly shaped the perceptions of the citizens of the nations they lead, as well as the perceptions of those on the outside. Our leaders are responsible for the overall “health” of the state, and the war in Iraq and other actions are doing little at the moment to paint a picture of good health. Close observers of Hamlet, no matter of what time period, sense this parallel instantly.

Modern society, specifically the UK, is still in Hamlet’s thrall. In today’s world, with so many problems and too few solutions, it is easy to feel powerless and paralyzed. There are choices to be made, and actions to take, but 1) which ones should be carried out and 2) will they even do any good? The modern person is at a crossroads, and in some ways Hamlet personifies this better than anyone else. Throw in the play’s description of the state as being deceased, and the work comes across almost as the poster child for modern malaise. This is evidenced in the 2000 production by the National Theatre, which is only one of many recent and successful incarnations of the play. The title role was played by Russell Beale, who prepared for the part by looking into himself in an attempt to bring out the “everyman quality” of Hamlet, along with his intense self-reflection and (albeit feigned) madness. To do justice to Shakespeare’s words, in this case gravitating between wit, wryness and self-reflection, Beale decided not to force emotion, but to instead “get there slowly, to get the emotional arc right, and not find too many moments of crisis” (Beale, 2000). The actor, in perhaps a bit of method, decided to try and capture Hamlet’s grief by using his own, in this case the fact that his mother died a few weeks before the performance. He also used his frustration over “not being able to feel enough” to further cement and perfect his interpretation (Beale, 2000). By all accounts he didn’t disappoint.

The Independent declared Beale’s Hamlet “not at all ‘Hamlet-like,’ and his performance “moving and crystal clear,” characterized by “an aching regret for the world that might have been rather than a seething contempt for the world that exists” (Taylor, 2000). When Hamlet returned from England, the reviewer found him emanating a “shyly gracious acceptance of the mystery of life and fate,” and in dying “moved towards the audience as if painfully and belatedly conscious of their presence, imparting an even more shattering sense of the waste of a noble life” (Taylor, 2000).

The Evening Standard wrote that the performances illuminated the text in ways that made it fresh and accessible, and Beale’s performance of “clarity, humanity and humility held the audience spellbound…they could only suffer with his confusion, grief self-loathing and doubt” (de Jongh, 2000).

The Guardian complimented Beale for being “everything one could hope for: witty, ironic, intelligent, ‘a Henry James who is also a swordsman’ to borrow Harold Bloom’s phrase,” and: “bookish, inward, reflective and intensely capable of self-scrutiny” (Billington, 2000). Furthermore, the paper admired his “capacity for surprise, moral sensitivity and parodic wit” and his ability to convey “the paralysis of the intellectual caught up in a world of realpolitik,” resulting in a “first-rate, deeply intellectual Hamlet whose weapons are primarily verbal and who understands that revenge cannot offer meaningful redress” (Billington, 2000).

In the National Theatre’s production, along with countless others over four centuries, a central theme is constantly repeated: Hamlet’s self-loathing, specifically in regards to his lack of feeling, which, as much as his lack of action, makes him guilty. This aspect of his character is perhaps more relevant today than ever. The theme of powerlessness, along with the tangible frustration and guilt that comes with it, can easily find a home in the mind of a modern audience member. In addition, Hamlet’s intensely relatable “human all too human” qualities, his probing thoughts on the afterlife and the theme of the “nation as diseased body” are so universal and timeless that they shed much light on the play’s appeal. Perhaps there will come by a day when Hamlet fails to strike a chord with audiences. But for now, Shakespeare’s masterful creation and revolutionary character study is safely ingrained in our consciousness.

Bibliography

Beale, Russell. “The Readiness is All.” National Theatre, 2000. http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/?lid=2485

Billington, Michael. The Guardian, September 6, 2000.

Crystal, David, and Crystal, Ben. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Penguin: New York, 2005.

de Jongh, Nicholas. The Evening Standard, September 6, 2000.

Halliday, F. E. A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964. New York: Penguin, 1964.

Hoy, Cyrus. Hamlet: An Authoritative Text, Intellectual Backgrounds, Extracts from the Sources, Essays in Criticism. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1991.

Levin, Harry. The Question of Hamlet. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Braunmuller, A.R., Orgel, Stephen (Eds.). New York: Penguin Classics, 2001.

Taylor, Paul. The Independent, September 6, 2000.

Wilson, John. What Happens in Hamlet. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1951.

Introduction:

Traffic congestion is a critical problem which happens on roads which make traffic busy because roads full of cars and buses. Traffic congestion challenges traffic flow in urban area and is prevented smooth traffic. A growing urban area creates complex problems in daily life with traffic. Congestion phenomenon’s can not be terminated only by applying physical constructing such as: build bridge, motorways and increasing road capacity. It is necessary to build technology system for transportation management which is used for control of the traffic phenomenon. Traffic control systems have direct influence on traffic problems which is help to improve traffic flow and reduce traffic congestion. Usually, traffic jams are caused by many reasons such as incidents, works in roads, roads maintenance. Approximately, traffic congestion occurs at peak times in the morning or evening when people are travelling to work. In addition, transportation systems are one of the main reasons causing traffic congestion in some countries. Traffic roads have a direct effect on traffic jams which relate to small ways use or damaged ways (Katathira et al, 1994)

Firstly, when K. Macmillan invented the first cars had proper shape and wooden frame in 1839 which included many types of advantages such as: motion speed; comfort; control; economy; furniture and safety. The Automobiles industry became more popular and necessary for the life and it aimed to improve car’s industrial design and create more cars by companies. In the end of 18th century, the first traffic congestion appeared on the old London Bridge which created a serious problem. After that, the London government decided to find way out for this phenomenon which led to the invention of control system to solve traffic congestion by installing traffic lights on the old London bridge. In addition, the London government added another control system by dividing the London old bridge into two paths, one for vehicles and another for pedestrians (Bellis, 1994).

Transportation problems have been studied by many researchers and many solutions have been proposed to solve it. Improving transportation includes many ways to improve traffic performance in major cities and motorways. The Government is responsible for improving the efficiency of transportation in cities and highways between cities which reduce traffic problems. Transportation blockage has a clear influence on economic situation and it causes increased in live cost.

The aim of this paper is to discuses the effects of control systems can reduce traffic congestion, energy consumption and road incidents. It is important to understand the link between traffic congestion and control systems. However, there are some solutions to decrease their negative effects.

Background
Traffic congestion, definition

Traffic congestion is complex phenomenon which is related to a number of cars on the road at the same times which is hinder motion and need extra time to reach destinations. In fact, traffic congestion is usually recurring or non recurring phenomenon. Always, recurring traffic congestion is appeared by daily event in a certain times which is solved reorganize suitable planning. On the other hand, non recurring traffic congestion is unexpected and unusual event cause by an incident which is suddenly reduced road capacity. In addition, road capacity is one of the main reason cause traffic congestion when the number of cars on the road increases than the road capacity. (Logi, 2001)

Control system

Control system is approach to remedy traffic phenomenons by applying technology, programming and tolls. In the end of 18th century, the first control system was applied in London by traffic light which was used to organize traffic motion on London old bridge. A growing in urban area encourage government to invent and apply a new technology has ability to reduce traffic problems which is called traffic control system. The aim of this section is to describe effect traffic congestion by traffic control system because traffic control system has direct influence on traffic problems which is helped to improve traffic flow and solve traffic problems by apply a number of system factors such as: traffic lights; road pricing; travel times; gasoline tax; transit fare and speed limitation.

Literature review

In spite of, the link between control systems and traffic congestion is important; there appear literature dearth which is especially in evidence of appropriate systems. Therefore, there is calculated and experimental evidence. As a result, the relationship between control system and traffic congestion was investigated in 1994 by Shefer which had divided volume over capacity ratio which was used to measure level of traffic congestion. Then after, in1997 the relationship between traffic congestion and control system was studied by Shefer and Rietveld which is used sample hypothesis and provide experiment evidence by comparing traffic congestion level when peak hours the traffic congestion level was less than peak hours in usually days. Further study, by Noland and Quddus in 2005 who was used link between traffic congestion and control system by using spatial analysis manor in London. This study achieves lower traffic congestion by applying several types of control systems (Wang et al, 2009).

Type of problems

The most type of problem that is happening in big cities is traffic congestion. Traffic congestion has high impact on smooth traffic which cause limes lose, work opportunity and energy consumption. However, traffic congestion has influenced in the city live which become extremely complicated and difficult for life. The most common with traffic congestion are road accident and road capacity which can be blockage traffic flow in cities or in country side for example in London congestion occur in some area not during peak time always during all day which cause time loses and it become serious problem which encourage the governments to find out solution for this phenomenon to decrease it and avoid many problems relate with traffic congestion which can be make life smooth and uncomplicated. Transportation system challenges by traffic congestion which is importance to develop transportation systems by using new methods and useful technology which can alleviated or decreased level of congestion in urban area. According to ( Logi , 2001) point out that traffic congestion is recurring and non recurring congestion which is appeared when traffic volume increase than road capacity in a certain times. Always, recurring traffic congestion connect with daily event thought non recurring traffic congestion connect with unexpected event by road incident or road works. This phenomenon has been studied by many researchers which aim to find approaches or solution for traffic congestion.

Toyota Motor VehiclesBackground

Toyota Motor Corporation is a famous Japanese multinational corporation, and is considered the world’s second largest automaker of automobiles. The founder of Toyota is Kiichiro Toyoda, who born in 1894, and the son of Sakichi Toyoda, who was popular in the invention of the automatic loom.

Toyota motors became a mainstay of Japan economy 1n 1960. And it get great growth in this time. And the annual sale of TMC in Japan was about one million dollar I 1962

Introduction

Toyota Motor Corporation, being a multinational is the world’s largest automaker in terms of sales volume. As of 2008, Toyota employs approximately 316,000 people around the world in comparison to second ranked automaker General Motors’ 266,000 employees. The company is mainly engaged in automobile business and financial business.

In end of 1989, Toyota started its manufacturing in Europe by having two main manufacturing plants working in UK. It provides all ranges of cars from mini vehicles to big trucks.

Toyota Philosophy

Toyota’s management philosophy has evolved from the company’s origins and has been reflected in the terms “Lean Manufacturing” and Just In Time Production, which it was instrumental in developing. The Toyota Way has four components: 1) Long-term thinking as a basis for management decisions, 2) a process for problem-solving, 3) adding value to the organization by developing its people, and 4) recognizing that continuously solving root problems drives organizational learning.

They deals in wide range of cars like:

Avensis
Previa
Dyna
CBU Camry
Coaster
Land cruiser Prado
Fortuner

Toyota Motor’s main competitors:

General Motors (GM): It was the world’s largest selling vehicle producer but their market shares were decline in the 80’s and mid 90’s.
Ford: It was the second largest motor car selling and profit making company in the world right behind the GM Company.
Chrysler: It was the third main competitor of Toyota. The company was almost gone bankrupt during the 80’s but their government support their company and saved them.
Main Body
SWOT Analysis
(S)trengths

One of the main biggest strengths of Toyota is the JUST IN TIME concept. Just in Time spirit implies to the two opposing forces of providing fast and

flexible response, and yet building mechanisms and systems that are efficient and waste-free. The concept is to provide the right product and information, at the right time, in the right amount, in the right manner, while maintaining high standards of efficiency and cost control. JIT has resulted in ZERO inventory and enormous saving in the cost.

The company has recorded a strapping financial performance in recent years. Toyota Motor’s revenues increased at a compound annual growth rate of 11.1% during 2004-08.The Company also had witnessed a considerable increase in profitability. During 2004-08, the average operating profit margin and net profit margin of the company stood at 9.1% and 6.5%, respectively. The strong financial performance of the company has contributed to its market domination. This, in turn, enhances investors’ confidence in the company for investment.

Toyota is one of the top leading automotive brands in the world. In the annual ranking of top 100 global brands by BusinessWeek and Interbrand in 2008, Toyota figured in the sixth position. According to the survey, Toyota’s brand value has increased by 6%, to reach $34.1 billion in 2008. In addition, it is the highest ranking automotive brand name in the world. It is ranked well ahead of its competitors like Mercedes, BMW, Honda, Ford, Hyundai, Porsche and Nissan. For instance, in the same period, Ford has been faced with a number of troubles, including a failure to meet its goals for SUV mileage gains or to exploit its well-regarded Escape hybrid; subsequently, the brand value of Ford fell by 12%, to $7.9 billion in 2008. Toyota’s luxury car, Lexus, also has an independent ranking in the top 100 global brands. The brand value of Lexus was around $3.6 billion, with a ranking of 90. Some of the other popular product brands of the company include

Corolla, Camry, Sienna, Prius and Scion. The company’s strong brand image gives it considerable competitive advantage and helps the company to register higher sales growth in domestic, as well as in international markets.

In 2003 Toyota has beaten its rival Ford into third spot, to become the World’s second largest carmaker with 6.78 million units. The company is still behind rivals General Motors with 8.59 million units in the same period. Its strong industry position is based upon a number of factors including a diversified product range, highly targeted marketing and a commitment to turn manufacturing and quality. The company makes a large range of vehicles for both private customers and commercial organizations, from the small Yaris to large trucks. The company uses marketing techniques to identify and satisfy customer needs. Its brand is a household name. The company also maximizes profit through efficient manufacturing approaches (e.g. Total Quality Management).

(W)eaknesses

Usually big setup faces problems during oversupply as in it the company need to make sure that it is the models that consumers want. Toyota markets most of its products in the US and in Japan due to which they are always exposed to fluctuating economic and political conditions. Perhaps that is the reason that now the company is beginning to shift its attentions to the emerging Chinese market.

Toyota Motor provides pension benefits and other post-retirement health and life insurance benefits to employees. During the Year 2008, the company incurred post retirement benefit expenses of approximately $709.1m. The company also paid a total of approximately $671.5m for the post retirement benefit plans during 2007. Furthermore, by the end of March 2008, the company’s projected pension and post-retirement benefit obligations stood at approximately $14,865.9m as compared to the planned assets of approximately $11,256.4m, resulting into an unfunded status of approximately $3,609.5m. Sizeable unfunded post retirement benefits would force the company to make periodic cash contributions towards bridging the gap between post retirement benefits obligations and planned assets, which would reduce cash available for growth plans.

The company needs to keep producing the cars in order to retain its operational efficiency. Car plants represent a huge investment in expensive fixed costs, as well as the high costs of training and retaining labor. So if the car market experiences a down turn, the company could see over capacity. If on the other hand the car market experiences an upturn, then the company may miss out on potential sales due to under capacity i.e. it takes time to accommodate. This is a typical problem with high volume car manufacturing companies.

(O)pportunities

Worldwide demand for light hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) is estimated to reach 4.0 million units by 2015. Rising energy costs and increased emissions regulations are likely to increase the demand for HEVs, as hybrid engines are more fuel efficient and less polluting than conventional gasoline and diesel engines. The primary markets for HEVs will be within Triad countries (the US, Western Europe and Japan), although the quickly growing Chinese market is also expected to experience relatively strong demand for these fuel efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles.

Toyota Motor Company is keen to capitalize on the growing demand for hybrid electric vehicles. The company has spent a large amount of money for the development of hybrid vehicles over the years. The accumulative total of Toyota Motor’s hybrid vehicle sales reached 1.5 million in June 2008. Furthermore, the company plans to expand its hybrid lineup and achieve annual sales of one million hybrid vehicles by early 2010. For this, the company plans to introduce demand-creating products. The company also launched models such as the Prius and LS600h hybrids at the 2008 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition, held at the new China International Exhibition Center in Beijing. The company’s emphasis on hybrid technology will enable it to capitalize on the positive market trends in this segment to enhance its market position

Lexus and Toyota now have a reputation for manufacturing environmentally friendly vehicles. Lexus has RX 400h hybrid, and Toyota has it Prius. Both are based upon advance technologies developed by the organization. Such moves can only firm up Toyota’s interest and investment in hybrid R&D.

Toyota Motor has launched several new models in year 008. For example, in April 2008, Toyota Company has displayed a total of 50 concept vehicles at the 2008 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition. The company has launched its models including the compactYaris, the new Vios and Lexus LX570 SUV, along with concept cars such as the iQ compact and the personal mobility vehicle ‘i-REAL’. The company also displayed models such as the Prius and LS600h hybrids and the GOA (Global Outstanding Assessment) collision-safety body represented by a Camry and Crown models. Besides helping to garner additional revenues, new models will also help the company to revamp its aging model line up

Toyota is going to target the ‘urban youth’ market. The company has launched its new Aygo, which is targeted at the streetwise youth market and captures (or attempts to) the nature of dance and DJ culture in a very competitive segment. The vehicle itself is a unique one.

Convertible, with models extending at their rear! The narrow segment is notorious for it narrows margins and difficulties for branding.

(T)hreats

The worldwide automotive market is highly competitive. Toyota Motor Company is facing tough competition from other automotive manufacturers in its various markets. The competition among various auto players is likely to exaggerate in light of continuing globalization and consolidation in the worldwide automotive industry. The factors affecting competition include product quality and features, the amount of time required for innovation and development, pricing, reliability, safety, fuel economy, customer service and financing terms. Increased competition may lead the company to lower vehicle unit sales and increased inventory, which may result in a further downward price pressure and can negatively affect the company’s financial condition and results of operations.

The European Union (EU) Commission and the EU Parliament have adopted a directive that establishes increasingly stringent emission standards for passenger and light commercial vehicles for model years 2005 and thereafter. Under the directive, manufacturers will be responsible for the emission performance of these vehicles for five years or 100,000 kilometers, whichever occurs first. A more stringent Emission standard (EURO 5) is also on the table of the EU legislative bodies and is likely to be effective from 2009. This will create more tough competition to work in EU as they would require more to concentrate on quality which will increase their cost and will lead to increase in prices by which the other competitors in the area would take advantage as their home land?

As with any other car manufacturer, Toyota is facing great deal of competitive rivalry in the car market. Competition is increasing almost on the daily basis, with new entrants coming into the market from China, South Korea and new plants in Eastern Europe. The company is also exposed to any movement in the price of raw materials such as rubber, steel and fuel. The key economies in the Pacific, the US and Europe is also experiencing slowdowns. These economic factors are potential threats for Toyota.

PEST Analysis
(P)olitical

Toyota had a lot of help from the local government, including tax breaks. The company is likewise linked closely to the policies ofgovernments, the earnings of banks. Toyota is currently dominated by little more than a handful of firms, each wielding colossal financial, emotional and political power. The company’s approach to dealing with political institutions has not always been brilliant. It tends to be good on technical issues, although it has not always fully presented the longer-term options, in order to make the choices and their implications clear. Toyota is expected to ‘sell’ Indiana and its assets to the world.

(E)conomic

For much of the developed world, Toyota Company is a pillar company in auto mobile business, a flag of economic progress. The Toyota Company has been a core company, a unique economic phenomenon, which has dominated the twentieth century. However, the automobile industry including the Toyota now suffers from a series of structural schisms and has become riddled with contradictions and economic discontinuities. For the capital markets and the finance sector, it has lost a lot of its significance, as a result of ever declining profits and stagnant sales. The proliferation of products means that it has become hopelessly wasteful of economic resources. While all these and more sound like a very gloomy assessment of such a vast economic phenomenon, the industry is not in the end despondent. A different future is possible for the industry, a highly desirable one.

(S)ocial and Cultural

Toyota’s ability to bring to market world-class vehicles depends, in large part, on the craftsmanship and hard work.

As part of the development in automotive industry, the Toyota Company actually affects the society as a whole. It employs millions of people directly, tens of millions indirectly. Its products have transformed society, bringing undreamed-of levels of mobility, changing the ways people live and work. The social value of the additional mobility that this industry brings involves the value of the people being able to commute over longer distances easily, among many others. There are, on the other hand, particular social issues to address in many developing countries, often those that are the result of an undertone of religious faith. Toyota company has the role to

play in helping develop the mobility of such countries and it can be achieved at an acceptable social cost of the country is prepared to learn the necessary lessons from those who have traveled this route before it, and to make the necessary investments.

(T)echnology

In 1994, the Toyota Company had given its employees the challenge to bring up with new technological change in cars. The car for the 21st century. For this purpose a special team was developed to make the car. This team was named as G21 team. In 1997; Toyota’s G21 team made a car which is both fuel efficient and environment friendly as well. They made a hybrid car named as Prius. This car was a major success in Japan at that time. Till that time Toyota hasn’t introduced this technology outside Japan. In 2001 Toyota introduces hybrid cars worldwide. Hybrid car can be run on engine or battery or both. The production of first hybrid car in Europe was started in 2010. Success of hybrid car can be shown by the fact that over 3,000,000 cars were sold worldwide.

There are different models of hybrid cars had been made so far which are as follows,

NHW10 Model (1997-2000)
NHW11 Model (2001-2003)
NHW20 Model (2004-2009)
NHW30 Model (2009-till present)
Recommendations

Toyota is being one of the top motor vehicle producers in the world still needs to do a lot more improvements regarding their quality and services by taking seriously the consumer complaints

Since last few months the company is facing some quality issues which need to be rectify soon because some researchers are also pointing out these which is creating a bad impact for the company and its market share.

Toyota also had added some experts containing both consumers and experts. They had been recommended by their union back in Japan to review their quality but they are not directly affiliated with the Toyota Company. They also need to review these members and had to directly affiliate them with Toyota.

Toyota’s main hazard in their success had been their big recall of its cars all over the world. The company had failed to identify and solve this issue and this can create big impact in their sales and perception of their customers while purchasing car. So they need to rectify and solve this problem quickly so that the image of the company can be retained.

Moreover they also should make a proper consumer profile on their website as well. This will enable them to easily identify its consumers and make the strategy for marketing according to that.

The company had used social media like face book and twitter for the consumers. It is the demand of the time of these days but the problem is that they are not making good use of it. Their participation through these is almost zero. If they improve on that participation and make it more active then that will help the company a lot and can be a good marketing source as well.

Our choice to pick Toyota was due to the significant changes it has gone through over the years. When Toyota first came into the market; nobody was willing to buy this Japanese car that they knew nothing about. But as time has gone by they have proved themselves to be one of the most reliable cars that can be found in today’s market. A radio producer in Kenya once said ‘every car in front of you and behind you is a Toyota’ (Juma, 2002) and indeed it is true.

Toyota’s decision to make this hybrid car was driven by both internal and external forces. It has been noted that the ‘hybrid Camry will be the first commercially available hybrid vehicle built in Australia. The decision was announced in June 2008 to begin manufacturing a hybrid version of the Camry Sedan at the Altona plan in Melbourne from the beginning of 2010’ (www.toyota.com.au). Looking at the internal forces first Toyota is ‘committed to developing hybrid systems as a core technology. Globally, the goal is to reach one million hybrid sales per year during the 2010s. Toyota’s worldwide goal is to approach zero impact on the environment in all our activities, including vehicles and production. While we may never be able to achieve zero impact, we always strive to do better – and hybrid technology is an important part of that effort’ (www.toyota.com.au). There is constant need to improve their cars-not that they need that much improvement but in the sense of safety and efficiency for its customers. External forces are the need to stay on top of the competitive market. All automobile companies are constantly making a new car or adding features to a new car. For Toyota to maintain its name and customers and attract new customers the hybrid was the best way to go about this.

2. DRIVING FORCES

The forces which has no or minimal control by the Toyota Production System (TPS) are termed as External factors. These can be further classified into three categories. 1.Technological developments 2.Competitive environment 3.Social and Political pressure

2.2 Economic

With the current global financial crisis hitting virtually the entire world, and as mentioned above the fluctuating fuel prices, there is bound to be a change in the consumer spending and price of most commodities will definitely be affected. It is in this aspect therefore those organizations will have to change so has adapted to the dynamism of the ever rapid globe and become relevant to the consumer in both product and services that they do offer in the market.

2.3 Social

The current social trend is “go-green” which basically means being environmental cautious more of the eco-solution lean towards the conservation the earth- less pollution. The trend particularly in the automobile world is the one moving from fuel guzzlers cars to eco-friendly cars more of hybrid cars which the Toyota organization has done well to rebrand themselves’ as the automobile industry of the future.

2.4 Technological

Environmental factors have driven TPS (Toyota Production System) to excel in their Technological developments. As a result TPS introduced hybrid vehicles, which are more fuel efficient and eco friendly. This external factor has transformed TPS from an ordinary passenger car manufacturing company to a Technology innovative company.

With the new innovation particularly in the fuel conservation, Toyota Australia leads in the domestic market through its ‘variable value timing intelligent technology’ (www.toyota.com.au , 2009). The VVTI technology makes it stand out from the other car manufactures. The organization is also distinctive in its development management styles such as the ‘just-in-time’ and ‘Toyota production system’ (www.toyota.com.au , 2009) which are incorporated by the Toyota Australia.

2.5 Competition

Competitors in the automobile industry have been a key player for TPS development. In order to sustain in the market TPS reengineered some technological advancements and gadgets from their competitors such as Cruise control, Auto gearing in their products. (Driel, Dolfsma, 2009)

Competitors in the automobile industry have been a key player for TPS development. The automobile industry has the most furious competition in the world, with the greatest Toyota competitors being, Honda which is from Japan. Toyota however stands alone due to its capability to change its technology and conform to its changed environment, particularly the fuel efficiency aspect

3. CHANGE PROCESS & MODELS

Following the strong desire that both the Federal and Victorian governments had for new environmental friendly technologies; Toyota decide to come up with an eco-friendly car, the hybrid. In addition to that; ‘the growing demand for our Prius hybrid also confirmed that there is a need for more hybrid models in our line up’ (www.toyota.com.au).

As purported by the ‘equilibrium theory of change’ (Abernathy & Utterback, 1978; Imai, 1986; Tushman & Romanelli, 1985) comes the crucial fundamental understanding that ‘change occurs in a series of radical and incremental changes’ (Abernathy & Utterback, 1978; Imai, 1986; Tushman & Romanelli, 1985). With emphasizes from (Kofoed, et al.2002) stating in other words that ‘the above theory claims that an organisation-just like an organism- is pressured by periodic environmental events to change dramatically or else perish’. So strong is this notion that it is further illustrated without any reasonable doubt by the Toyota organisation worldwide and to be specific Toyota Australia too. The Toyota Australia has conceptualized the essence of the ‘equilibrium theory of change’ (Abernathy & Utterback, 1978; Imai, 1986; Tushman & Romanelli, 1985) more so by embarking on radical changes that are all geared towards the improvement of structural process and systems within the organisation. The Toyota Australia uses both the continuous improvement process and re-engineering process.

3.1 Continuous improvement process

The essences of Toyota Australia continuous improvement process is its quality management programmes and to be emphatic ‘Toyota production system’ (www.toyota.com.au). The organisation through the ‘Toyota production system’ (www.toyota.com.au) are enabled to provide its customs with the highest quality cars and at the same time services. At the heart of this system is the ‘Kaizen’ (www.toyota.com.au) which is the ‘absolute elimination of waste and helps workers to be more efficient’ (www.toyota.com.au).

3.2 Re-engineering process

As mentioned before, Toyota Australia makes use of this process because it has identified its distinctive competences that differentiate itself from other auto-motive industries are the fuel efficient cars that they produce. The organisation emphasises is on high-quality performing fuel efficient engine cars, ‘at lowest possible cost, in a timely manner with the shortest possible lead times’ and its ‘Just-in-time management schemes’, (www.toyota.com.au). The car prices are relatively cheaper in comparison to other brand of cars from different industries. The core process without any doubt is the ability to come with a hybrid car of the future, since customers are keener about other alternatives of fuel consumption. The ability of such innovation adds value to customers thus the perception that, Toyota Australia is a ‘series of processes from strategic planning to after-sales’, (Robbins & Judge, 2007).

3.3 Lewin’s three step model

Lewin’s three step model of unfreezing, movement and refreezing can be noted in the change cycle used by Toyota. Unfreezing is the process of overcoming pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity (Robbins, 2007, p651). This is the status quo that all automobile companies share. Then comes the movement stage that transforms the organisation from the status quo. Toyota’s movement stage was to develop the hybrid that has both petrol engine and an electric motor which recharges itself as the car is driven. The refreezing stage involves stabilizing the change model. This is quite evident in Toyota as seen in the success of the Prius. Sorensen adds on by telling us that companies with strong cultures excel at incremental change’ (2002).

‘The Prius has been recognised globally as a ‘clean’ vehicle achieving many awards and certification to the toughest environmental standards in the world. Many other engine technologies are yet to achieve emissions low enough to satisfy these emerging low emission standards’ (www.toyota.com.au). This is bound to bring about a competitive advantage over its rivals. Imitation of this may be quite costly and take

Developing such a change has involved a lot of processes, knowledge and most importantly costs. Toyota is still very committed to its customers and maintains that trust by developing this new car that not more efficient but also environmental friendly for our future. To show its loyalty customers are guaranteed to an after sales service for three years or up to 600,000kms. As we have been told by Toyota; ‘We are committed to sound environmental management for a sustainable future which in turn improves our business performance. Toyota Australia’s environmental performance, initiatives and technologies are further explained throughout this site’ (www.toyota.com.au).

3.4 Organisational development model

Toyota Australia is an organisation whereby people are given respect and this aspect of the organisation is enshrined as part of its core value thus making it different, more of a standalone auto-motive industry. The other aspects of this change model that are used by Toyota Australia are trust and openness. These two characteristics are nurtured through having ‘authenticity, openness and a supportive climate’ (Robbins & Judge, 2007) in the organisation. Team building is also another characteristic that is embedded in the Toyota Australia organisation and in the processes helps in managing change. Last but not the least is the characteristic of confronting problems with again Toyota organisation having a notion of not ignoring or shrugging of problems. On the contrary these problems are dealt with amicably with innovation for a better organisation presently and in the future always in mind.

4. CONCLUSION

‘If an organisation needs to survive, it must respond to changes in its environment. When competitors introduce new products or services, government agencies enact new laws, important sources of supply go out of business, or similar environmental changes take place, the organisation needs to adapt’ (Robbins, 2007). Toyota has realized that early enough and brought out a car that will be very helpful in the future as it is now. This success and competitive edge has kept Toyota in the world’s top ranking.

REFRENCES
Abernathy, W.J, Utterback, J.M (1978), “Patterns of industrial innovation”, Technology Review, Vol.80, pp 40-7.
Busk Kofoed, L (2000), “Experimentarium as arena for common learning during change processes”, Processes in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing,
Driel V Hugo, Dolfsma Wilfred (2009), “Path dependence, initial conditions, and routines in organizations”, The Toyota production system re-examined, Journal or Organizational change Management, Vol. 22 No.1, 2009, pp. 49-72.
Imai, M, (1986), Kaizen, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Robbins, S. P and Judge, T. A, (2007), Organisational Behaviour, 12th Edition, Prentice Hall, upper Saddle River, NJ.
Sorensen, J. B, (2002), ‘The strength of Corporate Culture and the Reliability of Firm Performance,’ Administrative Science Quarterly, pp 70-91.
Tushman, M.L, Romanelli, E (1985), “Organisational evolution: a metamorphosis model of convergence and reorientation”, Research in Organisation Behavior, pp 171-222
Anonymous (2000), CI Changes: From Suggestion Box to Organisational Learning – Continuous Improvement in Europe and Australia,
Toyota: www.toyota.com.au (Accessed on 19/08/2009)
CIA factbook: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html (Accessed on 24/08/2009)
Juma, Emmanuel, Radio Kiss fm, Nairobi 6th June, 2002. 10.30am.

Simultaneity

Once the plane of AirAsia takes off, the transportation service provided to the customers is consumed simultaneously. Since there is no food provided during the service, AirAsia has made use of this opportunity to sell food and beverages. Through the selling process, it creates interaction with customers and it allows them to percept the quality of the service.

No free baggage allowance

There is no free baggage allowance on AirAsia X. Unlike other airlines who decide to increase airfares that are imposed on all passengers, AirAsia X believes that by charging for checked-in baggage, it is more reasonable and it will helps to keep air fares low. AirAsia X will incur more fuel costs with every kilogram of weight added to the aircraft. Thus, guests who take on less weight will be able to save more.

(http://www.airasia.com/site/en/faqSearch.jsp )

Fully ticketless travel

AirAsia is a ticketless airline, therefore, instead of tickets; they will provide you with an itinerary which contains your booking number as well as your payment and travel details via email. This is also a means of cutting cost by not printing any tickets.

Unassigned seats

The seats on AirAsia are based on free seating style. There will not be any seats assigned to you unless you pay an extra fee for it. Therefore, we would see long queue at the waiting area of AirAsia as many of the passengers would want to grab the best seats for the flight. By implementing free seating plan, it helps to encourage passengers to be punctual so that the plane could take of early.

Safety trip

AirAsia pilots practice standard applications, technical and behavioural tests, ground school training, safety and emergency procedural training, full flight simulator. Travel with AirAsia pilots who have both mind and heart. (http://www.airasia.com/site/en/faqSearch.jsp THIS PART IS COPY PASTE, HAVEN EDIT)

Self Check-in Service

Self Check-in is a service that allows guests to check-in from our airport kiosks, via mobile or online on our website without needing to be at the check-in counter at the airport. With this facility, it helps the customers to save their time and also need not have to queue up early for the boarding pass. This facility if convenient and it also helps to increase demand for the AirAsia seats for people who prefer fast and efficient check-in service without long queue.

(THIS PART IS COPY PASTE, HAVEN EDIT)

Explicit Services
Attractive and sexy air-stewardesses

The stewardesses of AirAsia are famous for their attractiveness. With red shirt and skirt on them, it really enhances their beauty and this makes the trip really pleasant for the customers. They are friendly and would always greet their customer with a smile. AirAsia even advertise the faces of their air stewardess on their plane. Their main duty on flight is to perform the safety precautions procedures to the passengers and also walk around the cabin to assist the passengers and also to see if they need to purchase any food. However, there were a minority who complaint that the air stewardesses are unfriendly and do not greet the customers when they see them. Thus, AirAsia still need to work on their consistency of their air stewardesses.

http://www.airasia.com/site/sg/en/pressRelease.jsp?id=14f35316-c0a8c85d-eb784700-58cd40f1&type=read
Quality of the customer service

There were numerous of feedbacks complaining that the automated system of the helpline was giving them a run around without providing a solution. Many of the customers complained that it is just impossible to get through the helpline and talk to a staff to assist them. And even if they got through; the staffs were unhelpful and were rude to them. For those who lose their baggage during their flight, AirAsia has not been very efficient in assisting the customers. Their reply was slow and the claim is even slower.

Consistency

According to research, AirAsia have always trying their best to maintain their on time departure record by offering unassigned seats and providing self check-in service to customer to encourage them to be punctual. Despite the effort to maintain punctual departure record, there are still a number of complaints regarding the delay and cacellation of flight. In event when flight has been cancelled, passengers were informed last minute and they complained that the staffs was not very helpful and willing in assisting them in the booking of new tickets. Thus, there is still room for improvement regarding AirAsia’s customer service and their on time departure record.

Availability

Website is available with information that the customers wish to find out. (E.g. Prices, promotions and flight info). It also allows customers to book and purchase tickets online conveniently. Call center and sales office is also available in every country where AirAsia is located in.